MODULE IN MODERN PHYSICS

Chapter 1: RELATIVITY

RELATIVE MOTION AND FRAME OF REFERENCE

Frames of Reference

The first step is to clarify what we mean by motion. When we say that something is
moving, what we mean is that its position relative to something else is changing. A passenger
moves relative to an airplane; the airplane moves relative to the earth; the passenger moves
relative to the sun; the sun move relative to the galaxy of stars of which it is a member; and
so on. In each case, a frame of reference is part of the description of the motion.
An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton‟s first law of motion holds.
In such a frame, an object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion continues to move at
constant velocity (constant speed and direction) if no force acts on it. Any frame of reference
that moves at constant velocity relative to an inertial frame is itself an inertial frame.

Relative Motion

Relative motion is just a way of saying that sometimes different people will say different
things about the motion of the same object.
 This is not because one of them is wrong, but because they are using different frames
of reference.
 The best way to see how this is possible is to look at some examples.
 In all of the following examples, ignore air resistance.

Example 1: Let‟s say I am standing on the back of a pickup truck (that is motionless), and I
am throwing apples forwards. I know that I can throw an apple at exactly 15m/s every time.

 If a person were standing on the sidewalk, how fast would she say the apples are
moving?
o Since she will see them exactly the same way as me (we're both in the same
reference frame), she will say 15m/s.
 Now the truck starts to move forwards at 20m/s. I am still throwing apples forwards,
exactly the same as I was throwing them before, at 15m/s.
o If I am really not paying attention to what‟s going on around me (like the fact
that I am standing in the back of a moving truck), how fast would I say the
apples are moving?
o Still 15m/s! Relative to me, I can only make an apple move away from me
at 15m/s, so that‟s how fast I measure the apple moving away from me.
 How fast does my friend on the sidewalk say the apple is moving?

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 o Well, even before I throw it, she‟ll say that the apple is moving at 20m/s (the
speed of everything on the truck).
o When I have thrown the apple forward, adding more velocity to it, she will say
it is going at (20m/s + 15m/s) 35m/s!
 Now I turn around and start throwing the apples from the rear of the truck,
backwards!
o I will still say that my apples are moving at 15m/s, because from my way of
looking at it, that‟s how fast the apple is moving. The only thing I might say
that is different is that it is -15m/s, since even I should be able to notice they
are going in the opposite direction now.
o My friend on the sidewalk will say that the apple is moving at (20m/s + -
15m/s) 5m/s!

In each of the above examples, we are really talking about two different people
having two different frames of reference while measuring the relative velocity of one object.

Frame of reference: When you are standing on the ground, that is your frame of reference.
Anything that you see, watch, or measure will be compared to the reference point of the
ground. If I am standing in the back of a moving truck, the truck is now my frame of
reference and everything will be measured compared to it.

Relative velocity: In the above examples, each person was measuring the velocity of the
apples relative to (compared to) the frame of reference that they were standing in. Relative to
a person standing on the sidewalk, the apple may be moving at 10m/s, while for a person in
the frame of reference of the truck, the apple is moving at 15m/s relative to him.

Relativity is the study of how different observers measure the same event.
Modern relativity is divided into two parts. Special relativity deals with observers
who are in uniform (unaccelerated) motion, whereas general relativity includes accelerated
relative motion and gravity. Modern relativity is correct in all circumstances and, in the limit
of low velocity and weak gravitation, gives the same predictions as classical relativity.

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 The earliest description of relative motion started with Aristotle who said that the
earth was at absolute rest in the center of the universe and everything else moved relative to
the earth. As a proof that the earth was at absolute rest, he reasoned that if you throw a rock
straight upward it will fall back to the same place from which it was thrown. If the earth
moved, then the rock would be displaced on landing by the amount that the earth moved. This
is shown in figures 1.1(a) and 1.1(b).

