Worked Examples from Introductory Physics

Vol. V: Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields

David Murdock
Tenn. Tech. Univ.

August 19, 2004

2
Contents

To the Student. Yeah, You. i

1 Electric Current and Resistance 1

1.1 The Important Stuff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Electric Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Resistance & Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Dissipated Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Electric Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Resistance & Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Dissipated Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 DC Circuits 11
2.1 The Important Stuff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.1 Analyzing Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.2 Analyzing Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.3 Resistors in Series and in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.4 Solving Big Messy DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.5 RC Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.1 Analyzing Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2 Resistors in Series and in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.3 Solving Big Messy DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.4 RC Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Magnetic Fields – Forces 19

3.1 The Important Stuff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1.1 Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1.2 Magnetic Force on a Moving Point Charge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1.3 Circular Motion of Particles in Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Appendix A: Useful Numbers 21

3
4 CONTENTS
To the Student. Yeah, You.

Hi. It’s me again. Since you have obviously read all the stuffy pronouncements about the
purpose of this problem–solving guide before, I won’t make them again here.
I will point out that I’ve got lots more work to do on Volume 5, and I’m just making it
available so that these chapters (such as they are) may be of some help to you. In fact, the
whole set of books is a perpetual work in progress.
However....

Reactions, please!
Please help me with this project: Give me your reaction to this work: Tell me what you
liked, what was particularly effective, what was particularly confusing, what you’d like to
see more of or less of. I can be reached at [email protected] or even at x–3044. If this
effort is helping you to learn physics, I’ll do more of it!

DPM

i
ii TO THE STUDENT. YEAH, YOU.
Chapter 1

Electric Current and Resistance

1.1 The Important Stuff

1.1.1 Electric Current
The topics covered up to now in your physics course have dealt with concentrations of electric
charge which stay in one place, i.e. electrostatics. We now deal with the consequences of
charge moving through a conductor, and the consequences are numerous, interesting and
quite useful for modern technology. We now will work with electrodynamics.
In particular, we will study the flow of charge through electric circuits, i.e. networks
of conductors, which might look like the one shown in Fig. 1.1.
In physics, we restrict this study to simple networks, focussing on the physical princi-
ples involved; for complex networks involving exotic types of conductors, consult your local
engineering department!
Charges moves through the different parts of a circuit; it is important to measure the
rate at which charge moves. Since charge cannot accumulate to any extent in the parts of
a circuit, if we look at any one branch of a circuit the same net number of charges will be
crossing a cross-sectional area per unit time, as shown in Fig. 1.2. Note that in this figure
I show positive charges doing the actual motion, which is not really the case for normal
conductors; it is the negatively charged electrons which are in motion. However for all of our

+ C1
Acme
Batteries
_ R1 R2
V0

Figure 1.1: Electric circuits!

1
2 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

+
+ +
+
+
+ + +
+
+ +
+
+

Figure 1.2: Current is the same in the skinny part of the wire as in the fat part; there are the same number
of charges crossing a cross-sectional area per time.

work it will not make any difference if we pretend that an equal number of positive charge
are moving in the direction opposite to that of the electron motion. We use this convention
because it was the one in use before it was known that negatively–charged electrons were
the ones that were in motion.
Suppose in a given branch of a circuit a small amount of charge dq passes through a given
cross–sectional area in a time dt. Then the electric current in that branch is given by
dq
I= (1.1)
dt
Of course, if the current is constant the we can use I = ∆q ∆t
.
From its definition in Eq. 1.1, electric current must have SI units of coulombs per second
( Cs ) which is called an ampere1. Thus:
1 ampere = 1 A = 1 Cs .
Actually, we’ve seen this unit before (in Chapter 1) when we introduced the coulomb because
it is actually the ampere which is easier to measure and standardize.
The definition of current involves a summation of the rates of passage of charges over the
entire cross-sectional area, such as those in Fig. 1.2. Over any one tiny bit of this surface, if
the density (number per volume) of charge carriers (with charge q) is n, and their average
speed is vd (the drift velocity), then through some small area dA we get an electric current
dI given by
I = nqvdA . (1.2)
It is also useful to define a current density in the circuit branch. If the flow of charges
is uniform over the cross–sectional area, then the current density is
I
J= (1.3)
A
which has units of mA2 .
Comparing Eq. 1.3 with Eq. 1.2 (and generalizing it to a vector equation) gives
J = nqvd (1.4)
so that the current density vector J points in the same direction as the mean drift velocity
vd .
1
Named in honor of the. . . uh. . . English physicist Jim Ampere (c.1835–1779) who did some electrical
experiments in. . . um. . . Heidelberg. That’s it, Heidelberg.
1.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 3

