UNIT IV.

Run-off Analysis
Overview
This unit deals with the discussion, estimate and presentation of Run-off and probability of its
occurrence. Below are the topics to aid the students in their studies.
• Runoff and other related terms
• Factors affecting runoff
• Estimation of amount of Run-off:
1. Empirical formula, curves and tables
2. Infiltration method
3. Rational Method
4. Overland flow hydrograph
5. Unit hydrograph method

Learning Objectives________________________________________________________________________________

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. be acquainted with different hydrological equations and learn to interpret run-off data;
and
2. solve practical problems in the occurrence of run-off through the use of different
equations/formula of the data collected.

Setting Up____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _____________________________________________________ Date: ______________________

Course/Year/Section: ____________________________________

Directions: Search a sample for run-off data.

Lesson Proper_______________________________________________________________________________________

Run-off
Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area through a
surface channel. It thus represents the output from the catchment in a given unit of time.
Consider a catchment area receiving precipitation. For a given precipitation, the
evapotranspiration, initial loss, infiltration and detention storage requirements will have to be first
satisfied before commencement of runoff. When these are satisfies, the excess precipitation moves
over the land surfaces to reach smaller channels. This portion of the runoff is called overland flow
and involves building up of a storage over the surface and draining off of the same. Usually the
length and depths of overland flow are small and the flow is in the laminar regime. Flows from
several small channels join bigger channels and flows from these in turn combine to form a larger
stream, and so on, till the flow reaches the catchment outlet. The flow in this mode where it travels
all the time over the surface as overland flow and through the channels as open-channel flow and
reaches the catchment outlet is called surface runoff.
As part of the precipitation that infilters moves laterally through upper crusts of the soil and
returns to the surface at some location away from the point of entry into the soil. This component of
runoff is known variously as interflow, through flow, storm seepage, subsurface storm flow or quick
return flow (Fig. 5.1). The amount of interflow depends on the geological conditions of the
catchment. A fairly pervious soil overlying a hard impermeable surface is conducive to large
interflows. Depending upon the time delay between the infiltration and the outflow, the interflow is
sometimes classified into prompt interflow, i.e. the interflow with the least time lag and delayed
interflow.
Another route for the infiltered water is to undergo deep percolation and reach the
groundwater storage in the soil. The groundwater follows a complicated and long path of travel and
ultimately reaches the surface. The time lag, i.e. the difference in time between the entry into the
soil and outflows from it is very large, being of the order of months and years. This part of runoff is
called groundwater runoff or groundwater flow. Groundwater flow provides the dry-weather flow
in perennial streams.
 Based on the time delay between the precipitation and the runoff, the runoff classified into
two categories; as
1. Direct runoff, and
2. Base flow.

DIRECT RUNOFF
It is the part of the runoff which enters the stream immediately after the rainfall. It includes
surface runoff, prompt interflow and rainfall on the surface of the stream. Sometimes terms such as
direct storm runoff and storm runoff are used to designate direct runoff.

BASE FLOW
The delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as groundwater flow is called base flow.

NATURAL FLOW
Runoff representing the response of a catchment to precipitation reflects the integrated
effects of a wide range of catchment, climate and rainfall characteristics. True runoff is therefore
stream flow in its natural condition. i.e. without human intervention. Such a stream flow unaffected
by works of man, such as reservoirs and diversion structures on a stream, is called natural flow or
virgin flow.

FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF

1. Storm Characteristics
a) Type or nature of storm and season
b) Intensity
c) Duration
d) Areal extent (distribution)
e) Frequency
f) Antecedent precipitation
g) Direction of storm movement
2. Meteorological characteristics
a) Temperature
b) Humidity
c) Wind velocity
d) Pressure variation
3. Basin characteristics
a) Size
b) Shape
c) Slope
d) Altitude (elevation)
e) Topography
f) Geology (type of soil)
g) Land use/ vegetation
h) Orientation
i) Type of drainage net
j) Proximity to ocean and mountain
k) Ranges

4. Storage characteristics
a) Depressions
b) Pools and ponds/lakes
 c) Stream
d) Channels
e) Check dams (in gullies)
f) Upstream reservoir/or tanks
g) Flood plains, swamps
h) Groundwater storage in previous deposits (aquifers)

RUNOFF ESTIMATION METHODS

Runoff is that balance of rain water, which flows or runs over the natural ground surface
after losses by evaporation, interception and infiltration.
The yield of a catchment (usually means yield) is the net quantity of water available for
storage, after all losses, for the purposes of water resources utilization and planning, like irrigation,
water supply, etc.
Maximum flood discharge. It is the discharge in times of flooding of the catchment area,
when the intensity of rainfall is greatest and the condition of the catchment regarding humidity is
also favourable for an appreciable runoff.
The runoff from rainfall may be estimated by the following methods:
a. Empirical formula, curves and tables
b. Infiltration method
c. Rational Method
d. Overland flow hydrograph
e. Unit hydrograph method

