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OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES AND SENSORS

Industrial Electronics (Nueva Vizcaya State University)

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No. 4: ENG’G8-2S-2020-2021

College: ENGINEERING
Campus : BAMBANG

DEGREE PROGRAM BSEE COURSE NO. ENG’G8

SPECIALIZATION COURSE TITLE Industrial Electronics
YEAR LEVEL 3rd Year TIME FRAME 12 hrs WK NO. 12-13 IM NO. 4

I. OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES AND SENSORS

II. Optoelectronic Devices and Sensors

I. Fundamentals of Light
II. LED
III. Photodiode
3.1 Dust Sensor
IV. Liquid Crystal Display
V. Photoconductive Cell
VI. Phototransistor
VII. Opto-Isolator
VIII. Laser Diode
8.1 Laser Range Finder
IX. Solar Cells
X. LCD

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

According to the Quantum Theory, light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons. The
energy contained in a photon depends on the frequency of the light. In this module, we will cover
electronic devices whose operations are related to light (visible and invisible). These devices are called
optoelectronic devices.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

After this module, the student shall be able to:
1. discuss the fundamentals of light;
2. compare the characteristics of an LED and photodiode;
3. discuss the operation and applications of a photoconductive cell, opto-isolator, phototransistor,
and other optoelectronic devices; and
4. list different types of sensors and their uses.

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No. 4: ENG’G8-2S-2020-2021

V. LESSON CONTENT

I. FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHT
According to the Quantum Theory, light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons. The
energy contained in a photon depends on the frequency of the light and is given by the relation
ℎ𝐶
𝐸 = ℎĀ 𝑎𝑙𝑠ā: 𝐸 =
𝜆
where
𝐸 2 Energy in Joules
ℎ 2Planck9s constant 6.625𝑥10−34 𝐽ā𝑢𝑙e ∙ 𝑠e𝑐ā𝑛𝑑 Ā
2 frequency in Hz
𝐶 2speed of light in m/s
𝜆 2wavelength in meters

As seen, photon energy is directly proportional to frequency: higher the frequency, greater the
energy. The wavelength of light determines its color in the visible range and whether it is ultraviolet
or infrared outside the visible range.

In a forward-biased P-N junction, electrons and holes both cross the junction. In the process, some
electrons and holes recombine with the result that electrons lose energy. The amount of energy lost
is equal to the difference in energy between the conduction and valence bands, this being known as
the semiconductor energy band gap Eg. The value of Eg for silicon is 1.1 eV, for GaAs is 1.43 eV
and for InAs is 0.36 eV.

Luminous flux is normally measured in lumens (lm) or watts. The two units are related by
1 𝑙𝑢𝑚e𝑛 = 1 𝑙𝑚 = 1.496 × 10−10 þ
The light intensity is normally measured in lm/ft, footcandles (fc), or W/m, where
1 𝑙𝑚/Ā𝑡2 = 1 Ā𝑐 = 1.609 × 10−9 þ/𝑚2
Example
Determine the wavelength of light emitted by silicon P-N junction.

Solution
ℎ𝐶 6.625𝑥10−34𝐽𝑠(300𝑥106𝑚/𝑠)
𝜆 = = Ā. ĀĂ𝜇𝑚
1.1𝑉(1.06𝑥10−19𝐶)
=
𝐸𝑔

II. Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

As the name indicates, it is a forward-biased P-N junction which emits visible light when energised.

Charge carrier recombination takes place when electrons from the N-side cross the junction and
recombine with the holes on the P-side

Now, electrons are in the higher

conduction band on the N-side whereas
holes are in the lower valence band on the
P-side. During recombination, some of the
energy difference is given up in the form of
heat and light (i.e. photons).

For Si and Ge junctions, greater percentage of this energy is given up in the form of heat so that the
amount emitted as light is insignificant.

Diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the infrared (invisible) zone during the recombination
process at the p–n junction. These are called infrared-emitting diodes or IR emitters.
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But in the case of other semiconductor materials like

gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP) and
gallium-arsenide-phosphide (GaAsP), a greater
percent- age of energy released during recombination is
given out in the form of light.

If the semiconductor material is translucent, light is

emitted and the junction becomes a light source i.e. a
light-emitting diode (LED) as shown schematically. The
colour of the emitted light depends on the type of
material used.

One of the major concerns when using an LED is the reverse-bias breakdown voltage, which is
typically between 3 V and 5 V (an occasional device has a 10-V level).

The light intensity of an LED will increase with forward current until a point of saturation arrives where
any further increase in current will not effectively increase the level of illumination.

The response of the average human eye as provided extends from about 350 nm to 800 nm with a
peak near 550 nm.

It is interesting to note that the peak response of the eye is to the color green, with red and
blue at the lower ends of the bell curve. The curve reveals that a red or a blue LED must
have a much stronger efficiency than a green one to be visible at the same intensity.

To chose emitting diodes for a particular application, one or more of the following points have to be
considered : wavelength of light emitted, input power required, output power, efficiency, turn-on and
turn-off time, mounting arrangement, light intensity and brightness etc.
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Since LEDs operate at voltage levels from 1.5 V to 3.3 V, they are highly compatible with solid- state
circuitry.
Their uses include the following :
1. LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems;
2. for solid-state video displays which are rapidly replacing cathode-ray tubes (CRT);
3. in image sensing circuits used for 8picturephone9;
4. in the field of optical fibre communication systems where high-radiance GaAs diodes are
matched into the silica-fibre optical cable;
5. in data links and remote controllers;
6. in arrays of different types for displaying alphanumeric (letters and numbers) or supplying input
power to lasers or for entering information into optical computer memories;
7. for numeric displays in hand-held or pocket calculators.

Before leaving the subject, let us look at a seven-segment digital display housed in a typical dual in-
line integrated circuit package as shown. By energizing the proper pins with a typical 5-V dc level, a
number of the LEDs can be energized and the desired numeral displayed. In figure above, the pins
are defined by looking at the face of the display and counting counterclockwise from the top left pin.
Most seven-segment displays are either common-anode or common-cathode displays

III. PHOTODIODE
It is a two-terminal junction device which is operated by first reverse-biasing the junction and then
illuminating it. A reverse-biased P-N junction has a small amount of reverse saturation current Is (or
Io) due to thermally-generated electron-hole pairs. In silicon, Is is the range of nanoamperes. The
number of these minority carriers depends on the intensity of light incident on the junction. When the
diode is in glass package, light can reach the junction and thus change the reverse current.

The basic biasing arrangement, construction and symbols of a photodiode are shown in Fig. 53.8. As
seen, a lens has been used in the cap of the unit to focus maximum light on the reverse-biased
junction. The active diameter of these devices is about 2.5 mm but they are mounted in standard TO-
5 packages with a window to allow maximum incident light.
The characteristics of Fig. 53.9 show that for a given reverse voltage, ID (or Is) increases with
increase in the level of illumination.

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The dark current refers to the current that flows when no light is incident. By changing the
illumination level, reverse current can be changed. In this way, reverse resistance of the diode can
be changed by a factor of nearly 20.
A photodiode can turn its current ON and OFF in
nanoseconds. Hence, it is one of the fastest
photodetectors. It is used where it is required to switch
light ON and OFF at a maximum rate.

Applications of a photodiode include

1. detection, both visible and invisible ;
2. demodulation ;
3. switching ;
4. logic circuit that require stability and high speed ;
5. character recognition ;
6. optical communication equipment ;
7. encoders etc.

3.1 Dust Sensor

The figure below shows a combination of an LED and a
photodiode used as a dust sensor. As seen, the light emitted
from the LED gets reflected by the dust particles. The
reflected light is collected by the photo- diode and is
converted into an electrical signal. The dust sensor is
employed in cleaners.