1.1.2 Resistance & Ohm’s Law

Current flows in a conductor when an electric potential is applied across its ends. What is the
relation between the amount of current flowing (I) and the potential difference (“voltage”,
V )? Empirically, it is found that for “normal” materials, the current through a conductor is
proportional the potential difference applied across its ends: I ∝ V . The ratio of voltage to
current is the resistance of the conductor:
V
R= (1.5)
I
which is the same as:
V = IR (1.6)
and is known as Ohm’s Law.
Volt
Resistance is a scalar quantity and from Eq. 1.5 has units of Coul , which is called an
2
ohm . Thus:
volt
1 ohm = 1 Ω = 1
ampere
The resistance of a particular conductor depends on the material of which it is made and
its size and shape. For a simple shape like a cylinder (with electrical leads attached to the
ends), we have a simple expression for the resistance. It is
L
R=ρ (1.7)
A
where L is the length of the conductor and A is its cross-sectional area. The proportionality
constant ρ depends on the material from which the conductor is made. From its definition
we see that ρ must have units of Ω · m. For example,

ρCopper = 1.69 × 10−8 Ω · m

ρAluminum = 2.75 × 10−8 Ω · m

Actually, the real definition of resistivity comes from a more general version of Ohm’s
Law which relates the electric field (vector) within the conductor to the current density
(vector):
E = ρJ (1.8)

The resistance of a certain conductor can also depend on its temperature. While this
dependence might not be important for some conductors it can be important for those cases
where a conductor is (intentionally!) heated to very large temperatures. Empirically it is
found that a linear dependence of R on T (Celsius or Kelvin; it doesn’t matter for a general
linear relation) works pretty well, and we use a relation of the form:

ρ − ρ0 = ρ0 α(T − T0) R − R0 = R0 α(T − T0) (1.9)

2
Named in honor of the. . . uh. . . Polish physicist Jim Ohm (1215–1492) who did some electrical experi-
ments in. . . um. . . Prague. That’s it, Prague.
4 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

1.1.3 Dissipated Power

As an amount of charge dq passes through a resistor it “sees” a change in electrical potential
IR and thus a change in electrical potential energy (IR)dq. The energy lost by the charge
goes into the thermal energy of the resistor since energy is never really lost.
If dt is the time over which this charge dq has passed through the resistor then the rate
at which energy is being “lost” in the resistor (the dissipated power, P ) is
IR dq
P = = IR(I) = I 2R
dt
where we used dqdt
= I. Since IR is the voltage drop across the resistor, we can also write
this as P = V I. Thus we have:
V2
P = IV = I 2 R = (1.10)
R
We have already encountered the quantity power in the mechanics part of these notes. There
is was defined as work done per time (energy per time, same as here) and the SI unit of
power was given as Js , also known as the watt3

1.2 Worked Examples

1.2.1 Electric Current

1. A current of 5.0 A exists in a 10 Ω resistor for 4.0 min. How many (a) coulombs
and (b) electrons pass through any cross section of the resistor in this time?
∆q
(a) Using the constant–current version of Eq. 1.1, (namely I = ∆t
), for the given current I
and time interval ∆t we get:
 
60 s
∆q = I∆t = (5.0 A)(4.0 min)
1 min
= 1.2 × 103 C

So 1.2 × 103 coulombs pass through any cross section of the wire in 4.0 min.
(b) In part (a) we have found the absolute value of the electric charge passing through any
part of the wire; to find the number of electrons which make up this charge, divide this by
the absolute value of the electron charge e:
∆q (1.2 × 103 C)
N= = = 7.5 × 1021 electrons
e (1.602 × 10−23 C)
3
Named in honor of the. . . uh. . . Scottish physicist Jim Watt (1736–1819) who did some mechanical ex-
periments in. . . um. . . Glasgow. That’s it, Glasgow.
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 5

2. In a particular cathode ray tube, the measured beam current is 30 µA. How
many electrons strike the tube screen every 40 s?