A. Empirical formula, curves and tables

Several empirical formula, curves and tables relating to the rainfall and runoff have been
developed as follows;

R = a P + b (linear)
or
R = a Pm (exponential curve)
Where: R = runoff
P = rainfall
a,b,and c = constants
The yield of a catchment can be simply worked out by taking about 75 to 80% of the a.a.r. and
assuming a suitable runoff coefficient.
The rainfall of an average bad year ¿ 2/3 to 3/4 of the a.a.r., which may be taken for runoff
computation. Further improvement over the a.a.r. is the dependable rainfall. The available annual
rainfall records for about 35 years are arranged in the descending order and the rainfall of 75%
dependability. i.e., of thr 27th year from the top is taken for runoff computation.*

B. Infiltration Method
By deducting the infiltration loss, i.e., the area under the infiltration curve, from the total
precipitation or by the use of infiltration indices, which are already discussed. These methods are
largely empirical and the derived values are applicable only when the rainfall characteristics and
the initial soil moisture conditions are identical to those for which these are derived.

C. Rational Method
A rational approach is to obtain the yield of a catchment by assuming a suitable runoff coefficient.

Yield = CAP
Where: C = runoff coefficient
A = area of catchment
P = precipitation

* Frequency F = (m/n)x100 ∴ 75% = (m/n)x100 ∴ m =27

The value of C varies depending upon the soil type, vegetation, geology etc.

Runoff Coefficients
 Type of catchment C
Rocky and impermeable 0.8 – 1.0
Slightly permeable, bare 0.6 – 0.8
Cultivated or covered with vegetation 0.4 – 0.6
Cultivated absorbent soil 0.3 – 0.4
Sandy soil 0.2 – 0.3
Heavy soil 0.1 – 0.2

In this method, the drainage area is divided into a number of sub-areas and with the known times
of concentration for different subareas the runoff contribution from each area is determined. The
choice of the value of the runoff coefficient C for the different sub-areas is an important factor in
the runoff computation by this method. This method of dividing the area into different zones by
drawing lines of time contour, i.e., isochrones, is illustrated in the following example.

Example: A 4-hour rain of average intensity 1cm/hr falls over the fern leaf type catchment as
shown in the figure. The time of concentration from the line AA, BB, CC and DD are 1,2,3 and 4
hours, respectively, to the site 0 where the discharge measurements are made. The values of the
runoff coefficient C are 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7 for the 1 st,, 2nd and 3rd hours. Determine teh discharge at
site 0.

Solution: The discharge computations are made in the table below.

 Example: The following data are collected for a proposed tank in the Deccan plains of south India:

Catchment area = 1200 ha

a.a.r. = 90 cm
Intensity of rainfall of duration 1 hr
And frequency 35 years = 5 cm/hr
Average runoff coefficient for the
whole catchment = 20%
Tanks get filled = 1 1/2 times in a year
Difference between the maximum
water level (MWL) and
a full tank level (FTL) = 0.6 m

Determine:
a. The yield of the catchment and the capacity of the tank
b. The area of rice crop that can be irrigated from the tank
c. The duties of water assumed and the discharge at the head to the distributary
d. The length of clear overfall weir near one flank.

Solution:
 (a) A.A.R. is available in 50 % of the years. To ensure filler of the tank in deficient years
dependable rainfall ¿ 75 % of a.a.r.
P = 0.75 x 90 = 67.5 cm or 0.675 m.
Corresponding to this rain (P) of 75 % dependability, the runoff (R) can be found from :
R = [(P-17.8)P]/2541 = 13.2 cm

Since the runoff coefficient C = 20% (given)

R = CP = 0.20 x 67.5 = 13.5 cm
which compares well with the value obtained above by applying the empirical
formula for the region.
Yield from the catchment = CAP = 0.2 x 1200 x 0.675 = 162 ha-m
Since the tank gets filled 1.5 times in a year,
Capacity of the tank = 162/1.5 = 108 ha-m

(b) Assuming loss of water due to evaporation and seepage as 10% in the tank and 20% in
the distributary
Water available at the field outlet = 162 (1 - 0.3) = 113.4 ha-m
For rice crop assuming U = 88 cm, crop period B = 120 days
U 88
Δ= =
Field irrigation requirement
ηirrgn 0.7
= 126 cm or 1.26 m = 126ha-m/ha