The combination of an LED and a photodiode is also used as

: (1) a paper sensor in facsimile machines, (2) as a tape-end
sensor in videotape recorders/players, and (3) as a dirt
detector for rinsing in washing machines.

IV. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

A liquid crystal is a material (usually, an organic compound) which flows like a liquid at room
temperature but whose molecular structure has some properties normally associated with solids
(examples of such compounds are : cholesteryl nonanoate and p-azoxyanisole). As is well-known,
the molecules in ordinary liquids have random orientation but in a liquid crystal they are oriented in a
definite crystal pattern. Normally, a thin layer of liquid crystal is transparent to incident light but when
an electric field is ap- plied across it, its molecular arrangement is disturbed causing changes in its
optical properties. When light falls on an activated layer of a liquid crystal, it is either absorbed or
else is scattered by the disoriented molecules

A liquid crystal 8cell9 consists of a thin layer (about 10 µm) of a liquid crystal sandwiched between two
glass sheets with transparent electrodes deposited on their inside faces. With both glass sheets
transparent, the cell is known as transmittive type cell. When one glass is transparent and the other
has a reflective coating, the cell is called reflective type. The LCD does not produce any illumination
of its own. It, in fact, depends entirely on illumination falling on it from an external source for its visual
effect.

The two types of display available are known

as (i) field-effect display and (ii) dynamic
scat-tering display. When field-effect
display is energized, the energized areas of
the LCD absorb the incident light and, hence
give localized black display. When dynamic
scattering display is energized, the molecules
of energized area of the display become
turbulent and scatter light in all directions.
Consequently, the activated areas take on a
frosted glass appearance resulting in a silver
display. Of course, the unenergized areas
remain translucent.
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An LCD has the distinct advantage of extremely low power requirement (about 10-15 µW per 7-
segment display as compared to a few mW for a LED). It is due to the fact that it does not itself
generate any illumination but depends on external illumination for its visual effect (colour depending
on the incident light). They have a lifetime of about 50,000 hours.

The application of LCD includes the following.

1. Field-effect LCDs are normally used in watches and portable instruments where source of
energy is a prime consideration.
2. Thousands of tiny LCDs are used to form the picture elements (pixels) of the screen in one type
of B & W pocket TV receiver.
3. Recent desk top LCD monitors.
4. Note book computer display
5. Cellular phone display, to display data on personal digital assistant (PDAs) such as Palm Vx etc.

V. PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELL
It is a semiconductor device whose resistance varies inversely with the intensity of light that falls
upon it. It is also known as photoresistive cell or photoresistor because it operates on the principle of
photoresistivity

The resistivity (and, hence, resistance) of a semiconductor depends on the number of free charge
carriers available in it. When the semi- conductor is not illuminated, the number of charge carriers is
small and, hence, resistivity is high. But when light in the form of photons strikes the semiconductor,
each photon delivers energy to it. If the photon energy is greater than the energy band gap of the
semiconductor, free mobile charge carriers are liberated and, as a result, resistivity of the
semiconductor is decreased.

Photoconductive cells are generally made of cadmium compounds such as cadmium sulphide (CdS)
and cadmium selenide (CdSe). Spectral response of CdS cell is similar to the human eye, hence
such cells are often used to simulate the human eye. That is why they find use in light metering
circuits in photographic cam- eras.

The construction of a typical photo conductive cell and its two alternative circuit symbols are shown
above. As seen, a thin layer of photosensitive semiconductor material is deposited in the form of a
long strip zig-zagged across a disc-shaped ceramic base with protective sides. For added protection,
a glass lens or plastic cover is used. The two ends of the strip are brought out to connecting pins
below the base.

The terminal characteristic of a photoconductive cell is

shown to the right. It depicts how the resistance of the
cell varies with light intensity. Typically, the dark
resistance of the cell is 1 MΩ or larger. Under
illumination, the cell resistance drops to a value between
1 and 100 k Ohms depending on surface illumination.

