 Telephone system  Video Audio System

 Data System  Bell/Horn

 Sound System  Advertising
 Public address  Master o'clock
 TV System  Gate barrier
 CCTV  Door Opening
 Nurse Call  Intrusion
 Fire Alarm  Master Program
 Intercome & Interphone  Security systems
 Attendance  Access Control
SIGNAL SYSTEMS (Low voltage / low current systems)
INTRODUCTION
NO AREA OF EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND application in buildings has seen such rapid and sustained
changes as that of signal equipment. Signal equipment encompasses all communication and control
equipment, the function of which is to assist in ensuring proper building operation.
Included are: surveillance equipment such as that for fire and access control; audio and visual
communication equipment such as telephone, intercom, and television (both public and closed-
circuit); and timing devices such as clock and program equipment and all types of time-based
controls. Specifically excepted is the area of occupants’ data processing, which is not within the
province of the building designer, except for equipment space allocations.
Clock and program equipment, which once was limited to schools and some industrial facilities, is
now incorporated into building mechanical equipment control systems. Closed-circuit TV, which
once was limited to classroom and college use, is now commonplace in mercantile area surveillance
systems.
The hundreds of signals generated throughout a large facility are logged, channeled, and
controlled by means of specially programmed computers and microprocessors. Signal systems that
once were separate and distinct are now frequently combined and serve multiple purposes.
A detailed study of the design and application of such diverse equipment is beyond the scope of
this course however, discusses the basic operation of the various systems, some of the equipment
available, its application to different types of facilities, and the impact of these systems on building
spaces.
The types of facilities considered are single and multiple residences, schools, stores, office
buildings, and industrial facilities. Hospitals and laboratories are combinations of these types, but
they are too highly specialized to be discussed here.
4
PRIVATE RESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS
GENERAL INFORMATION
Modern private residences utilize a variety of signal devices that greatly enhance their functional value.
Indeed, automation in residences, which includes control of and by a host of signal systems, is today a
key factor in perceived property value. Figure 30.3 shows a conventional, nonautomated residential
plan providing what would be considered minimally adequate sound and signal equipment.
In general, all signal systems require a signal source; equipment to process the signal, including
transmitting it; and finally, a means of indicating the signal, whether audibly, visually, or on a
permanent hard copy. A complex system still falls into this threefold category except that the individual
items of equipment and their functions become more sophisticated. Most designers are familiar with
the sophisticated automated systems available in the residential market that handle security, fire
alarm, time functions, lighting, and so on.
They function on dedicated wiring, control bus, or power line carrier (PLC) signals (high-frequency
signals impressed on electric power wiring). To focus on the basics, the following descriptions consider
such systems separately, despite the clear trend toward consolidated control.
Table 30.1 lists the systems and equipment found in the residence shown in Fig. 30.3 by the functions of
source, processing, and indication. Note that the fire alarm, smoke detection, and intrusion alarm
systems have been combined into a single system. This simplifies operation and avoids unnecessary
equipment duplication. As the more complex systems are discussed, it will be seen that the basic
functions remain unchanged.
As shown in Fig. 30.3, a single control panel can serve multiple residential systems. An annunciator,
either integral with the panel or in a separate adjacent enclosure, displays the nature and location of
the alarm device that has “tripped.” A riser diagram for this residence is shown in Fig. 30.3d. The alarm
devices themselves are not shown on the riser because they appear on the plans.
5
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7
8
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RESIDENTIAL INTRUSION ALARM SYSTEMS
Although any or all of the devices described above may be used, residences normally utilize door and
window magnetic switches, as well as PIR and/or motion detectors, as shown in Fig. 30.3. A switch
at the end of a long cord is also often provided so that a resident may set off the alarm manually if
an intruder is heard. If the system employs the same audible signal devices as the fire system, the
resulting sound should be distinctive so that the nature of the alarm can be discerned aurally.
Intrusion alarm systems can be continuously supervised by connection with central stations of
security companies that supervise the system and either respond directly to an
alarm call or notify local police of any illegal entry.
RESIDENTIAL INTERCOM SYSTEMS
Interest in home intercom systems seems to come and go. Although available with various features,
a basic intercom system comprises one or more masters and several remote stations, one of which
monitors the front door, allowing it to be answered from various points within the home. Where
desired, a closed-circuit TV system can be added so that visual identification at entrances, in
addition to voice communication, is available. In general, master stations allow selective calling,
whereas remote stations operating through the masters are
nonselective. The systems are particularly useful when left in the open (monitor) position for remote
“baby-sitting.” The applicability of such systems to residences with outbuildings should be apparent.
As the wiring is low voltage and low power, multiconductor color-coded intercom cable is generally
used, run concealed within walls, attics, and basements.
Systems are also available that impose voice signals on the house power wiring. This has the
advantage of eliminating separate wiring and making remote stations portable—they are connected
simply by plugging into a power outlet.
11
RESIDENTIAL TELECOMMUNICATION AND DATA SYSTEMS
Prior to court decisions permitting users to install their own telephone equipment, the actual wiring
within a structure was done only by the utility in the user’s raceway system. For some years now,
work beyond the service entrance may be done by the owner in a fashion similar to other signal
work. In residential work, the telephone company normally follows the route of the electric service,
entering the building overhead or underground as
desired. In both cases, a separate service entrance means must be provided: if aerial, a sleeve
through the wall; if underground, a separate entrance conduit.
Unless a residence has many entering lines, no source of power is required for the telephone
equipment.
Wiring of telephone instruments after completion of a residence requires a surface-mounted cable
that, even if skillfully installed, is unsightly at best and is usually completely objectionable.
Prewiring consists of running the cables within the wall framing and into empty device boxes to
which instruments are later connected. The huge increase in the number of private residences with
multiple phone lines, dedicated fax lines, and special high-speed data transfer lines connected to
home office outlets has made telephone planning as much of a necessity
as planning for any other system. This is not only true where residences are designed with a
dedicated working-office space. The ease with which modern telecommunications has made it
possible to work at home is resulting in an exponential increase in work-at-home situations. Failure
to provide for multiple lines with adequate distribution is improper planning. In this regard, a locally
franchised telephone company’s technical representative can offer valuable planning advice. The
system of raceways, boxes, and outlets dedicated to communications systems of all sorts, generally
excluding audio signals, has come to be known as premise wiring.
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PREMISE WIRING
As noted in Section 30.6, premise wiring refers generally to communication
system wiring, including raceways and outlets, and, paradoxically, frequently
not including wiring. The “wiring” is installed by the various communication
contractors and includes fiber-optic (FO) cabling under the category of wiring,
despite the fact that wiring is traditionally understood to be metallic. The use
of FO cables for most data cabling will undoubtedly
increase in the near future because of their proven advantages in bandwidth,
freedom from interference, and high-level security.
Most premise wiring raceways are surface mounted because access is
frequently required and because data cables are often preterminated, making
it difficult to pull them into recessed raceways. Finally, premise wiring
raceways are usually large, and as such are much easier and more economical
to install as surface-mounted units. Figures 30.4 and 30.5 show a few of the
hundreds of devices and raceways used in premise wiring, also referred to as
wire management.