Here, I is constant (and as used here it gives the magnitude of the flow of charge) so the
amount of charge which strikes the screen has a magnitude

∆q = I∆t = (30 × 10−6 A)(40 s) = 1.2 × 10−3 C ,

that is, a total charge of −1.2 × 10−3 C (since it is electrons which move in the tube) hits
the screen. Use the charge per electron to find the number of electrons:
!
−3 1 electron
N = (−1.2 × 10 C) = 7.5 × 1015 electrons
−1.60 × 1019 C

3. Suppose that the current through a conductor decreases exponentially with

time according to
I(t) = I0e−t/τ
where I0 is the initial current (at t = 0), and τ is a constant having dimensions of
time. Consider a fixed observation point within the conductor. (a) How much
charge passes this point between t = 0 and t = τ ? (b) How much charge passes
this point between t = 0 and t = 10τ ? (c) How much charge passes this point
between t = 0 and t = ∞?

(a) The relation between charge increment dq and time increment dt can be written using
Eq. 1.1 as:
dq = idt = I0e−t/τ dt .
To sum up all the charge passing a point between t = 0 and t = τ , do the integral on time
to get:
Z τ Z τ
q = i(t) dt = I0e−t/τ dt
0 0
τ  
−t/τ 

= −I0τ e  = −I0τ e−1 − 1
0
−1
= I0 τ (1 − e ) = (0.623)I0 τ

(b) For the charge passing the observation point between t = 0 and t = 10τ do the same
integral as in (a) but from 0 to 10τ :
Z 10τ
q = I0e−t/τ dt
0
10τ  

−t/τ 
= −I0τ e  = −I0τ e−10 − 1
0
= I0τ (1 − e−10 ) = (0.9995)I0 τ
6 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

(c) Now do the same integral, but from 0 to ∞:

Z ∞
q = I0e−t/τ dt
0
∞

= −I0τ e−t/τ  = −I0τ (0 − 1)
0
= I0τ = I0τ

4. A Van de Graaff generator produces a beam of 2.0 − MeV deuterons, which

are heavy hydrogen nuclei containing a proton and a neutron. (a) If the beam
current is 10.0 µA, how far apart are the deuterons in the beam? (b) Is their
electrostatic repulsion a factor of beam stability? Explain. [The deuteron mass
is 3.343 × 10−27 kg.]

(a) In a beam of deuterons coming from an accelerator, the particles are definitely not
equally spaced; but we will pretend that they are so that we will find an average spacing
between the deuterons in the beam.
Note that the charge of a deuteron is the same as that of the proton, namely qdeut = +e.
So imagining that we have such an orderly beam, we can use the defining relation for
current, I = ∆q/∆t (i.e. a charge ∆q passes by any given point in a time ∆t) to solve for
the time it takes a charge +e to pass by. This is:

∆q (1.602 × 10−19 C)
∆t = = −6
= 1.60 × 10−14 s
I (10.0 × 10 A)
We can get the distance between the deuterons if we know the speed of the particles. We
are given their kinetic energy:
!
1 1.602 × 10−19 J
K= 2
mv 2 6
= (2.0 × 10 eV) = 3.20 × 10−14 J
1 eV

from which we get the speed:

2K 2(3.20 × 10−14 J) m2
v2 = = −27
= 1.91 × 1014 s2
m (3.343 × 10 kg)

so that v = 1.38 × 107 ms .