A photoconductive cell is an inexpensive and simple

detector which is widely used in OFF/ON circuits, light-
measurement and light-detecting circuits
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Example
A relay is controlled by a photoconductive cell which has resistance of 100 kΩ when illuminated and
1 kΩ when in the dark. The relay is supplied with 10 mA from a 30-V supply when cell is illuminated
and is required to be de-energized when the cell is in the dark. Sketch a suitable circuit and calculate
the required series resistance and value of dark current.

Solution
Let
r - cell resistance
R - current-limiting resistor

Applying KVL
3𝑂𝑉 2 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟) = 0
therefore
30𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
and
30𝑉
𝑅= 2𝑟
𝐼
When
illuminated 30𝑉
𝑅= 2 1𝑘Ω = ā 㖌㗀
10𝑚𝐴
And the dark current is
30𝑉 30𝑉
𝐼= = = ā 㗗 ă. Āā𝜇𝐴
𝑅+ 2𝑘Ω +
𝑟 100𝑘Ω

VI. PHOTOTRANSISTOR
It is light-sensitive transistor and is similar to an ordinary bipolar junction transistor (BJT) except that
it has no connection to the base terminal. Its operation is based on the photodiode that exists at the
CB junction. Instead of the base current, the input to the transistor is provided in the form of light as
shown in the schematic symbol below.

Silicon NPNs are mostly used as photo transistors. The device is usually packed in a TO-type can
with a lens on top although it is sometimes encapsulated in clear plastic. When there is no incident
light on the CB junction, there is a small thermally-generated collector- to-emitter leakage current
ICEO which, in this case, is called dark current and is in the nA range.

When light is incident on the CB junction, a base current 𝐼㔆 is produced which is directly proportional
to the light intensity. Hence, collector current 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼㔆

Typical collector characteristic curves of a phototransistor are shown in figure b. Each individual
curve corresponds to a certain value of light intensity expressed in mW/cm2. As seen, IC increases
with light intensity.

The phototransistor has applications like those of a photodiode. Their main differences are in the
current and response time. The phototransistor has the advantages of greater sensitivity and current
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capacity than photodiodes. However, photodiodes are faster of the two, switching in less than a
nanosecond.

A photodarlington consists of a phototransistor in a Darlington

arrangement with a common transistor. It has a much greater sensitivity
to incident radiant energy than a phototransistor because of higher
current gain. However, its switching time of 50 µs is much longer than
the phototransistor (2 µs) or the photodiode (1 ns).

Photodarlingtons are used in a variety of applications some of which are

given below

Such relays are used in many applications such as (i) automatic door activators, (ii) process counters
and (iii) various alarm systems for smoke or intrusion detection.

VII. OPTO-ISOLATOR
Optical isolators are designed to electrically isolate one circuit from another while allowing one circuit
to control the other. The usual purpose of isolation is to provide protection from high-voltage
transients, surge voltages and low-level electrical noise that could possibly result in an erroneous
output or damage to the device. Such isolators allow interfacing of circuits with different voltage
levels and different grounds etc

An optical isolator (or coupler) consists of a light source such as LED and a photodetector such as a
photo transistor as shown in figure (a) and is available in a standard IC package. When LED is
forward- biased, the light produced by it is transferred to the phototransistor which is turned ON
thereby producing current through the external load.

Figure (b) shows a Darlington transistor coupler which is used when increased output current
capability is needed beyond that provided by the phototransistor output.

The LASCR output coupler of figure (c) can be used in applications where a low-level input voltage is
required to latch a high voltage relay for activating some kind of electro-mechanical device.
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VIII. LASER DIODE
Like LEDs, laser diodes are typical PN junction devices used under a
forward-bias. The word LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The use of laser is (becoming
increasing common) in medical equipment used in surgery and in
consumer prod- ucts like compact disk (CD) players, laser printers,
hologram scanners etc.