13
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15
MULTIPLE-DWELLING SYSTEMS
MULTIPLE-DWELLING ENTRY AND SECURITY SYSTEMS
Apartment houses and other large residential buildings often combine the functions of
access control with the familiar lobby-to-apartment communication system. The most
basic system is a series of pushbuttons in the lobby and an intercom speaker or telephone
with which to communicate with residents.
At the other end, the tenant has a speaker microphone plus a lobby door-opener button.
This system can also be arranged to utilize the tenants’ regular telephones. When the
number of occupants is large, an alphabetical roster is added to the apartment-button
panel to avoid the nuisance of scanning all the apartment names when the sought party’s
apartment number is not known. When the number is larger yet, a simple pushbutton per
apartment arrangement becomes cumbersome, and is usually replaced by an alphabetical
tenant register plus a dial or button phone. Closed-circuit television is frequently added
to the lobby system, enabling the occupant not only to converse with, but also see, the
caller. Such a system increases the electrical contract cost for an average apartment
house by 5% to 7%.

16
In addition to the security provisions provided by apartment-to-
lobby audio and video connections, additional security and alarm
devices are often used, such as emergency call buttons within the
apartments. These perform alarm functions required to deal with an
intruder who manages to bypass the lobby security system.
In geriatric housing units, these buttons typically unlock the
apartment door to allow helpers to enter if summoned by lights and
alarms. In luxury apartment buildings, apartment doors can be
monitored from a central security desk and any unscheduled door
movement be subject to immediate investigation. These systems are
custom-designed to meet the needs and requirements of the owner.
A security problem applicable to all facilities, including residential
ones, involves limiting entry to unsupervised areas to authorized
persons (i.e., access control).

17
The problems with keys and locks are well known, despite advances in that
field. More sophisticated means include magnetic cards and electronic
combination locks, which, because of the ease of code changes, are
particularly useful in residential facilities that cater to transients.
Another aspect of security that is particularly appropriate to housing for the
elderly and handicapped, although applicable to all housing installations, is
the emergency call system. The purpose of this system is to alert outsiders to
an emergency situation inside a closed apartment. This alarm system is
essentially a way to call for help in time of illness or other distress. Many
construction and housing codes include descriptions of the required
equipment. Most often they prescribe a call initiation button in each bedroom
and bathroom that will register an audible (alarm) and visible (annunciated)
signal at a location that is monitored, locally or remotely, 24 hours a day.
Additional signals are required in the floor corridor and at the apartment, the
purpose of which is to alert immediate neighbors to a distress call.

18
MULTIPLE-DWELLING TELEVISION SYSTEMS
All modern multiple-dwelling residences supply each room with one or more
TV/FM jack outlets.
The TV jack may supply “house” signals from a rooftop satellite dish or cable
TV. As these systems are always subcontracted, the design requirements in
new construction include a system of empty conduits connecting to cable-
pulling-points in cabinets.
Raceways should be sized liberally because of the constant expansion of
options in the electronic entertainment field. As pointed out previously, the
ideal raceway for signal cabling is 100% accessible (i.e., a surface-mounted
raceway with a removable cover). However, the unsightliness of this solution
plus the fact that, for most cabling, concealed raceways are adequate, leads
to their rare use in new work. In low-budget construction, only floor and
wall sleeves are supplied, and coaxial cables are run exposed in residential
spaces. The cable contractor
arranges for the electric power needed for any local amplification. Normally,
a 15-A dedicated circuit is sufficient.
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MULTIPLE-DWELLING TELEPHONE SYSTEMS
As in the small residence, telephone service normally follows the same entrance path and
method of entrance as the electric power service. For the sake of economy in
underground construction, the two services often share the same trench, although in
different raceways, and utilize twin manholes where these are required. Typical entrance
arrangements for any large building, residential or other, are shown in Fig. 30.6.
The service entrance space requirements vary with the size of the building and the
telephone capacity. For a small apartment house of the garden or three-story type, a
clear wall space of 4 to 6 ft (1.2 to 1.8 m) is sufficient. A terminal (equipment) room is
required only in large buildings. The telephone system is one part of the overall
telecommunications system in most modern residences, preparations for which fall into
the premise wiring area discussed previously.
Therefore, generalizations are not useful, and planning must consider the type of
occupancy and future requirements. Rental apartment buildings and dormitories differ
from commercial structures in that the layouts of all floors are similar, so that the
arrangement of risers is relatively simple. It is common practice to utilize cable only in
risers that extend through vertically aligned closets in apartments. To accommodate these
cables, sleeves through the floor between closets are necessary.

20
If a riser is located in a shaft other than a closet, conduit is normally
utilized to allow for easy installation, protection, and repair.
can normally be prewired entirely without conduit or with only a few
short sleeves. In condominium and coop structures, large raceways
are run between the service entrance point to cabinets on each floor
of the building. From terminal devices in these cabinets, the
required service can be extended into each apartment. Prewiring of
the apartment avoids the unsightliness of exposed cabling or of
cabling within surface raceways. If the location is accessible, as in an
alcove, only a sleeve is provided. When the riser is located outside
the apartment, each dwelling unit is connected to the riser by a
conduit with a junction box at either end. Beyond the apartment
service point, the individual rooms