The (uniform) separation of the deuterons is just the distance that one deuteron travels
in the time ∆t found above, so that

∆x = v∆t = (1.38 × 107 m

s
)(1.60 × 1014 s) = 2.22 × 10−7 m

(b) To tell if electrostatic repulsion between the ions is important for the stability of the
beam, we can think about comparing the ions moving in the beam to ions moving freely, i.e.
far away from any other charges.
1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 7

The potential energy of a pair of deuterons separated by the distance found above (as
compared with their energy at infinite separation) is

e2  2
 (1.60 × 10−19 C)2
Uelec = k = 8.99 × 109 N·m
C2
∆x (2.22 × 10−7 m)
= 1.04 × 10−21 J = 6.5 × 10−3 eV

which is much smaller than the kinetic energy of the particles, which is of the order of MeV’s.
We can guess from this that the motion of the deuterons in this beam is not much different
from that of free particles and the stability of beam is not influenced (much) by the mutual
repulsion of the ions.

5. Calculate the average drift speed of electrons travelling through a copper wire
with a cross-sectional area of 1.00 mm2 when carrying a current of 1.00 A (values
similar to those for he electric wire to your study lamp). It is known that about
one electron per atom of copper contributes to the current. The atomic weight
of copper is 63.54, and its density is 8.92 g/cm3

Eventually, we’ll get vd from Eq. 1.2, I = nqvd A, so first we find n, the number density
of freely-moving electrons in the wire. Now the mass density of copper is

ρ = 8.92 cmg 3 = 8.92 × 103 kg

m3

and using the atomic weight (0.06354 kg for each mole) and Avogadro’s number we can get
the number density of coper atoms:
! !
1 mole 6.022 × 1023 atoms
nCu = 8.92 × 103 mkg3
0.06354 kg mole
= 8.454 × 1028 atom
m3

Now since there is only one electron for each copper atom that contributes to the current
i.e. is freely–moving), then the number density of the conduction electrons is also n =
8.454 × 1028 m−3 .
Now use Eq. 1.2 to get the drift speed. Assume that the total current 1.00 A = 1.00 Cs
is uniform over the cross-sectional area, and use the magnitude of the charge of the carriers
q = e = 1.60 × 10−19 C and get:

I
vd =
nqA
(1.00 Cs )
= 28 −3 −19 −6 3
= 7.4 × 10−5 m
s
(8.454 × 10 m )(1.60 × 10 C)(1.00 × 10 m )
m
The drift speed of the electrons is 7.4 × 10−5 s
...a rather small speed!
8 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

1.2.2 Resistance & Ohm’s Law

6. A conducting wire has a 1.0 mm diameter, a 2.0 m length, and a 50 mΩ resistance.

What is the resistivity of the material?

The cross-sectional area of the wire is

d2 (1.0 × 10−3 m)2
A = πr2 = π = π = 7.85 × 10−7 m2
4 4
Then from Eq. 1.7 the resistivity ρ is given by
RA
ρ =
L
(50 × 10−3 Ω)(7.85 × 10−7 m2)
= = 2.0 × 10−8 Ω · m
(2.0 m)

7. A steel trolley-car wire has a cross-sectional area of 56.0 cm2 . What is the
resistance of 10.0 km of rail? The resistivity of the steel is 3.00 × 10−7 Ω · m.

We have the resistivity ρ, cross-sectional area and length. (Note that 1 cm2 = 10−4 m2 !)
Then Eq. 1.7 gives the resistance of the rail:

L (10.0 × 102 m)
R = ρ = (3.00 × 10−7 Ω · m) = 0.536 Ω
A (56.0 × 10−4 m2)

8. When 115 V is applied across a wire that is 10 m long and has a 0.30 mm radius,
the current density is 1.4 × 104 A/m2. Find the resistivity of the wire.