Based on the prestige of Aristotle, the belief that the earth was at absolute rest was
maintained until Galileo Galilee (1564-1642) pointed out the error in Aristotle‟s reasoning.
Galileo suggested that if you throw a rock straight upward in a boat that is moving at constant
velocity, then, as viewed from the boat, the rock goes straight up and straight down, as shown
in figure 1.2(a). If the same
projectile motion is observed
from the shore, however, the
rock is seen to be displaced
to the right of the vertical
path. The rock comes down
to the same place on the boat
only because the boat is also
moving toward the right.
Hence, to the observer on the
boat, the rock went straight
up and straight down and by Aristotle‟s reasoning the boat must be at rest. But as the
observer on the shore will clearly state, the boat was not at rest but moving with a velocity v.
Thus, Aristotle‟s argument is not valid. The distinction between rest and motion at a constant
velocity, is relative to the observer. The observer on the boat says the boat is at rest while the
observer on the shore says the boat is in motion. We then must ask, is there any way to
distinguish between a state of rest and a state of motion at constant velocity?
Let us consider Newton‟s second law of motion as studied in general physics,
F = ma

If the unbalanced external force acting on the body is zero, then the acceleration is
also zero. But since a = dv/dt, this implies that there is no change in velocity of the body, and
the velocity is constant. We are capable of feeling forces and accelerations but we do not feel
motion at constant velocity, and rest is the special case of zero constant velocity. Recall from
general physics, concerning the weight of a person in an elevator, the scales read the same
numerical value for the weight of the person when the elevator is either at rest or moving at a
constant velocity. There is no way for the passenger to say he or she is at rest or moving at a
constant velocity unless he or she can somehow look out of the elevator and see motion.
When the elevator accelerates upward, on the other hand, the person experiences a greater
force pushing upward on him. When the elevator accelerates downward, the person

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experiences a smaller force on him. Thus, accelerations are easily felt but not constant
velocities. Only if the elevator accelerates can the passenger tell that he or she is in motion.
While you sit there reading this sentence you are sitting on the earth, which is moving around
the sun at about 30 km/s, yet you do not notice this motion. When a person sits in a plane or a
train moving at constant velocity, the motion is not sensed unless the person looks out the
window. The person senses his or her motion only while the plane or train is accelerating.

Equations
V ba=V b−V a (velocity of b relative to a)
V ab=V a−V b (velocity of a relative to b)

Velocity is always measured relative to something. We measure how fast a person

runs or how fast a car drives relative to the ground. However, we know from astronomy that
the Earth itself is both turning around its axis and going around the Sun. A reference
frame is a fixed point and we measure directions relative to it.
If you are on a bus going north at 60 Km/h, then the person seated across the aisle
from you has velocity 60 Km/h north relative to the ground and velocity zero relative to you.
If the bus is going at a steady speed, you can toss a coin across to them, and it works the same
as if you were standing on solid ground. In the bus frame of reference, you and the other
passenger have velocity zero, and the coin has a slight velocity east (say 20 Km/h). In this
frame of reference, someone standing to the side of the road would have a velocity 60
Km/h south.
With the ground as your frame of reference, you and the other passenger are both
moving 60 Km/h north, while the coin is moving diagonally northeast. The coin's velocity
vector is 60 Km/h north and 20 Km/h east added together.
Both of these frames of reference are correct. You can solve any problem using either
one, as long as you use it consistently. Some problems, though, are easier in one frame of
reference than in another. If you wanted to solve how long it would take for the coin to go
across the aisle, for example, then the bus frame of reference is much simpler.
The Figure below, a moving walkway, provides us with our first example of relative
motion. Let us consider two Cartesian coordinate systems. One is attached to the “stationary”
Earth. The other is attached to a walkway moving with a constant horizontal velocity of 1 m/s
with respect to the earth. If a ball is thrown with an initial horizontal velocity of 3 m/s in the
direction the walkway is moving by a person standing on the walkway, what horizontal
velocity does a person standing on the ground measure for the ball? The person in the Earth
frame sees the ball having a combined velocity of 4 m/s. The person in the “moving frame”
will measure it as 3 m/s. According to The Principle of Galilean Relativity, the velocity, V,
seen from the at-rest frame is additive, that is, V=1 m/s+3 m/s.