Broadly speaking, the laser diode structure can be divided into two categories :
1. Surface-emitting laser diodes : These laser diodes emit light in a direction perpendicular
to the PN junction plane.
2. Edge-emitting laser diodes : These laser diodes emit light in a direction parallel to the PN
junction plane

The figure below shows the structure of an edge-emitting laser diode. This type of structure is called
Fabry-Perot type laser. As seen from the figure, a P-N junction is formed by two layers of doped
gallium arsenide (GaAs). The length of the PN junction bears a precise relationship with the
wavelength of the light to be emitted. As seen, there is a highly reflective surface at one end of the
junction and a partially reflective surface at the other end. External leads provide the anode and
cathode connections

When the P-N junction is forward-biased by an external voltage source, electrons move across the
junction and usual recombination occurs in the depletion region which results in the production of
photons. As forward current is increased, more photons are produced which drift at random in the
depletion region. Some of these photons strike the reflective surface perpendicularly. These reflected
photons enter the depletion region, strike other atoms, and release more photons. All these photons
move back and forth between the two reflective surfaces. [figure (b)] The photon activity becomes so
intense that at some point, a strong beam of laser light comes out of the partially reflective surface of
the diode

The beam of laser light produced by the diode has the following unique characteristics :
1. It is coherent i.e. there is no path difference between the waves comprising the beam;
2. It is monochromatic i.e. it consists of one wavelength and hence one colour only
3. It is collimated i.e. emitted light waves travel parallel to each

Laser diodes have a threshold level of current above which the laser action occurs but below which
the laser diode behaves like a LED emitting incoherent light. The schematic symbol of a laser diode
is similar to that of LED. Incidentally, a filter or lens is necessary to view the laser beam.

Laser diodes are used in variety of applications ranging from medical equipment used in surgery to
consumer products like optical disk equipment, laser printers, hologram scanners etc. Laser diodes
emitting visible light are used as pointers. Those emitting visible and infrared light are used to
measure range (or distance). The laser diodes are also widely used in parallel processing of
information and in parallel interconnections between computers.

9.1 Laser Ranger Finder

The laser diodes along with photodiodes can be used to measure the range (i.e. a distance) of an
object. The figure below shows a simple schematic of a laser range finder. As seen, the laser diode
is modulated with high current pulses. The pulsed high-power beam is emitted in the direction of an
object. The beam is reflected from the object. The reflected beam is detected with a photo detector
(or photodiode). The range is calculated as the difference between the time the light was emitted
from the laser diode and the time it was detected by the photodiode.

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1
𝐷= 𝐶Δ𝑇
2
Where
𝐷 2 Distance between the
LASER ranger finder and
the object
𝐶 2 speed of light
Δ𝑇 2 Time difference
between the instance
when the light was
emitted from the laser
diode and the instance
when it was detected by
the photodiode

IX. SOLAR CELLS

Such cells operate on the principle of photovoltaic action i.e. conversion of light energy into electrical
energy. This action occurs in all semiconductors which are constructed to absorb energy.

A basic solar cell consists of P-type and N-type semiconductor material (usually, silicon or selenium)
forming a P-N junction. The bottom surface of the cell (which is always away from light) covered with
a continuous conductive contact to which a wire lead is attached. The upper surface has a maximum
area exposed to light with a small contact either along the edge or around the perimeter. The surface
layer of P-type material is extremely thin (0.5 mm) so that light can penetrate to the junction

Although silicon is commonly used for fabricating solar cells, another construction consists of P- type
selenium covered with a layer of N-type cadmium oxide to form P-N junction as shown. Two
alternative circuit symbols are shown in Figure (c) above. Power solar cells are also fabricated in flat
strips to form efficient coverage of available surface area. Incidentally, the maximum efficiency of a
solar cell in converting sunlight into electrical energy is nearly 15 per cent at the present.

The single-crystal silicon structure has an atomic lattice that is uniform, perfectly ordered, and of the
highest purity. The typical range of efficiency extends from 14% to 17% with experimental levels of
over 20%. Polycrystalline silicon solar cells are manufactured in a different, cheaper process but
have lower levels of efficiency (9%–14%).