21
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HOTELS AND MOTELS
(a) Security
Because of the transient population of these facilities and the need to provide maximum service and
security to guests during their stay, the principal problem in addition to room access security is hotel
equipment security (i.e., prevention of what is euphemistically known as shrinkage).
1. Room access security. The ineffectiveness of key locks in preventing undesired entry (even in
private homes) is well known; in hotels, a key is little more than a psychological barrier. As a result,
most modern hotels have installed electronic room locks whose opening device code is changed with
every new guest. These locks may be of the coded pushbutton type, with changeable coding
accomplished only from a central lock-security console; a magnetically or punched-hole coded-card
type (Fig. 30.7); or a programmable electronic lock and coded-key
type (Fig. 30.8). All of these systems have relative advantages and disadvantages, depending upon the
number of rooms, whether the installation is new construction or retrofit, and the average length of
the guest stay.
2. Equipment security. Expectations for amenities require that guest rooms be equipped with a
television and possibly a DVD player; meeting rooms with TV, DVD and/or VCR, projectors, and
computer terminals; and that these and other devices be made available for guest use either as part
of the room fee or on a rental basis. Theft control is a consultant specialty on its own and is beyond
the scope of this book. One such system (equally applicable to equipment in hotels, schools, office
buildings, and industrial facilities) senses the disconnection of equipment from its power connection
(wall plug) and transmits an alarm over the power lines to an annunciator at a selected control
location. This arrangement has the advantage of alarming immediately on equipment removal, thus
normally permitting appropriate retrieval action to be taken in time.
23
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(b)Telecommunication, Data
The telephone and data communication system in large
modern hotels is important and complex.
Hotels catering to businesspersons must provide access to the
Internet that can be used at the very least in rooms dedicated
to that purpose and, almost universally today, in guest rooms
as well. Therefore, the building designer must provide
adequate raceway (and cabling) facilities. The current
practice of holding business meetings and technical
conferences in hotels also requires that conference and
meeting rooms be arranged for very heavy concentrations of
electronic equipment that can be installed and rearranged in
short order. This may call for some sort of access floor and
modular cabling.
25
SCHOOL SYSTEMS
GENERAL INFORMATION
The proper operation of a modern school requires that flexible and efficient
signal and communications equipment be available to the administrative and
teaching staff. Such equipment, engineered to meet the needs of the
individual institution, can improve utilization of staff and student time.
SCHOOL SECURITY SYSTEMS
Although intrusion alarms and security systems are not historical school
requirements, this situation has unfortunately changed. Sensing devices on
doors and windows can be arranged both to trip local alarm devices and, via
auxiliary circuits, to notify police headquarters. Often, vandals can be
frightened off by having the alarm system actuate a protective lighting
system that illuminates the building exterior and any desired interior areas,
such as record rooms. A perimeter alarm detection system of the types
described above can be installed in particularly vandalism-prone areas to
assist in preventing entry to school premises after hours. Although expensive,
they are very frequently cost-effective.
.
26
n exit-control alarm is a type of exterior door security device
applicable to schools (and other facilities) with doors that are locked
from the outside but that must be open able from the inside in the
event of an emergency. This device (Fig. 30.9) alarms as desired (i.e.,
audibly or visually, locally or remotely) when a monitored door is
opened. It is normally equipped with a timed bypass that allows
authorized personnel to key-operate
operate the bypass but prevents the door
from being held open without alarming. One model of door-opener
alarm requires
a continuous pressure on the door-opening bar for 10 to 20 seconds
before the door opens, with the alarm being activated immediately
on application of pressure. This arrangement (usable only where fire
codes permit) allows sufficient time for the facility’s staff to
investigate an attempted exit before the door opens, and is
applicable only where exit control is the overriding consideration
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SCHOOL CLOCK AND PROGRAM SYSTEMS
The clock system and the program system were once separate and distinct, sharing only the
timekeeping facilities provided by a master clock. Now that electromechanical programming devices
are effectively obsolete, the two systems are actually one, but the traditional two-system name
remains. As shown in Fig. 30.10, the heart of the system is the time base (electronic clock). This is
the same device that provides timing for all programmable switches and controllers. In a clock and
program device, it controls clock signals, audible devices, and, if desired, other switching functions.
The clock system may use analog clocks (with hands), digital units, or both. The former are usually
locally powered, and a correction signal is periodically transmitted via dedicated wiring from the
master clock at the controller. This same controller continuously transmits a binary-coded signal to
digital “satellite” clocks, which can be either of the self-illuminated light-emitting diode (LED) type
or of the liquid crystal display (LCD) type. LCD units are easily visible only in high ambient
illumination and when viewed directly (not at an acute angle). LED units are best applied in areas of
low ambient illuminance. Large-face analog clocks are easily visible in all ambient light situations.
The programming function of the controller serves to delineate audibly the various time periods into
which the school day and week are divided. A single-circuit unit is utilized in an institution that
operates entirely on one schedule, such as an elementary school on a morning period-lunch
afternoon period regimen. For a school employing different schedules for its various parts, the
controller can provide multiple program schedules on different circuits, depending upon its design.
Controllers are user-programmable and are normally provided with a crystal-controlled master clock
to ensure accurate timekeeping regardless of line frequency variation, a backup power source to
maintain user programming and master clock local display, and various conveniences such as daylight
saving time correction, security arrangements, event timers, and so on.
29
If desired, the clock and program controllers can also be used for mechanical system control by the
simple expedient of adding relays and switching devices, as shown in Fig. 30.10. Typical clock and
program controllers are shown in Figs. 30.11 and 30.12.
The audible devices in a program system may be bells, gongs, buzzers, horns, or a tone reproduced
on a classroom loudspeaker. The last system has the following advantages:
1. Clear audibility in each classroom, with an adjustable volume to
accommodate both quiet and noisy areas.
2. No possibility of confusion between the program tone and other
signals such as fire alarm gongs.
3. Multiple use of the speaker unit for classroom sounds as well as
program tones.
4. Complete flexibility of programming that is not possible with hall
gongs. This is particularly desirable in schools with special programs for
particular groups of students.

30
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SCHOOL INTERCOM SYSTEMS
Various types of intercom systems are available, depending on the needs of the school
building involved. In small schools, a simple wired intercom system connecting the various
offices is usually sufficient. This is supplemented by outside telephones in the
administrative offices and a functional paging system that is normally part of the school’s
sound system. With larger buildings and correspondingly larger numbers of extensions and
multiple-function demands, more sophisticated equipment is required. The unit
illustrated in Fig. 30.13 is typical of modern school intercom equipment and is actually a
private telephone system with considerable flexibility. Such a system is generally
interfaced with the school sound system and may provide these functions:
1. Intercom between staff members and offices
2. Direct communication with classrooms, including selective and all-call capability
3. Paging zone, group call, and conference call functions
4. Interconnection with the outside phone system
5. Class-change signals via interface with the master clock system
6. School intercomputer communication via modems
A combination program/intercom controller is shown in Fig. 30.14. These systems use
direct pushbutton dialing and programming, thus eliminating the need for switchboards
and operators. All stations are coded with three-digit codes, and all switching is solid-
state, minimizing maintenance problems. Such systems are adequate for all but the
largest institutions.
32
SCHOOL SOUND SYSTEMS
An integrated sound-paging-radio system designed for school use offers several modes of operation
and considerable flexibility. Its function is to provide a means for distributing signals from recordings
(CDs, DVDs, tapes), broadcasts (AM/FM), or live sound to preselected areas of the school. Thus, a
simple system might provide a CD player and single microphone input and a single channel to all the
speakers in the school, whereas a complex system can be arranged to operate with three
simultaneous input signals distributed to six different areas of the school (see Fig. 30.14).
A conventional system consists of a control console containing most of the input units, amplifiers,
switching devices, and connections to the remote loudspeakers. The input units may comprise one or
more AM/FM tuners, a VCR, CD/DVD player, tape deck, and microphones. One microphone is normally
located at the console, with others in the principal’s office, auditorium, school office, or other
selected locations. If desired, microphone outlets can be spotted around the school and a spare
microphone and stand supplied that can be plugged in at any of these points (Fig. 30.15).
Loudspeakers, located in classrooms, gymnasium, auditorium, cafeteria, and outdoors, receive the
amplified signal through the switching mechanisms located in the console. The function of these
switches is to deliver the program material to the various loudspeaker circuits, called program lines.
Thus, using a system with multiple amplifiers, music can be piped to the cafeteria, an educational
broadcast program to selected classrooms, and instructions to an outdoor gym class or team during
practice. An all-call feature also allows announcements to reach all speakers in the system
simultaneously.
The intercom system discussed previously can be interconnected with the sound system to allow
conversation between classrooms and the console or other points. A small system can be contained in
a compact desktop console (see Fig. 30.14).
33
34
A large system frequently requires a separate console. A console is usually built in a desk
arrangement, and it is advisable to provide sufficient space for it and for the person who operates it.
Often an alcove of 30 to 50 ft2 (2.8 to 4.7 m2) is reserved for it and a library of recordings.
Loudspeakers may be placed flush or in surface baffles at the discretion of the designer. Gymnasium,
cafeteria, and auditorium units are normally flush-mounted in the ceiling. For such large areas, it is
well to provide a volume control, enclosed in a recessed wall box with a locking cover. A common
variation of this system uses separate subsystems for the cafeteria, auditorium, ball field, and other
areas that utilize sound equipment frequently.
These smaller systems have their own input, amplification, and control devices but utilize speakers
in common with the central console. Normally, the console has an override feature that allows it to
override local systems.