By doing some algebra first we can save ourselves some button-pushing. Write out Ohm’s
law and substitute for the resistance R:
 
L
V = IR = I ρ
A
 
I
= ρL = J ρL
A
where we’ve also used the definition of the current density, J = I/A, since we are given its
value. Solve for ρ and plug in the numbers:
V (115 V)
ρ= = = 8.2 × 10−4 Ω · m
JL (1.4 × 104 A/m2)(10 m)

So the resistivity of the wire is 8.2 × 10−4 Ω · m.

1.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 9

As it turns out, we did not need to know the radius of the wire.

9. A common flashlight bulb is rated at 0.30 A and 2.9 V (the values of the current
and voltage under operating conditions). If the resistance of the bulb filament at
room temperature (20◦ C) is 1.1 Ω, what is the temperature of the filament when
the bulb is on? The filament is made of tungsten, for which α = 4.5 × 10−3 /K.

From Ohm’s law we can find the resistance of the bulb at the temperature of the normal
operating conditions (hot!):
V (2.9 V)
R= = = 9.7 Ω
I (0.30 A)
This is in contrast to the resistance of the filament at room temperature, 1.1 Ω.
Equation 1.9 gives the dependence of resistivity (ρ) on temperature. The same relation
holds true for the resistance R of a circuit element because to get R from ρ we multiply by
L/A (assume a cylindrical conductor). So we use
R − R0 = R0 α(T − T0 )
with our values for T0 = 20◦ C and solve for T . We get:
1 (R − R0 ) 1 (9.7 Ω − 1.1 Ω)
(T − T0) = = −3
= 1.7 × 103 K = 1.7 × 103 C◦
α R0 (4.5 × 10 /K) 1.1 Ω
Then the operating temperature T is
T = T0 + 1.7 × 103 C◦ = 20◦ C + 1.7 × 103 C◦ = 1.7 × 103 ◦C

1.2.3 Dissipated Power

10. A certain x-ray tube operates at a current of 7.0 [mA and a potential difference
of 80 kV. What is its power in watts?

The problem gives us the current I passing through the tube and the potential difference
(voltage drop) V across the tube. Then Eq. 1.10 gives us the power dissipated:
P = IV = (7.0 × 10−3 A)(80 × 103 V) = 5.6 × 102 W

11. Thermal energy is produced in a resistor at a rate of 100 W when the current
is 3.00 A. What is the resistance?

Here we are given the power dissipated in the resistor and the current passing through
it. Then we can get the resistance by using P = I 2R. This gives:
P (100 W)
R = 2
= = 11.1 Ω
I (3.00 A)2
10 CHAPTER 1. ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
Chapter 2

DC Circuits

2.1 The Important Stuff

2.1.1 Analyzing Circuits
We now extend the ideas of the last chapter to situations where circuit elements (such as
batteries and resistors) are attached together in more complicated (and interesting!) ways.
We will look at circuits with multiple loops and calculate the important quantities for these
circuits: The potential differences between various points in the circuit and the currents
flowing in the different branches of the circuit. For example, we might be given a circuit,
part of which may look like the one shown in Fig. 2.1. Given the values of V and R1 , R2 , . . .
it would be our job to find the currents in the different branches, i1, i2 . . . and perhaps the
potential difference between the points a and b.
There is an important point to be made about the direction of the arrow we put in our
pictures and the actual direction in which current is flowing: For the sake of getting ourselves
straight, we might begin a circuit problem by writing down arrows to reference the directions
of the currents as in Fig. 2.1. But we may later find that one of the i’s is negative! That’s
not a problem; it only means that we guessed wrong for the direction of the current in one

R1 i1
R2

V i2
i3
i4 R5 R3

i5 R4
b

Figure 2.1: Analyzing a circuit: What are the currents i1 , i2, . . . ? What is the potential difference between
the points a and b ?

11
12 CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUITS

a b a b

(a) (b)
Figure 2.2: Hopping over an emf source E. (The positive terminal of the source is represented by the thick
bar.) (a) Going from the negative end to the positive end the change in potential is E. (b) Going from the
positive end to the negative end the change in potential is −E.

branch. It’s the same thing as drawing the arrow in the opposite direction and then getting
a positive result for that i. There is no problem as long as we watch the directions and stay
consistent.