When the P-N junction of a solar cell is illuminated,

electron- hole pairs are generated in much the same
way, as in photovoltaic cell. An electric field is estab-
lished near the P-N junction by the positive and
negative ions cre- ated due to the production of
electron-hole pairs which leads to the development of
potential across the junction. Since the number of
electron-hole pairs far exceeds the number needed
for thermal equilibrium, many of the electrons are
pulled across the junction by the force of the
electric field.
Those that cross the junction contribute to the current
in the cell and through the external load. The terminal voltage of the cell is directly proportional to the
intensity of the incident light. The voltage may be as high as 0.6 V depending on the external load.
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Usually a large number of cells are arranged in an array in order to obtained higher voltages and
currents as shown

Solar cells act like a battery when connected in series or parallel. Below is a figure of two groups of
10 series cells connected in parallel with each other. If each cell provides 0.5 V at 150 mA, the
overall value of the solar bank is 5 V at 150 mA. The two
parallel solar banks provide 5 V at 300 mA. This solar
power source supplies the load and also charges the
Ni-Cd battery. The battery provides power in the
absence of light. A blocking diode D is used to isolate
the solar cells from the Ni-Cd battery otherwise in the
absence of light, the battery will discharge through the
cells thereby damaging them.

A solar cell operates with fair efficiency, has unlimited

life, can be easily mass-produced and has a high
power capacity per weight. It is because of these
qualities that it has become an important source of
power for earth
satellites.Note: the light intensity of the sun at sea level is about Ā00 𝑚㕾/𝑐𝑚ā 𝑜𝑟 Ā 㖌 㕾/𝑚ā , which
gives us a good idea of the maximum levels that can be expected from the sun.

Example
An earth satellite has on board 12-V battery which supplies a continuous current of 0.5 A. Solar cells
are used to keep the battery charged. The solar cells are illuminated by the sun for 12 hours in every
24 hours. If during exposure, each cell gives 0.5 V at 50 mA, determine the number of cells required

Solution
The solar cell battery-charging circuit is shown. The cells
must be connected in series to provide the necessary
voltage and such groups must be connected in parallel to
provide the necessary current. The charging voltage has
to be greater than the battery voltage of 12 V. Allowing for
different drops, let the solar bank voltage be 13.5 V.

Number of series connected so- lar cells

= 13.5𝑉/0.5𝑉 = 27
The charge given out by batteries during a 24 hour period
= 12ℎ × 0.5𝐴 = 6 𝐴ℎ.

Hence, solar cells must supply this much charge over the same period. However, solar cells deliver
current only when they illuminated i.e. for 12 hours in every 24 hours. Necessary charging current
required from the solar cells is
= 6 𝐴ℎ/12ℎ = 0.5 𝐴.
Total number of groups of solar cells required to be connected in parallel is
ā𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟e𝑛𝑡 0.5𝐴
= = = 10
𝑐e𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟e𝑛𝑡 50𝑚𝐴
∴total number of solar cells required for the earth satellite = 27 × 10 = ā 㗕 0

X. LIQUID-CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

The liquid-crystal display (LCD) has the distinct advantage of having a lower power requirement than
the LED, typically on the order of microwatts for the display, compared to the order of milliwatts for
LEDs. It does, however, require an external or internal light source, and is limited to a temperature
range of about 0°C to 60°C. Lifetime is an area of concern because LCDs can chemically degrade.
The types of unit of major interest are field-effect and dynamic-scattering units. Each will be covered
in some detail in this section.