SCHOOL ELECTRONIC TEACHING EQUIPMENT

This area of technology, like so many others that utilize computers, is growing and changing so
rapidly that almost anything written on it is immediately out of date. This section simply outlines
present and projected near-future uses of electronic teaching equipment. Figure 30.16 shows in
block diagram form the arrangements possible with current technology.
(a) Passive-Mode Usage
This category encompasses all recorded material, in whatever form, that is available to the student
via some form of information retrieval technique. This includes printed, audio, and video material in
conventional and electronic library forms.

35
(b) Interactive Mode
Here students use a computer teaching terminal interactively to study at their own pace on a one to
one basis, with the computer acting as a tutor.
Modern teaching programs sense the students’ weak points (as do good teachers) and emphasize
them in teaching. The building designer must be aware of the rapid developments in this field at all
educational levels, including elementary school, in order to make adequate electric power, cable
raceway, lighting, and HVAC provisions.

36
OFFICE BUILDING SYSTEMS
GENERAL INFORMATION
This building category addresses systems found in all office, professional, and sales-type buildings.
Such buildings house tenants with varying schedules and requirements. This must be considered in
the design of the signal and communications systems for such buildings.
Although in many medium-sized and large buildings the various control, alarm, and security
functions are combined in multiuse apparatus and consoles (discussed later in the chapter), the
basic systems are essentially separate despite having shared-use equipment. They are discussed
individually to demonstrate function and equipment, and then as combined to show economies and
modern practice.
30.19 OFFICE BUILDING SECURITY
SYSTEMS
Although automatic surveillance systems are applicable to office and mercantile occupancies, they
are more frequently found in industrial facilities and are discussed under that heading. Office
buildings normally utilize some type of manual watchman’s tour system so that surveillance of
unoccupied areas is conducted on a regular basis.
The simplest type is nonelectric and comprises a number of small cabinets, each containing a key,
placed at intervals around the interior and exterior of the building. The watchman uses these keys
to operate a special clock that he carries about, thus recording the exact time at which he “clocked
in” at any specific location. Alternatively, the clock is wall-mounted and the guard carries only a key
(Fig. 30.17). A computerized version of this system is available that simplifies station check-in,
automatically records guard visit data, and provides a hard-copy printout.

37
38
Guard tour systems are also available that permit constant supervision and are particularly effective
where more than one person is on duty. Such systems show on a panel the location and progress of
the watchman by means of lights that glow when the device at each location is operated. Because
part of the effectiveness of these systems lies in the timing of the tour, a system can be arranged to
sound an alarm if a particular station is not operated within a specific time period. Telephone jacks
spaced at points along the guard’s route allow the guard to communicate with the supervising office
or other point without interrupting the scheduled tour. For protection of areas housing extremely
valuable items or documents, an intrusion alarm system may be employed.
30.20 OFFICE BUILDING
COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS
Planning for this type of system requires considering four functions, which are frequently melded
into a single network:
1. Intraoffice voice communication, or intercom (Fig. 30.18)
2. Interoffice and intraoffice data communication using telephone and communication cabling 3.
Outside-the-building communication via telephone company (or data) lines

39
4. Paging function
Today, in most locations, the user has the choice of purchasing or leasing as much of the system
as is desired. In other words, the communication system, including cables, instruments, switching
equipment, and so on, can be all privately owned all supplied by the local telephone company, or
acquired in almost any other arrangement desired.
Except for a small interoffice intercom, however, duplication is eliminated—that is, the same
instruments and switching equipment are used for both intercom and outside connection.
What to buy, rent, or lease constitutes an economic decision because the required functions are
satisfied by either private or telephone company equipment.

OFFICE BUILDING COMMUNICATIONS PLANNING

Planning for the telephone and other communications equipment in an office building is of prime
importance because of the large amounts and critical locations of required space. Therefore, it
must be done simultaneously with other space planning.
Exact requirements for office space are generally unknown at the time of design, and even if they
were known, planning would have to account for changes in space usage as well as increased
communications and data transmission services. For this reason, all planning is based on usable
office area. Planning is essentially focused upon spaces, from incoming service space to final
instrument locations, because cabling and equipment are furnished and installed either by a
private telephone equipment supplier or by the telephone company.

40
The planning information that follows is applicable to office buildings with average telephone and data
transmission loads. Buildings whose tenants include brokerage houses, insurance companies,
headquarters of multibranch operations, and other heavy telephone and data transmission users may
need more space. Advances in technology, however, including the use of FO cables, act to reduce
equipment size and space requirements.
As a result, the best course of action is to design for current requirements with a reasonable estimate
for future needs and technologies based upon advice from experts in the field.
Space is required for:
Service Entrance
At least two 4- or 5-in. (100- or 125-mm) conduits extend from the exterior service connection to the
basement or ground floor service equipment room.
One conduit will contain the service (network) cable; the other(s) is a spare. Spare conduits should be
terminated 12 in. (300 mm) above the finished floor (AFF) of the equipment room, in a threaded fitting,
and sealed against entrance of dirt, moisture, or rodents. The service entrance cable terminates in a
splice box or cabinet, from which, in large buildings, additional cables extend to one or more wall
cabinets, each measuring about 3 ft wide, 6 ft high, and 2 ft deep (0.9 × 1.8 × 0.6 m). Each cabinet can
serve a maximum of 30,000 to 100,000 ft2 (2790 to 9290 m2) of tenant area, depending upon the
density of service required. To accommodate these cabinets from which risers extend, a clear wall
space of 6 ft (1.8 m) for every cabinet should be provided.

41
This wall area should be covered with ¾-in. (20-mm) marine plywood for
cabinet mounting. A 1-in. (25-mm) PVC conduit should extend between
cabinets from a suitable electrical system ground point, with a ground wire
sized according to telephone company requirements. The room should be
dry, ventilated, well lighted for close work in wiring and color recognition,
and supplied with at least two 20-A duplex convenience outlets on a separate
circuit.
In the event that additional connection, switching, or communication
equipment is required, the project electrical engineer should obtain the
equipment size and electrical requirements, provide
the necessary space requirements to the architect, and design the electrical
elements. In large equipment rooms, circulation and egress must be
considered, as well as emergency light and power.

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Riser Shafts
These accept the cables extending beyond the equipment room and carry them vertically through
the building. Connection from the wall cabinets in the equipment room up to the riser shaft should
preferably be in conduit.
The riser shafts provide means for the cables to extend vertically and terminate at each floor.
Ideally, the riser spaces comprise a series of vertically aligned closets connected by ½- or 4-in. (12-
or 100-mm) sleeves set in the floors and extending 1 in. (25 mm) above the floor. Sleeves are
preferable to slots because they can easily be sealed and fireproofed; slots cannot. A minimum of
four 4-in. (100-mm) conduit sleeves should be installed between closets vertically, plus an
additional 4-in. (100-mm) sleeve for every additional 50,000 ft2 (4645 m2) of office space to be
served. It is preferable to separate communications closets from electrical power closets. Where
multiple risers are used, shafts should be interconnected by several 2-in. (50-mm) conduits to allow
for interconnection of systems.
Riser cables are also known as backbone cables.