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a) What is the velocity of car B relative to the velocity of car A?
We define motion to the east as positive (+30 Km/h), and motion to the west as
negative (-60 Km/h).
From our previous statements regarding relative velocity we can “feel” that the
relative velocity is greater than either speed: If we define the relative velocity (the velocity of
car B relative to the velocity of car A) as: V ba=V b−V a, then −60−30=−90 Km/h, a
person in car A sees car B moving west at 90 Km/h. The person in car A sees himself as
“motionless” while car B is moving toward him with car B‟s speed and his own speed which
he does not perceive.

b) What is the velocity of car A relative to the velocity of car B? This means we are assuming
car B is our “at rest” coordinate system.

V ab=V a−V b=30 Km/h−(−60 Km/h)=+90 Km/h. A person in car B sees car A moving
east at 90 Km/h.
The person in car B sees himself as motionless, while car A is moving toward him with
car A‟s speed and his own speed, which he does not perceive.
Note: The “at-rest” frame sees its motion reversed in the “moving frame.”

In this Universe there is no such thing as absolute motion, because there is no such thing
as an absolute frame of reference.
There is no „upwards‟ or „downwards‟ within space, unless we arbitrarily designate one
specific star as the “up” direction while floating around in space, and then build a coordinate
system around that designation. It is only on Earth that we can give ourselves a definite “up”
and “down” direction because gravity is pulling us towards the Earth and we have developed
the convention of saying that “downwards” is whatever direction the Earth‟s gravity happens
to be pulling us.

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 SPEED OF LIGHT

Early Ideas about Light Propagation

As we shall soon see, attempts to measure the speed of light played an important part
in the development of the theory of special relativity, and, indeed, the speed of light is central
to the theory.
The first recorded discussion of the speed of light is in Aristotle, where he quotes
Empedocles as saying the light from the sun must take some time to reach the earth, but
Aristotle himself apparently disagrees, and even Descartes thought that light traveled
instantaneously. Galileo, unfairly as usual, in Two New Sciences (page 42) has Simplicio
stating the Aristotelian position,

SIMP. Everyday experience shows that the propagation of light is instantaneous; for
when we see a piece of artillery fired at great distance, the flash reaches our eyes without
lapse of time; but the sound reaches the ear only after a noticeable interval.

Of course, Galileo points out that in

fact nothing about the speed of light can be
deduced from this observation, except that
light moves faster than sound. He then goes on
to suggest a possible way to measure the speed
of light. The idea is to have two people far
away from each other, with covered lanterns.
One uncovers his lantern, then the other
immediately uncovers his on seeing the light
from the first. This routine is to be practiced
with the two close together, so they will get
used to the reaction times involved, then they
are to do it two or three miles apart, or even
further using telescopes, to see if the time
interval is perceptibly lengthened. Galileo
claims he actually tried the experiment at
distances less than a mile, and couldn‟t detect
a time lag. From this one can certainly deduce
that light travels at least ten times faster than
sound.

Measuring the Speed of Light with Jupiter‟s Moons

The first real measurement of the speed of light came about half a century later, in
1676, by a Danish astronomer, Ole Römer, working at the Paris Observatory. He had made a
systematic study of Io, one of the moons of Jupiter, which was eclipsed by Jupiter at regular
intervals, as Io went around Jupiter in a circular orbit at a steady rate. Actually, Römer found,
for several months the eclipses lagged more and more behind the expected time, until they
were running about eight minutes late, then they began to pick up again, and in fact after
about six months were running eight minutes early. The cycle then repeated itself. Römer
realized the significance of the time involved-just over one year. This time period had
nothing to do with Io, but was the time between successive closest approaches of earth in its
orbit to Jupiter. The eclipses were furthest behind the predicted times when the earth was
furthest from Jupiter.