Area of rive crop that can be irrigated

= 113.4 h-m / 1.26 m = 90 ha

(c) Tank duty = (1-0.3)/1.26 = 0.555 ha/ha-m of annual strorage (I.e., yield)
(1−0 .3 )106 m 3
4 2
For 1 Mm3 : 1 . 26 x 10 m /ha = 55.5 ha/Mm3 of annual storage
Note: 162 x 0.555 = 90 ha
Flow duty (D) as ha/cumec on field can be obtained from equal volumes
1 m3/sec (B days x 86400 sec) = (D x 104m2) Δ m
8.64 B 8.64 x 120 days
=
∴ D= Δ 1 .26m = 823 ha/cumec
Discharge at field outlet = 90/823 = 0.1093 cumec
Discharge at the head of the distributary, I.e., tank outlet
=0.1093/0.80 = 0.137 cumec = 137 lps

(d) Length of the clear overfall weir (L):

 Using the rational formula for the maximum rate of runoff
5
0 .2 (1200 x 10 4 )
Q = CiA = 100(60 x60 ) = 33.3 cumec
Weir formula is
Q = CLH3/2
Head over the weir
H = MWL - FTL = 0.6 m
L = length of the weir
Assuming a weir coefficient
C = 1.84
Then;
33.3 = 1.84 L (0.6)3/2
∴ L = 39 m

D. Overland Flow Hydrograph

Overland flow occurs as a thin sheet of water over the ground surface, joins a stream channel,
and then flows in the channel to the concentration point.
Overland flow is essentially a uniform flow over the surface as developed by C.F. Izzard (1948).
The Reynolds number:

Re = V d/v = q/v
Where: V = velocity of flow
d = uniform depth of flow
v = kinematic viscosity of water
q = discharge per unit width

If Re < 1000, flow is laminar

If Re > 1000, flow is turbulent
If Re = 1000, flow is in transition region

E. Unit Hydrograph Method

 The hydrograph of a direct surface discharge measured at the outlet of drainage area, which
produces a unit depth of direct runoff resulting from a unit storm of specified duration (called
unit period) is called unit hydrograph of that duration. The area under the hydrograph represents
a direct runoff of 1 cm, figure below.

The theory of unit hydrograph is based on the following assumptions:

a) The net rainfall is of uniform intensity within its duration.
b) The net rainfall uniformly occurs over the entire area of the drainage basin.
c) For a given drainage basin, the base period of the hydrographs of direct runoff corresponding
to net rains of different intensities but same unit duration, is constant.
d) The ordinates of direct runoff hydrographs due to net rains of different intensities (but sane
unit duration) are proportional.
e) A unit hydrograph reflects all the physical characteristics of the basin.

Application of unit hydrographs. First a unit hydrograph of suitable unit duration is derivef from
an observed flood hydrograpj for the drainage basin due to a known storm-which can be applied
for any other storm (of the same duration but different net rain) occuring on the basin and
resulting flood hydrographs can be obtained.

Example: A small watershed consist of 1.5 km2 of cultivated area (c=0.2), 2.5 km2 under forest (c =
0.1) and 1 km2 under grass cover (c=0.35). There is a fall of 20 m in a watercourse of length 2 km.
80 T 0. 2
0.5
The I-D-F relation for the area is given by I = (t+12 ) , I in cm/hr, T-yr, t-min. Estimate the peak
rate of runoff for a 25 year frequency.
Solution: Time of concentration (Kirpich’s formula-modified)
tc ¿ 0.02 L0.8 S-0.4 , tc in min, L in meters
= 0.02 (2000)0.8 (20/2000)-0.4 = 55 min = t
80 x 250 . 2
0 .5
I = (55+12) = 18.6 cm/hr

Q = CIA = 2.78 I ( ∑C Ai i)
= 2.78 x 18.6 ((1.5x0.2)+(2.5x 0.1)+(1x0.35)
= 46.5 Cumec
Assessing Learning_________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 4

Name: ______________________________________________ Score: ____________________

Course/Year/Section: ___________________________ Date: _____________________

Directions: Answer the following question/s with complete and neat solution.

A. Find solved problems or application in runoff estimation of the following methods:

a. Empirical formula, curves and tables

b. Infiltration method
c. Rational Method
d. Overland flow hydrograph
e. Unit hydrograph method

B. Determine the yield of the catchment and capacity of the tank from the following data:
Catchment area = 20 km2
a.a.r. = 80 cm
Tank gets filled: 2 times in a year
Runoff coefficient = 1/5 (average for the catchment)
(2,4,1.2Mm3)