A liquid crystal is a material (normally organic for LCDs) that flows like a liquid but whose molecular
structure has some properties normally associated with solids. For light-scattering units, the greatest
interest is in nematic liquid crystal, which has the crystal structure shown below

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No. 4: ENG’G8-2S-2020-
The individual molecules have a
rodlike appearance as shown in
the figure. The indium oxide
conducting surface is transparent,
and under the condition shown in
the figure, incident light will simply
pass through and the liquid-crystal
structure will appear clear. If a
voltage (for commercial units the
threshold level is usually between
6 V and 20 V) is applied across the
conducting surfaces, as shown
below, the molecular arrangement
is disturbed, with the result that
regions are established with different indices of refraction. The incident light is therefore reflected in
different directions at the interface between regions of different indices of refraction (referred to as
dynamic scattering 4first studied by RCA in 1968), with the result that the scattered light has a
frosted-glass appearance. Note, however, that the frosted look occurs only where the conducting
surfaces are opposite each other; the remaining areas remain translucent.

The field-effect or twisted

nematic LCD has the same
segmented appearance and
thin layer of encapsulated
liquid crystal, but its mode of
operation is very different.
Similar to the dynamic-
scattering LCD, the field-
effect LCD can be operated in
the reflective or the
transmissive mode with an
internal source. The
transmissive display appears
below

The internal light source is on

the right, and the viewer is on the
left. This figure is most
noticeably different from the first
figure in that there is an addition
of a light polarizer .

Only the vertical component of

the entering light on the right can
pass through the vertical-light
polarizer on the right. In the field-
effect LCD, either the clear
conducting surface to the right is
chemically etched or an organic
film is applied to orient the
molecules in the liquid crystal in the vertical plane, parallel to the cell wall. Note the rods to the far
right in the liquid crystal.

Field-effect LCDs are normally used when a source of energy is a prime factor (e.g., in watches,
portable instrumentation, etc.) since they absorb considerably less power than the light-scattering
types4the microwatt range compared to the low-milliwatt range.

A further consideration in displays is turn-on and turn-off time. LCDs are characteristically much
slower than LEDs. LCDs typically have response times in the range 100 ms to 300 ms, whereas
LEDs are available with response times below 100 ns.
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No. 4: ENG’G8-2S-2020-
VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Answer the following questions.

1. Given that 𝐸𝑔 = 0.67 e𝑉 for 4. In your own words, describe the basic
germanium, find the wavelength of operation of an LCD.
peak solar response for the material. Do the
have a

5. Discuss the relative advantages and

disadvantages of an LCD display as
2. Determine 𝐼㔆 if V = 30 V and the light compared to an LED display.
intensity is 4 × 10−9 þ/𝑚2 from the
given photodiode characteristics.

6. If the power rating of a solar cell is

determined on a very rough scale by
the product 𝑉㕂𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶 , is the greatest
rate of increase obtained at lower or
higher levels of illumination? Explain
your reasoning.

7. In your own words, define dark

3. a. What is the energy in joules current.
associated with photons that have a
wavelength matching that of the
color blue in the visible spectrum?
b. Repeat part (a) for the color red.
c. Do the results confirm the fact that
the shorter the wavelength the
higher the energy level?
d. Is light in the ultraviolet range
more dangerous in regard to skin
cancer than those in the infrared
range? Why?
e. Can you guess why fluorescent
lights are used for growing plants in
a dark environment?

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No. 4: ENG’G8-2S-2020-
VII. ASSIGNMENT
List down at least 5 other optoelectronic devices not listed above. Draw the schematic symbol and
construction of each device, then describe its operation and practical applications.

VIII. REFERENCES

A. Printed Resources
Boylestad, R.L. and Nashelsky, L. (2013). Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory (11th Edition). Pearson
Education, Inc.

B. e-Resources/ e-books
Theraja, B.L.,Sedha, R.S. (2005) A Textbook of Electrical Technology Volume IV - Electronic Devices
and Circuits. S.Chand & Company Ltd, New Delhi, India

Prepared By

ENGR. LEIMAR N. AGSUNOD

Emergency Instructor

Recommending Approval

ENGR. ZARAH Z. VILLAR

Program Chair, ECE

Approved by

MARY B. PASION, D.Eng

Dean, College of Engineering

distribution.=
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) <In accordance with Section 185, Fair Use of a Copyrighted Work of
Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included in this material may be
reproduced for educational purposes only and not for commercial
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