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 The natural explanation was that the light from Io (actually reflected sunlight, of
course) took time to reach the earth, and took the longest time when the earth was furthest
away. From his observations, Römer concluded that light took about twenty-two minutes to
cross the earth‟s orbit. This was something of an overestimate, and a few years later Newton
wrote in the Principia (Book I, section XIV): “For it is now certain from the phenomena of
Jupiter‟s satellites, confirmed by the observations of different astronomers, that light is
propagated in succession (this means at finite speed) and requires about seven or eight
minutes to travel from the sun to the earth.” This is essentially the correct value.

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 MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT

Light is involved in the discussion of relativity because theories related to

electromagnetism are inconsistent with Galileo‟s and Newton‟s explanation of relativity. The
true nature of light was a hot topic of discussion and controversy in the late 19th century. At
the time, it was not generally believed that light could travel across empty space. It was
known to travel as waves, and all other types of energy that propagated as waves needed to
travel though a material medium. It was believed that space was filled with an invisible
medium that light waves traveled through. This imaginary (as it turned out) material was
called the ether (also spelled aether). It was thought that everything moved through this
mysterious fluid. In other words, ether was the one fixed frame of reference. The Michelson–
Morley experiment proved it was not.

The Mysterious Ether

When we reached the point where we could demonstrate that light was a wave, then it was
presumed that the wave must have a medium in which to travel. All the other waves we knew about
required a medium. Since no medium was apparent between the earth and the sun, it was presumed
that this medium was transparent and therefore not readily observable - it was called the "ether". The
popular presumption was that this ether was stationary and filled all of space. This involved the
presumption that there was an absolute reference frame in the universe, and that all the movement of
planets and stars was through this ether.
These presumptions were part of the historical setting of the Michelson-Morley Experiment.
With the interferometer which he invented, Michelson found no evidence of the ether, to his and
everyone else's surprise. Michelson's terse description of the experiment: "The interpretation of these
results is that there is no displacement of the interference bands. ... The result of the hypothesis of a
stationary ether is thus shown to be incorrect." (A. A. Michelson, Am. J. Sci, 122, 120 (1881))

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The Interferometer

In 1887, Albert Michelson and Edward Morley designed the interferometer shown
in the figure above to measure the speed of Earth through the ether. A light beam is split into
two perpendicular paths and then recombined. Recombining the waves produces an inference
pattern, with a bright fringe at the locations where the two waves arrive in phase; that is, with
the crests of both waves arriving together and the troughs arriving together. A dark fringe
appears where the crest of one wave coincides with a trough of the other, so that the two
cancel. If Earth is traveling through the ether as it orbits the sun, the peaks in one arm would
take longer than in the other to reach the same location. The places where the two waves
arrive in phase would change, and the interference pattern would shift. But, using the
interferometer, there was no shift seen!

This result led to two conclusions: that there is no ether and that the speed of light is
the same regardless of the relative motion of source and observer. The Michelson–Morley
investigation has been called the most famous failed experiment in history.

This experiment set the stage for Einstein‟s 1905 special theory of relativity, a theory
that Michelson himself was reluctant to accept. Indeed, not long before the flowering of
relativity and quantum theory revolutionized physics.

<<< Michelson interferometer

The Michelson interferometer

consists of a half-transparent
mirror oriented at a 45° angle to
a light beam so that the light is
divided into two equal parts
(A and B), one of which is
transmitted to a fixed mirror
and the other of which is
reflected to a movable mirror.
The half-transparent mirror has
the same effect on the returning
beams, splitting each of them
into two beams. Thus, two
diminished light beams reach
the screen, where interference
patterns can be observed by
varying the position of the
movable mirror.

The speed of light is given the symbol c and is equal to exactly 299,792,458 m/s. This
is the speed of light in vacuum; that is, in the absence of air. For most purposes, we round this
number off to 3.00×108 m/s.