2.1.2 Analyzing Circuits

Our circuits will contain various conducting elements connected by wires whose lengths and
orientations we can ignore. The elements of these circuits are:
• Batteries; emf Devices
These include chemical batteries and constant–voltage sources (often called “power sup-
plies”) which run from wall outlets. When a current I flows through such a device, the
energy of the charges increases at a rate

dq
P = E = Ei
dt
When, in our our analysis of a circuit we hop from the negative terminal of a battery
to the positive terminal, the potential difference is +E, where E is the rated voltage of the
device. If we have occasion to hop from the positive to the negative terminal (and we will)
there is a change in potential of −E. This is shown in Fig. 2.2.
Actually, when we figure an emf device into our circuits we are really talking about
an ideal emf device. In reality, when current I flows through an emf device there is an
increase in potential E but also a drop in potential of magnitude ir, where r is the internal
resistance of the (real) emf device.
• Resistors
The change in potential from one end to the other of a resistor R depends on the current
i; by Ohm’s Law, |E| = |iR|. But we need to watch for directions of the currents and use
the right signs when we go hopping around the circuit finding our changes in potential.
When we go from one end of a resistor R to the other end in the same direction as the
assigned current i, there is a change in potential −iR. When we go from one end to the
other against the direction of the assigned current i there is a change in potential +iR. This
is illustrated in Fig. 2.3.
2.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 13

a b a b
i i
(a) (b)
Figure 2.3: Hopping over a resistor R. (a) Going from a to b along with the assigned direction of the
current, the change in potential is −iR. (b) Going from a to b against the assigned direction of the current,
the change in potential is +iR. Note, we are not saying that i is positive here.

q -q
a C b

i
Figure 2.4: Hopping over a capacitor C in the analysis of a circuit. Going from a to b with the charge
of the capacitor q defined as shown, there is a change in potential − Cq . Charge q is related to current i by
i = dq
dt .

• Capacitors
We will encounter capacitors again when we discuss circuits where we switch on the
contact between a capacitor’s plates and a battery (with a resistance in the circuit); we will
study how the current into the plates (and the charge on the plates) changes with time.
Recall that from our old formula q = CV (that is, V = q/C) when we go from the plate
with charge q to the plate with charge −q, the change in potential is −q/C, as illustrated in
Fig. 2.4.
• Inductors
Whoa! We haven’t encountered these yet, and for the time being we won’t put them in
our circuits! We need to study magnetic fields to understand what an inductor does!
However, for the record, an inductor is a coil of wire, the potential drop across a inductor
depends on the rate of change of the current and is given by +L di dt
. L is the measure of the
property called “self–inductance” and is measured in Henrys. But we’ll get to that later on.

We use these rules for finding potential differences along with two facts:
• The sum of the potential differences taken around any closed loop in a circuit must be
zero.
• The sum of the currents entering any junction must equal the sum of the currents exiting
that junction. Then we can find all the currents if we just work hard enough.
14 CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUITS

R1 R2 R6

R4 R5
R3

(a) (b)

Figure 2.5: (a) Resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series. (b) Resistors R4 , R5 and R6 are connected
in parallel.

V V

i i

a
R1 R2 Rn
b = a
Req
b

Figure 2.6: A set of resistors R1, R2, . . . Rn connected in series has a current i common to all the resistors
and a potential drop V across the whole set. For the purposes of finding the current i, it can be treated as
a single equivalent resistor given by Req = R1 + R2 + . . . + Rn . Then V = iReq .

These rules are known as the Kirchhoff loop rule and the Kirchhoff junction rule,
respectively. It is necessary to use them when we have to analyze a circuit with multiple
loops.