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(c) Riser Closets
Here, cables from the riser system are interconnected to switching and power
equipment, as well as to the cables that radiate from the closet to station
locations throughout the floor area. These closets may also be called zone
closets or apparatus closets, particularly if they function with an under floor
raceway system. The walls of the closet should be lined with plywood at least
¾ in. (20 mm) thick to support the weight of switching and connection
panels, power equipment, terminals, connecting blocks, and other hardware.
Each riser (apparatus) closet must be provided with a switched ceiling light
and a separate 20-A, 120-V circuit with two duplex receptacles. A source of
emergency power is desirable to avoid curtailment of telephone service
during power outages.
Riser closets should preferably have a minimum net area of 20 ft2 (2 m2) and
a minimum clear wall of 5 ft (1.5 m) for cabinet mounting. Each closet can
supply telecommunication service for 8000 to 10,000 ft2 (740 to 930 m2) of
floor area. Telephone equipment being utilized should not be more than 250
ft (75 m) from a closet.

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Satellite Closets
Unlike riser (apparatus) closets, satellite closets do not contain switching and power equipment.
Their primary use is to provide cable-connecting and -terminating facilities in large, complex
facilities, where riser closet space is insufficient.
(e) Auxiliary Equipment Rooms
Where extensive cross-connection is required or tenants utilize private switchboard (PBX)
equipment, the required equipment is placed in a relatively small auxiliary equipment room.
These spaces, which are actually small closets or alcoves, should contain a 20- to 30-A,
2P, 120/208-V circuit, a 20-A, 120-V outlet, a grounding point, good lighting, and sufficient
equipment space. Space requirements vary with each installation and can be obtained from the
equipment supplier. Ventilation is essential, as is absorptive acoustic material on the ceiling and at
least one wall. Connections between these spaces and other communication equipment closets
should be via floor or ceiling ducts or multiple ½-in. (12-mm) conduits.
(f) Horizontal Distribution
Cabling from riser, satellite, apparatus, and equipment closets to individual outlets and instruments
can be run underfloor, in ceilings and plenum spaces, under-carpet, or in surface raceways.
Because of the large raceway volumes required, conduit is infrequently used. When underfloor
raceways are used, a header capacity of 2 in.2(1290 mm2) per workstation is reasonable, based
on one multiline telephone and one video display unit per station.

46
(g) FO Cables
Fiber-optic (FO) cables are used in lieu of copper cabling in installations with very heavy
data transmission loads, in those using video systems, and/or in applications for which
the high-security,
low-noise, and broad-bandwidth characteristics of FO are necessary or desirable.
Information on space requirements and connection accessories can be obtained from
manufacturers. Because
cables are often supplied with factory-applied terminations, raceways must be of the
large-capacity, full-access type.

OFFICE BUILDING CONTROL AND AUTOMATION SYSTEMS

As mechanical and electrical systems in modern office buildings increased in complexity,
the need arose for central point of supervision, control, and data collection. This
provides a single locale from which to survey and control an entire building’s
functioning, plus increased opportunities for automation.
From a supervisory location, water, air-conditioning, heating, ventilating, electrical, and
other systems can be controlled with accuracy and convenience. Data on temperatures,
pressures, flow, current, voltage, and the many other parameters of mechanical and
electrical systems can be made available instantly so that operational decisions can be
made and automated

47
All systems can be monitored centrally and all alarms instantly and automatically acted upon.
Such supervisory control centers are now installed as a matter of course in office buildings. They
are equipped with computers that process the data received to make operational decisions
intended to optimize system performance. As a result, they can provide a considerable savings in
operating and maintenance costs. These systems in their most generalized form are referred to as
building automation systems (BAS) and are discussed at length in Sections 30.26 to 30.31.
Architecturally, the spaces housing BAS centers require good lighting, good ventilation, and
extensive raceway space but little area. Because systems are custom-tailored to a specific
building, no guidelines can be stated for space requirements.
INDUSTRIAL BUILDING SYSTEMS.

GENERAL INFORMATION
All industrial facilities, ranging from a loft housing a small hand-assembly plant to an immense
steel manufacturing plant, require a variety of signal and communication equipment. Fire alarm
systems for industrial buildings are discussed in Chapter 24.
Audible alarms for building security in any industrial facility must be selected with the likelihood
of high ambient noise levels in mind. See Figs. 30.20 and 30.21 for recommendations.

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INDUSTRIAL BUILDING PERSONNEL ACCESS CONTROL

The design and engineering of personnel access control systems is a specialty

that has burgeoned sincethe late 1980s and is now an independent profession.
The increasingly diverse variety of identification technologies, plus the control
and supervisory capabilities of computers, has greatly enhanced the access
control capabilities of even a relatively small system.
As a result, this section does not attempt to discuss system design, but
focuses instead upon the operation and application of the subsystems that
comprise the whole.
The traditional access control question was always “Who is permitted to pass
through a specific portal?” The means by which identification is made to
answer this question varies with the importance of access control at that
portal. Thus, entrance to a large, multipurpose space used by many people

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must be rapid and must avoid the delay engendered by a physical barrier. One means commonly used is
one or more guards who visually and in relatively cursory fashion inspect a badge with an ID photo.
The next level of supervised, barrier-free access control may be a “turnstile” that requires
presentation of an access card to an electronic proximity reader.
One such unit is illustrated in Fig. 30.22. This type of barrier is limited to a maximum pass-through
rate of about one person per second.
Because these two control methods are generally barrier-free, the action taken on alarm is to activate
physical barriers and sound the appropriate alarms.
When a physical access barrier is involved, passage is slow, depending only partly on the identification
process. Even with the most rapid electronic identification, a door or other portal closure must be
physically released and operated, which can be very time-consuming. In the particular example shown
in Fig. 30.23, the identification process is very time-consuming as well, because itinvolves human
intervention.
Unattended physical barriers can be released by a multitude of differing identification technologies,
depending upon the required level of scrutiny.
At the lower end of the security scale are barriers that require some embedded knowledge and/or
inspect an object presented by the user, such as a magnetic, bar-coded, or proximity-reader card
(Fig. 30.24). Because locks can be controlled electronically and remotely, they can be programmed to
give access at certain times only, to specific groups of cards or individual cards only, or to prevent
access to specific cards (e.g., cards reported lost), or for any other selection criterion.
The element of time-controlled access is relatively new; it integrates extremely well with intrusion
security systems because portals can be easily coordinated with changing work schedules, both general
and specific. Thus, a person can be barred from an area which he/she should not have access at some
particular time of day (Fig. 30.25).
52
The most sophisticated identification methods in use today are
biometric: examining a specific physical characteristic that is
unique to each person.
This is considered a higher level of entry control because it
identifies a person, not an object.
Several of these methods are illustrated in Figs.30.26 through 30.28.
In view of the plethora of available access control technologies,
access is being redefined beyond its original physical-admittance
meaning.
Access control today is also used to limit access to copy machines,
fax machines, phone lines, and
other office facilities frequently used by employees for other than
purely business purposes.

53
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INDUSTRIAL BUILDING SOUND AND PAGING SYSTEMS
o Belt beepers, pagers, and cellular phones are frequently
ineffective in industrial facilities because of high ambient noise
levels. In such areas, voice paging at high audio levels (see Figs.
30.20 and 30.21), radio-frequency paging calls on earphones or
speakers built into sound-reducing ear protection (see Fig. 19.53),
and paging calls using paging lights are used. Similar methods are
employed in noisy areas for announcements an special voice
messages. In less noisy areas, such as offices adjoining
manufacturing spaces, sounder in forced conventional office-type
systems are usually employed.