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 EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

In 1905, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) formulated his Special or Restricted Theory of

Relativity in terms of two postulates.

Einstein’s First Postulate

Postulate 1: The laws of physics have the same form in all frames of reference moving at a
constant velocity with respect to one another.

The first postulate upon which Einstein based the theory of special relativity relates to
reference frames. All velocities are measured relative to some frame of reference. For
example, a car‟s motion is measured relative to its starting point or the road it is moving over,
a projectile‟s motion is measured relative to the surface it was launched from, and a planet‟s
orbit is measured relative to the star it is orbiting around.

Einstein’s Second Postulate

Postulate 2: The speed of light in free space has the same value for all observers, regardless
of their state of motion.

The second postulate upon which Einstein based his theory of special relativity deals
with the speed of light. Late in the 19th century, the major tenets of classical physics were
well established. Two of the most important were the laws of electricity and magnetism and
Newton‟s laws. In particular, the laws of electricity and magnetism predict that light travels
at c = 3.00 × 108 m/s in a vacuum, but they do not specify the frame of reference in which
light has this speed.

Magnetism is a relativistic effect, and if you use electricity you can thank relativity for the fact
that generators work at all.
If you take a loop of wire and move it through a magnetic field, you generate an electric
current. The charged particles in the wire are affected by the changing magnetic field, which forces
some of them to move and creates the current.
But now, picture the wire at rest and imagine the magnet is moving. In this case, the charged
particles in the wire (the electrons and protons) aren't moving anymore, so the magnetic field shouldn't
be affecting them. But it does, and a current still flows. This shows that there is no privileged frame of
reference.
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 CONSEQUENCES OF THE PRINCIPLE OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY: TIME
DILATION, LENGTH CONTRACTION, AND SIMULTANEITY

Time Dilation
A moving clock ticks more slowly than a clock at rest

Measurement of time intervals are affected by relative motion between an observer

and what is observed. As a result, a clock that moves with respect to an observer ticks more
slowly than it does without such motion, and all processes (including those of life) occur
more slowly to an observer when they take place in a different inertial frame. To dilate
means to become larger.

It turns out that as an object moves with relativistic speeds a "strange" thing seems to
happen to its time as observed by "us" the stationary observer (observer in an inertial
reference frame). What we see happen is that the "clock" in motion slows down according to
our clock, therefore we read two different times. Which time is correct? Well they both are
because time is not absolute but is relative, it depends on the reference frame.

Let's look at the following classic example. There is a set of twins, one an astronaut,
the other works for mission control of NASA. The astronaut leaves on a deep space trip
traveling at 95% the speed of light. Upon returning the astronaut‟s clock has measured ten
years, so the astronaut has aged 10 years. However, when the astronaut reunites with his earth
bound twin, the astronaut then sees that the twin has aged 32 years! This is explained due to
the fact that the astronaut's twin is traveling at relativistic speeds and therefore his "clock" is
slowed down.

Let's see how we can calculate the time "difference". The equation for calculating time
dilation is as follows:

t = t0/(1-v2/c2)1/2

where:
t = time observed in the other reference frame
t0 = time in observers own frame of reference (rest time)
v = the speed of the moving object
c = the speed of light in a vacuum

so in our problem we will let v = .95c, t 0 = 10 years and we will solve for t which is the time
that the earth bound brother measures.

t = 10/(1- (.95c)2/c2)1/2
t = 10/(1- .952)1/2
t = 10/ .312
t = 32 years
(the time the earth bound brother measures)

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 Now let's have a closer look at the equation and determine just what impact the speed
of the object has on time dilation.
We can see that is the velocity is small compared to the speed of light the quantity
v2/c2 approaches 0 and the equation simplifies t 0: t = t0/1 which is simply t. So at relatively
slow speeds (our everyday speeds) time dilation is not a factor and Newton's Laws are still
applicable. Now let's look at high speeds (close to the speed of light), from the equation that
as velocity increases the quantity v2/c2 approaches 1 (but will never quit reach it), causing the
quantity(1-v2/c2)1/2 t0 become smaller and smaller....therefore causing the time measured by
the other observer t0 become greater thus making our time appear slower (refer back to the
example). I know it‟s so confusing!!! Read it again, think about it, then study the graph
below. As one can see in the graph time dilation starts t 0 "show up" between .4c and .5c. Also
notice that the closer one gets to the speed of light the greater impact speed has on time
dilation (notice how steep the curve gets towards the end).