2.1.3 Resistors in Series and in Parallel

Oftentimes in a circuit we have a set of resistors joined together either by connecting them
end-to-end (a series connection) or by connecting both of their ends together (a parallel
connection). The two types of connections are illustrated in Fig. 2.5.
When we have resistor combinations like these, we can take some shortcuts in our analysis
of the circuit; we can treat the set as a single equivalent resistor, at least as far as the current
entering the set is concerned.
• Series Combination
Suppose we have a set of resistors in a string, with values R1 , R2 , ...Rn ; the resistors are
joined end–to–end with no other connections made between the resistors in the string. Then
the resistors can be replaced the equivalent resistance Req given by

Req = R1 + R2 + . . . Rn (2.1)

This substitution in diagrammed in Fig. 2.6.

• Parallel Combination
2.1. THE IMPORTANT STUFF 15

i
i
a a

V R1 R2 Rn
= V Req

b b
i i

Figure 2.7: A set of resistors R1, R2 , . . . Rn connected in parallel has a potential difference V common to
all the resistors. A total current i enters and exits the combination. For the purposes of finding this current
−1
it can be treated as a single equivalent resistor given by Req = R−1 −1 −1
1 + R2 + . . . + Rn . Then V = iReq .

Suppose we have a set of resistors with values R1, R2 , ...Rn; the ends of these resistors
are joined together. Then the resistors can be replaced the equivalent resistance Req given
by
1 1 1 1
= + + ... (2.2)
Req R1 R2 Rn
This substitution in diagrammed in Fig. 2.7.
In the special case where we have only two resistors R1 and R2 in parallel, the formula
gives:
1 1 1 R1 + R2
= + =
Req R1 R2 R1 R2
so then
R1 R2
Req = (2.3)
(R1 + R2)

2.1.4 Solving Big Messy DC Circuits

Big messy DC circuits can be solved by applying the Kirchhoff rules to get a set of independent
linear equations for the unknown currents and then solving them for the currents in the
separate branches.
• In each branch of the circuits assign a current, including a direction; draw a labelled arrow
on the diagram for each current.
•
•
•
•

2.1.5 RC Circuits.
Now we have a look at a circuit in which the current is not constant. (More will follow!)
We consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.8. The circuit has a resistor R and a capacitor C
16 CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUITS

a S R

E C

Figure 2.8: RC circuit; with the switch thrown to position a the capacitor C builds up a charge. Then
with the switch thrown to b the capacitor discharges.

connected in series. Depending on whether the switch in thrown to a ro b we can include or

not include a battery with emf E is series with them.
Suppose the capacitor is initially uncharged and at time t = 0 the switch is thrown to a.
One can show that the charge on the capacitor is given by

q(t) = CE(1 − e−t/(RC) ) (2.4)

and the current in the circuit is

 
dq E
i(t) = = e−t/(RC) (2.5)
dt R
The combination RC that occurs in both of these results has units of time. We represent it
by the symbol τ :

τ = RC . (2.6)
τ is called the capacitive time constant for the circuit.
Eq. 2.4 tells us that at very “large” values of t the exponential term is very small and
so the charge q is very nearly equal to CE. This is the “full”, or equilibrium value of the
charge on the capacitor. The value of q at a time t = τ after we close the switch turns out
to be about 0.63 (i.e. 63%) of this value, so that τ gives a measure of the time required for
“most” of the equilibrium charge to collect.
Eq. 2.5 tells us that the current starts off with the value RE (the value it would have if
there were no capacitor in the circuit) and it falls off to zero at large values of t. At t = τ
the current has decreased to about 37% of its initial value.
Now when we throw the switch to position b (at t = 0) the capacitor will lose its charge
as the current goes the opposite way through the resistor (this time bypassing the battery).
One can show that the charge on the capacitor is given by

q(t) = q0 e−t/(RC) (2.7)

2.2. WORKED EXAMPLES 17

where q0 was the charge on the capacitor when the switch was thrown to b. The current in
the circuit is now:  
dq q0
i(t) = =− e−t/(RC) (2.8)
dt RC
(note, the minus sign tell us that the current flows the opposite way from the direction it
had when C was charging).