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58
59
60
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AUTOMATION
30.26 GENERAL INFORMATION
 It is important that the distinction between remote control and automation be clearly understood.
Remote control is simply a technique by which an action that can be performed manually at the
device being controlled is performed from a remote location by some intermediate means. The
means may be low-voltage wiring (Section 26.32), a high frequency wired signal (Section 26.34), a
wireless signal such as from a household TV/CD/VCR remote control, a similar IR lighting control unit
(Fig. 15.24), or a radio-frequency wireless control (Fig. 16.6). In each case there is a single-stage
action that is manually initiated.
 When the signal initiation is non manual—that is, automatic, from a timing device (Section 26.16), a
sensor such as a daylight or occupancy sensor (Section 15.17), or a programmable device such as a
microprocessor or computer (Fig. 15.25)—the control comes from an automated system. The system
can be elementary, as just described, in which an automated signal controls a single action. It can
also be very complex, with many levels, yet treat only a single function, such as an automated
lighting system with sensors activating or overriding scene-presets that activate dimmers and
switches. Such a system is referred to as a stand-alone (automated) system. When several of these
stand-alone systems are interconnected and supervised by a higher-level controller, each is referred
to as a subsystem, and the overall system is referred to as an integrated control system. Such an
integrated system, when applied to the individual systems in a building, is referred to as a building
automation system (BAS).

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The Sound System
An Introduction
When assessing the requirements of any sound system it is important to have a firm grasp of what
tasks the system will need to perform. Along with this, the acoustic environment will determine,
to a great degree, what equipment should be specified. It is vital therefore to clearly understand
the characteristics of the equipment available to meet these various needs.
This section contains a description of the basic components of the sound system, along with some
technical specifications and, at times, advice on the techniques involved in installing and using the
equipment.
In certain applications, for example a small church needing only speech amplification, we can
reduce the equipment needed to a few microphones, one mixing amplifier and a few loudspeaker
columns. The individual microphone volume levels would be controlled on the amplifier, which
also allows tone-control of the loudspeakers. Once carefully set up, such a system should work
without intervention, every time the amplifier is switched on.
Other situations, for example an oil platform, require both sophisticated routing and switching
systems, and a complete fail-safe redundancy backup system. Obviously, even though the sound
quality should always be adequate, the complexity of calculating the type and quantity of
equipment required depends upon the installation's requirements.

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3.1 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Before starting to design a sound system it is vital to answer the following questions:
• Is the system required for speech alone, speech or with other effects?
• Is the system required for announcements and/or for emergency purposes?
• How many calls must be made, at the same time, to different destinations?
• How many different Sound sources must be routed?
• What are the maximum and minimum ambient noise levels?
• What is the requirement in respect to loudness?
• What is the requirement in respect to speech intelligibility?
• What is the requirement in respect to annoyance due to excessive loudness?
• What is the requirement in respect to frequency response?
• What is the requirement in respect to sound orientation?

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Microphones
CONSIDERATIONS WHEN SELECTING A MICROPHONE
In any sound amplification chain, the first link is often the microphone, which converts acoustic
vibrations into voltage variations. Three types of element are generally encountered in microphones
used in a professional audio installation, Electro dynamic, Condenser, and Electret. The way an
element is mounted in the microphone body determines the microphone's pick-up response pattern.
4.2 MICROPHONE TYPES
Electrodynamic
The Dynamic microphone is based on the principle of a coil moving in a magnetic field.

71
Sound pressure causes the diaphragm to respond in rhythm with sound vibrations, so that the coil
moves inside the air gap of a permanent magnetic field. This, in turn, induces a voltage in the coil.
The pitch and intensity of the original vibrations determine the frequency and amplitude of this
voltage. This means that the higher the frequency - the faster the coil moves, the louder the sound
- the further the coil moves.
Condenser
The basic elements of the Condenser microphone are a thin metal flexible diaphragm, which forms
one plate of a capacitor, whilst a solid metal plate forms the other.
The capacitance depends on the distance between the diaphragm and the plate. As the diaphragm
moves, the distance between the diaphragm and the plate varies, which causes the capacitance to
change accordingly.
A steady D.C. polarising charge is maintained across the diaphragm and the plate. As the sound
varies, this causes the capacitance to vary, which in turn causes the voltage to vary, causing the
subsequent current flow to vary. A DC voltage, supplied by the mixing console or pre-amplifier unit,
is carried on the microphone's standard two core screened signal cable, and is called Phantom
Powering. This provides the polarising charge and also power for the microphone's FET amplifier.

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4.2.3 Back Plate Electret
Though operating in a similar way to condenser microphones, the Back Plate Electret
(BPE) range ofmicrophones feature a unique design. It is a combination of an uncharged,
temperature independent, diaphragm and a permanently charged back plate electrode
(which is achieved by sealing electret material onto a metal back plate).
4.2.4 Electret
Similar in operation to a condenser microphone, the diaphragm of the Electret
microphone comprises a high polymer plastic film with a permanent electrostatic
charge.
4.2.5 Choices
Because the microphone is such a fundamental part of the amplification chain, great
care should be taken when making a choice. Normally a compromise must be made
between reproduction quality and price, but it is wiser to economies on other equipment
than on microphones.
Until recently condenser microphones have been used primarily in recording and
broadcast studios, and rarely in public address systems. Having excellent reproductive
qualities, condenser microphones tend to be comparatively expensive, in some cases
fragile, and generally require a fairly powerful phantom power supply.

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4.3 PICK-UP RESPONSE PATTERNS
The microphone shown in the accompanying illustration is sensitive to sound from any direction,
responding to a voice from the front in just the same way as to the sound from the audience at the
rear.
The force on the diaphragm is determined by the difference in pressure on its front and rear
surfaces. Because the back of the element is totally sealed, the sound pressure variation leads
directly to movement of the diaphragm, irrespective of which direction the microphone
is facing. Because it is responsive to sound from all directions it has what is called an "Omni-
directional" response pattern.
Where the rear of the microphone is opened and the diaphragm is exposed to sound waves from the
back aswell as from the front, the polar plot is not omni-directional
as before, but results in a figure-of-eight directional pattern.
Sound entering from the front will produce a frontal pressure, which is greater than, and out of
phase with, the pressure due to sound entering the back. The difference will generate a maximum
signal.
A sound source situated to the side however, puts the diaphragm under equal pressure from both
sides and will tend to cancel itself out.
If the opening at the rear is adjusted in size and character by means of an acoustic filter, the polar
response can be varied between the extremes of omni-directional and figure-of-eight. A response
approximately halfway between these two is known as a Cardioid (heart shaped) response. The
pattern known as a Hyper- Cardioid response is particularly sensitive to sounds which are generated
at the front, and on axis with the microphone body. Other sounds, generated at the sides and back
of the microphone are also picked up, but at a much reduced level.
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Omnidirectional
Because of its construction, the Omni-directional microphone is sensitive to sound from any
direction. It responds to a voice from the front in just the same way as to the sound from the
audience at the rear. Because of their normally flat frequency response, irrespective of source
distance, omni-directional microphones are often used for recording and measurement. They are
used in situations where sound coming from several directions must be reproduced, and where
either: a) the microphone is totally isolated from the loudspeakers, or b) the microphone is in close
proximity to the sound source, so that the comparative level of any amplified signal it picks up is
very small.
4.3.2 Cardioid
Unidirectional microphones with a Cardioid (heart shaped) directivity pattern are normally
preferred in general public address distribution applications.
The directivity factor is the power ratio of the transformed frontal sound when compared to an
omnidirectional microphone with the same sensitivity for diffused sound. For cardioid microphones
the directivity factor is max. 3 or the front to random sensitivity ratio 10
Log3 = 4.8 dB.
Careful tuning of the microphone ensures that whilst only a small amount of extraneous noise is
picked up from the rear and sides of the microphone, the pick up pattern is wide enough to pick up
sound from a fairly wide area at the front.
This allows a certain amount of freedom of movement for the speaker, without large drops in
volume level.