Length Contraction
Faster means shorter

Measurements of lengths as well as of time intervals are affected by relative motion.

The length L of an object in motion with respect to an observer always appears to the
observer to be shorter than its length Lo when it is at rest with respect to him. This contraction
occurs only in the direction of the relative motion. The length Lo of an object in its rest frame
is called its proper length. It is the distance between two points measured by an observer
who is at rest relative to both of the points.
The Earth-bound observer measures the proper length L0, because the points at which
the muon is produced and decays are stationary relative to the Earth. To the muon (muon is
an elementary particle similar to the electron, with an electric charge of −1 e and a spin of
1/2, but with a much greater mass. It is classified as a lepton. As with other leptons, the muon
is not known to have any sub-structure – that is, it is not thought to be composed of any
simpler particles), the Earth, air, and clouds are moving, and so the distance L it sees is not
the proper length.

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 Figure 2. (a) The Earth-bound observer sees the muon travel 2.01 km between clouds.
(b) The muon sees itself travel the same path, but only a distance of 0.627 km. The Earth, air,
and clouds are moving relative to the muon in its frame, and all appear to have smaller
lengths along the direction of travel.

Length contraction L is the shortening of the measured length of an object moving relative to
the observer‟s frame.

If we measure the length of anything moving relative to our frame, we find its
length L to be smaller than the proper length L0 that would be measured if the object were
stationary. For example, in the muon‟s reference frame, the distance between the points
where it was produced and where it decayed is shorter. Those points are fixed relative to the
Earth but moving relative to the muon. Clouds and other objects are also contracted along the
direction of motion in the muon‟s reference frame.

Problem: A particle is traveling through the Earth‟s atmosphere at a speed of 0.750 c. To

an Earth-bound observer, the distance it travels is 2.50 km. How far does the particle travel in
the particle‟s frame of reference?

Simultaneity/Twin Paradox
A longer life, but it will not seem longer
We are now in a position to understand the famous relativistic effect known as the
twin paradox. This paradox involves two identical clocks, one of which remain on the earth
while the other is taken on a voyage into space at the speed v and eventually brought back. It
is customary to replace the clocks with the pair of twins Dick and Jane, a substitution that is
perfectly acceptable because the processes of life – heartbeat and respiration, and so on-
constitute biological clocks of reasonable regularity.

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 To Dick, time goes by at the usual rate, but his voyage to the star has taken L/v =15y
and his return voyage another 15y, for a total of 30y.Of course, Dick‟s life span has not been
extended to him, because regardless of Jane‟s 50-y wait, he has spent only 30y on the
roundtrip.

This result was tested in 1971 with a pair of very precise clocks. One clock was sent
around the world in high speed jet planes while the matched clock remained at rest. When the
traveling clock was returned and placed next to the other clock, the traveling clock showed
that less time had passed.

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 MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

This equivalence of mass and energy is a consequence of Einstein‟s theory of special

relativity. Which simply means that mass can be converted into energy and visa-versa.
Mass-energy equivalence is the famous concept in physics represented
mathematically by E=mc2, which states that mass and energy are one and the same. This idea
was not actually put forth by Einstein, but he was the first to describe an accurate relationship
for it in his theory of special relativity, where he first wrote down this famous equation.
The c2 term is a tremendously large quantity, so this means that a small amount of mass
corresponds to a large amount of energy.
Mass-energy equivalence implies that, even though the total mass of a system
changes, the total energy and momentum remain constant. Consider the collision of an
electron and a proton. It destroys the mass of both particles but generates a large amount of
energy in the form of photons. The discovery of mass-energy equivalence proved crucial to
the development of theories of atomic fusion and fission reactions.