2.2 Worked Examples

2.2.1 Analyzing Circuits
2.2.2 Resistors in Series and in Parallel
2.2.3 Solving Big Messy DC Circuits
2.2.4 RC Circuits.
18 CHAPTER 2. DC CIRCUITS
Chapter 3

Magnetic Fields – Forces

3.1 The Important Stuff

3.1.1 Magnetic Fields
Just as a charge q experiences a force F = qE from an electric field E (whether or not it is in
motion), a moving charge q will experience a new kind of force if it is moving in a magnetic
field.
The magnetic field is given the symbol B, and like the electric field, it is a vector field,
that is, at each point in space its value is specified by giving its three components (or by
its direction and magnitude). As with electric fields, we can get a useful overall picture of a
magnetic field by showing magnetic field lines; these give the direction of the B field at each
point but not the magnitude.
The magnetic field B is measured in tesla; more on that in the next section.

3.1.2 Magnetic Force on a Moving Point Charge.

When a point charge q moves with velocity v in a magnetic field B, it experiences a force
which is proportional to both the charge’s speed and the magnitude of the field, but the
direction of the force is perpendicular to both v and B. Furthermore, for a nonzero force, B
must have a component perpendicular to v; if the velocity is parallel to B there is no force.
If the angle between v and B is θ, then the magnitude of the magnetic force is

F = |q|vB sin θ

and the direction of the force is given by the right hand rule: Point your four fingers in
the direction of v and let them sweep (bend) from v to B. Then your thumb points in the
direction of the force F, if q is positive. If q is negative, F points in the opposite direction.
The force law given above is neatly expressed using the cross product:

F = qv × B (3.1)

19
20 CHAPTER 3. MAGNETIC FIELDS – FORCES

As mentioned above, the magnetic field is measured in Tesla1 .

3.1.3 Circular Motion of Particles in Magnetic Fields

If a particle enters a uniform magnetic field having a velocity perpendicular to the direction
of the field it will undergo circular motion; the centripetal force is provided by the magnetic
force.
Recall that a particle undergoes circular motion because there is a force pulling it toward
the center of the circle. The centripetal force is perpendicular to the velocity and has
magnitude mv 2/r where r is the radius of the circle. Here, the centripetal force is supplied
by the magnetic force; since the velocity is perpendicular to the field, the magnetic force has
magnitude qvB, where q is he absolute value of the charge of the particle. Equating the two
expressions and cancelling a factor of v gives:
mv
qB = (3.2)
r

3.2 Worked Examples

1
Named in honor of the. . . uh. . . Swedish physicist Jim Tesla (1935–2021) who did some electrical experi-
ments in. . . um. . . Zürich. That’s it, Zürich.
Appendix A: Useful Numbers

Conversion Factors

Length cm meter km in ft mi
1 cm = 1 10−2 10−5 0.3937 3.281 × 10−2 6.214 × 10−6
1m = 100 1 10−3 39.37 3.281 6.214 × 10−4
1 km = 105 1000 1 3.937 × 104 3281 06214
1 in = 2.540 2.540 × 10−2 2.540 × 10−5 1 8.333 × 10−2 1.578 × 10−5
1 ft = 30.48 0.3048 3.048 × 10−4 12 1 1.894 × 10−4
1 mi = 1.609 × 105 1609 1.609 6.336 × 104 5280 1

Mass g kg slug u
1g = 1 0.001 6.852 × 10−2 6.022 × 1026
1 kg = 1000 1 6.852 × 10−5 6.022 × 1023
1 slug = 1.459 × 104 14.59 1 8.786 × 1027
1u = 1.661 × 10−24 1.661 × 10−27 1.138 × 10−28 1

An object with a weight of 1 lb has a mass of 0.4536 kg.

Constants:

e = 1.6022 × 10−19 C = 4.8032 × 10−10 esu

C2
0 = 8.85419 × 10−12 N·m 2
2
k = 1/(4π0 ) = 8.9876 × 109 N·m
C2
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 AN2 = 1.2566 × 10−6 N
A2
melectron = 9.1094 × 10−31 kg
mproton = 1.6726 × 10−27 kg
c = 2.9979 × 108 ms
NA = 6.0221 × 1023 mol−1

21