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The hyper-cardioid microphone operates in the same way as the cardioid microphone,
but to a more extreme degree. For hyper-cardioid microphones the directivity factor is
max. 4 or the front to random sensitivity ratio 10 Log4 = 6 dB.
Because of the high directivity of hyper-cardioid microphones, care should be taken in
positioning to ensure that the operator is consistently speaking directly at front of the
microphone.
Hyper-cardioid microphone characteristics present difficulties to the designers of
Lavalier (Lapel) microphones, due to their sensitivity to local noise generated by
contact with the user’s clothing.
Both hyper-cardioid and, to a lesser degree, cardioid microphones have a strongly
increased sensitivity to low tones when the sound source is generated close to the
microphone. This means that if an operator speaks very close to the microphone, their
voice will become unnaturally bass in character, at times making the message
unintelligible.
SPECIAL MICROPHONES
A large number of special microphones are available, ranging from broadcast, through
to the individual requirements of different musical instruments.
In the field of sound reinforcement and public address there are again several different
types of microphone likely to be encountered for specialist applications.

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4.4.1 The Lavalier and Lapel microphone
These microphones have been specially designed to reproduce speech, and are small, light, and
designed to be worn (a) around the neck (Lavalier Microphone), or (b) clipped to a neck tie or
jacket lapel (Lapel Microphone) without causing discomfort. With this in mind, they are
particularly sensitive to high frequencies in order to compensate for the losses due to absorption
by the user’s clothing and made insensitive to the low toned noise caused when the microphone
rubs against the clothing. The microphone capsules themselves are specially mounted in order to
absorb shocks and therefore reduce noise being transmitted though the microphone due to
movement on the speaker's clothes. Being omni-directional microphones, they are also suitable for
use in such applications where a wide area needs to be monitored, such as in a
conferencerecording system.
4.4.2 Noise cancelling microphone
This is essentially a hyper-cardioid microphone having an optimum speech characteristic, and is
designed for extremely noisy environments such as touring buses, factories, and supermarket
floors. This type of microphone must be held very close to the mouth, so filters have been built in
to ensure that the frequency response is flat when the sound source is close to the microphone,
and also that the bass content of the random noise is reduced.
4.4.3 Radio (Wireless) microphone
Great freedom of movement is provided for the microphone user by the use of a
transmitter/receiver system.

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FM signal provides a link between either a hand-held or lavalier/lapel
microphone and a receiver connected to the sound system input. The hand
held microphone has a built-in transmitter, while the lavalier model is
connected to a small pocket transmitter, allowing full hands-free use.
When two or more radio(wireless) microphones are used in the same
location, care should be taken to ensure that they each operate on a
different transmission frequency, otherwise conflicts will occur.
This is expressed in terms of what is called the front-to-random index
where:
Fr = 20 log Sf/Sd dB where Sf = free field sensitivity at 0° and Sd = average
diffuse field sensitivity The cardioid microphone typically has a front-to-
random index of about 4,8 dB and the hypercardioid microphone has a front-
to-random index of 5,8 dB.

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Technical Principles
5.1 DIRECTIVITY
There is at times confusion between two terms of reference when microphones are being chosen
for use in difficult acoustic environments where the risk of feedback must be reduced.
The response of a typical cardioid microphone at 500 Hz, as shown in 4.3.2, indicates that the
response at the rear, on the 180° line, is some 23 dB less than that at the front. This is called the
front-to-rear ratio. In 4.3.3 the response of a hyper-cardioid microphone is illustrated. Though the
front-to-rear ratio is only 14 dB it is far more suitable for use in a very noisy environment. The
reason is that the most ambient noise does not only come from the rear, but from the reverberant
or diffuse field which is picked up at the sides of the microphone, and it is this field that the hyper-
cardioid microphone, more than any other type, attenuates.

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SENSITIVITY
The sensitivity of a microphone is the output voltage for a given Sound Pressure Level at 1 kHz, in
V/Pa.
Sensitivities vary considerably dependent on the type of design:

INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS
5.3.1 Potential problems and causes

81
Solutions
The following steps help avoid these problems:
1. Use only two-core screened (shielded) cable for individual microphone signal cables and
extensions.
2. Keep microphone cables away from mains power and loudspeaker cables. If it is necessary for the
cables to cross, try to ensure that they cross at 90°, rather than running along side each other.
3. In installations with long microphone cables, use a cable transformer or line amplifier.
Also:Never position a microphone in the direct field of a loudspeaker, as this could cause acoustic
feedback (howl around).
Microphone Technique
Microphones in the Bosch product range, are of advanced design, are very sensitive, and reproduce
the human voice with great clarity. Many of these microphones have a hypercardioid response
pattern, being particularly sensitive to sounds, which are generated at the front, and on axis with
the microphone body. Other sounds,
generated at the sides and back of the microphone are also picked up, but at a much reduced level.
This characteristic gives them a high front to random response index. Due to the fact that they are
so directional, hyper-cadioid microphones operate particularly well in difficult acoustic
environments and in areas with high background noise.

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In order to optimise these, or any microphone, it is important to be aware of certain operating
techniques.
1. The microphone should be pointing directly at, but placed a little below, the speaker's mouth.
This is to pick-up full spectrum sound including high frequencies and avoiding air blowing frontal on
the microphones diaphragm and causing “plops”.
2. The best distance from which to speak into a microphone is approximately 15 to 40 centimetres.
If that distance is reduced greatly, a phenomenon, especially common to (hyper)cardioid
microphones, known as 'proximity effect' will occur. This is a very noticeable increase in the
bass content of the signal, making the voice muffled, and at times unintelligible.
3. Speak at a consistent volume level.
4. If the operator were to speak from a much greater distance than that recommended, the
microphone would also pick up other sounds in the room, effecting the overall clarity. This is
particularly unfortunate when the microphone is in the same room as the loudspeakers, due
to the fact that the amplified signal could be picked up by the microphone and amplified again. If
the amplification in this loop is allowed to continue, the disturbing phenomenon known as acoustic
feedback, or 'howl around', will occur.
5. If feedback does occur, do not cover the microphone with your hand; this makes the situation
worse. If you are very close to the microphone, moving backwards sometimes helps eliminate
feedback. The operator should then reduce the amplifier volume slightly, or use a tone control or
equaliser to attenuate the offending frequency somewhat.