According to this equivalence, mass and energy are inter-convertible. So whenever

you have mass, it means you have got lots of energy just sitting inside. How much energy?
This is given in Einstein‟s famous relation.
Where,
E=mc2

 m is the mass in kilograms

 c is the velocity of light in a vacuum c ≅3×108 m/s

For example, consider a little marble of 20-gram weight. Converting this 20g
completely into energy contains we get the same amount of energy as is released in the
explosion of a 500,000-ton hydrogen bomb. So why aren‟t we afraid of marbles?

Matter-Antimatter Annihilation
This energy is really difficult to release. So if you have got a marble, there‟s almost no way
that you could release all that energy. The only way to convert all of that mass into energy is
through matter-antimatter annihilation.

What Is Annihilation?
Annihilation is a process that is mostly observed in the collision of subatomic particles. That
is when a subatomic particle collides with its antiparticle. The matter and antimatter collide
and all the energy is released from both in the form of electromagnetic waves.
This is a very uncommon process as there is not much antimatter around. Matter and
antimatter both have mass but there‟s not a lot of antimatter around.

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Example: If we consider electrons, we do have anti electrons. If we look at this process. A
positron, which is an antielectron and an electron, comes together and annihilates and just
produces energy in the form of a gamma photon. This gamma means photons, which
basically just means energy for our purposes. So how much energy is released?
Well, the mass of an electron or a positron is 9.11 × 10-31 kg.
So the energy that‟s released will be E= mc 2 from electron + mc2 from positron = 2mc2
And that turns out to be 1.64 × 10-13 joules. It‟s not very much, but that was an electron and a
positron. But instead of one electron-positron pair, a mol of them are annihilated, we get
1010 joules. That‟s a lot of energy.
It turns out that almost every single release of energy actually can be understood in terms of
this energy-mass equivalence.

Applications of Einstein’s Equation

The first person to put forth the word that the mass and energy‟s equivalence as one of
the general principles and the outcome of symmetry of time and space was Einstein.
Einstein's theory was used to understand nuclear fission and fusion reactions. Using the
formula, it was revealed that a large amount of energy is liberated during nuclear fission and
fusion processes. This phenomenon is used in creating nuclear power and nuclear weapons.

To find out binding energy in an atomic nucleus, the equation is used. By measuring
the masses of various nuclei and subtracting them from the sum of masses of protons and
neutrons, Binding energy is calculated. Measurement of binding energy is used to calculate
the energy released during nuclear reactions.

These energies seem much smaller as compared to the mass of the object that is
multiplied by the square of the speed of the light. Because of this principle, atoms after a
nuclear reaction have less mass than the atoms before the nuclear reaction. The difference in
the before and after mass shapes up as heat and light with the same energy used as the
difference.

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Einstein‟s equation is used to find out the change in mass during the chemical reactions.
Whenever there is a chemical reaction, breakage and the formation of new bonds take place.
During the exchange of molecules, a change in mass takes place. For chemical energy,
Einstein‟s equation can be written as

E= Δm x c2

Where Δm- change in mass

The formula provided by Einstein can be written with E as the energy which is released and
removed and m can be written as the change in mass.

It is explained in relativity, all the energy that an object moves with, provides a contribution
to the total mass of that body, which is used in measuring how much it can resist
accelerating.

When the observer is at rest, the removal of energy is the same as the removal of mass which
goes by the formula m = e/ c2.

The radioactivity of various elements is based on the theory of mass-energy equivalence.

Radioactivity produces X-rays, gamma rays. So in many radiotherapy equipment, the same
principle is used.

To understand the effect of gravity on all-stars, moon, and planet, and to measure the age of
fossil fuels.

To understand the universe, its constituents, and the age of planets, the equation is used.

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