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Amplification and Processing
Mixing Consoles
Certain installations involve a number of microphones, located in the same area, (for instance the
stage or platform of an auditorium), which need to be amplified at the same time. For simple
speech reinforcement systems a mixing pre-amplifier is fully adequate to fulfil the requirements.
More elaborate installations involving a larger number of microphones a Mixing Console (or Mixing
Desk) is the heart of this type of audio system, and is a device which takes the place of a simple pre-
amplifier, being the control unit where all the microphones, cassette players, etc. come together. It
accepts these various inputs and blends them together into one balanced whole. The final, mixed,
sound is then sent to the input of power amplifiers, tape recorder and/or monitor loudspeaker(s).
Mixing consoles range from simple units which accept 4 microphone inputs, have basic tone controls,
and provide a mono output, to huge consoles having more than 60 input channels, each having very
sophisticated equalisation, feeding a large number of sub groups, which in turn feed a selection of
main outputs.
The latter type tends to be accompanied by several banks of audio processing equipment and is very
much the domain of the professional mixing engineer.
In order to give the mixing engineer an undistorted judgement of the total sound, the favourite
place for a mixing desk is in the middle of the auditorium.
On the next page a sound reinforcement system for an auditorium is shown.

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Amplifiers and Preamplifiers
Although quite often presented as a single unit, the public address amplifier must be considered as
two separate sections: the pre-amplifier (voltage gain) and the output amplifier (power gain).
The pre-amplifier matches and amplifies the outputs of microphones, CD and cassette players,
tuners, etc., to provide a voltage level suitable for driving the power amplifier. The pre-amplifier
also normally incorporates the tone controls, input sensitivity adjustments, and master volume
controls.
The power amplifier, often available as a separate unit, is used to amplify the output power of a
pre-amplifier, distribution system, or mixing console to a level that will feed the loudspeakers
properly. If necessary it is possible to link power amplifier inputs together so that a single input
signal can feed a large number ofamplifiers.
8.1 THE PRE-AMPLIFIER
8.1.1 Inputs
The pre-amplifier is normally used for matching and amplifying small voltages, to provide a voltage
level, usually 500 mV or 1 V, which is suitable for driving the power amplifier.
Typical inputs to the pre-amplifier may be:
moving coil (dynamic) microphone - 0,25 mV; electret or BPE microphone - 1 mV condenser
microphone - 3 mV; dynamic pick-up - 5 mV; domestic source (tuner, cassette, CD, DCC etc) - 250
mV; professional tape recorder - 1,5V.
From this range of input requirements two inputs are often chosen: a microphone input with a
sensitivity of 0,5 mV to 1.5 mV; and a music input of 100 mV to 1,5 V.
Tone controls, input sensitivity adjustments, and master volume controls are usually built into the
pre-amplifier.
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8.1.2 Tone controls
Tone control circuits vary the frequency characteristics of an amplifier.
The bass and treble tone control circuits, with which most people are familiar, are basically
amplification and attenuation circuits, which operate over specific frequency bands. They operate
as follows;
1. If the bass or treble potentiometer is turned to the right, from its 0 ('flat') position, the gain is
increased, and the frequencies within its band of influence are amplified, giving an increase in
volume of the respective bass or treble frequencies. The 'lifting' of the treble frequencies is
particularly useful when it is desired to give speech greater clarity, helping it to 'cut through' noisy
environments (see chapter 1.1 for information regarding the speech spectrum).
2. If the potentiometer is turned to the left; the respective bass or treble frequencies are
attenuated. Bass
attenuation is particularly useful in large rooms, where long reverberation times at low frequencies
cause problems.
3. Bass lift and treble attenuation is rarely required. Bass lift could be used when amplifying music
in a heavily damped room, where the bass frequencies would require reinforcement to give the
music more depth. Care should be taken though not to overload the loudspeakers when amplifying
the bass content of a signal.
Please note that some lower quality pre-amplifiers provide only attenuation, giving no amplification
of either bass or treble frequencies.
In contrast to this, all Bosch‘ professional preamplifiers provide both amplification and attenuation
-20 (see example next page).

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89
THE POWER AMPLIFIER
The power amplifier is used to amplify the output voltage of the pre-amplifier, distribution system,
or mixing
desk, to a level that will feed the loudspeakers properly. Depending on the design philosophy of the
manufacturers, the input required to feed the amplifier at nominal full power can range from 100
mV to 10 V.
Many power amplifiers used in public address systems, and all amplifiers in the Bosch product range
use what
is known as the 100 Volt line principle. This type of amplifier is favourable if long loudspeaker
distances are
involved. (This principle is discussed in the following section) Other power amplifiers, often used in
sound
reinforcement systems, provide a direct low impedance 2, 4 or 8 ohm output. If using the latter,
make sure that
the impedance of the loudspeakers matches that of the amplifier, and that the amplifier power is
always lower
than the loudspeaker power, so that the amplifier is not able to overload the loudspeakers.

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8.3 AMPLIFIER/LOUDSPEAKER INTERFACE
As stated in 8.2, in order to interface loudspeakers with power amplifiers, all Bosch amplifiers
utilised what is
known as the 100 Volt line matching principle, whilst certain amplifiers in the range also
incorporate low
impedance outputs. If the load is always constant, the loudspeakers can be connected in a
series/parallel
arrangement to exactly match the amplifier's low output impedance. However if the loudspeakers
differ in power
and impedance, or if the quantity of loudspeakers changes, it is very difficult indeed to match
them to the power
amplifier. In this type of situation, or in an application requiring long loudspeaker cable lengths,
the 100 Volt line

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matching system is used.
In the 100 Volt line matching system, transformers, which are mounted in the power amplifiers,
are tapped to
step up the output voltage of the amplifiers from a low voltage to 100, 70 or 50 Volts.
Transformers, mounted on
the loudspeakers, then reduce this again to the original low voltage, acceptable to the
loudspeakers.
This system gives great flexibility in the design and use of public address systems for the following
reasons:
1. By increasing the output power voltage of an amplifier, the amount of current (measured in
amps) involved
is reduced significantly. This means that even when high power amplifiers are used, line losses are
kept
low, and heavy duty cabling is not required.
2. Due to these low line losses, extremely long cable lengths are possible. This is a very important
factor in a public address installation.
3. All loudspeakers may be simply connected in parallel.

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So long as the total amount of watts drawn by the loudspeakers is not greater than the rated output
power of the amplifier, it does not matter whether
there is 1 loudspeaker or 150 loudspeakers connected to it at any
time.
The 100V line principle can be compared to a normal domestic mains electricity power supply. In a
mains supply, a constant supply voltage is present, and it is necessary only to plug an appliance into
the mains socket for it to become operational. The amount of appliances plugged into a supply is
irrelevant, so long as the total amount of power (wattage) drawn is not greater than that available.
When loudspeakers are connected to the 100V amplifier tap, their full power is drawn, whereas if
they are connected to the 70V tap, only 1/2 of their rated power is drawn. This means that the 70V
tap enables the amplifier to power twice as many loudspeakers, with each loudspeaker producing
1/2 of its potential power.
Similarly, the 50V tap allows loudspeakers to draw 1/4 of their rated power, so that the amplifier is
able to power 4 times more loudspeakers, with each producing 1/4 of its potential power. The
transformers fitted to the loudspeakers have similar taps, but in this case the actual power which
the loudspeaker will draw (e.g. P, P1/2, P1/4, or 6W, 3W, 1,5W), instead of the voltage, is printed
beside the "power" (+) tap. These loudspeaker transformer taps are used in the same way as the
amplifier transformer taps; matching the power drawn (in this case by each loudspeaker) to the
amplifier power available.

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When it is desired to reduce the power drawn by all of the
loudspeakers, it is of course simpler and more efficient to utilise the
amplifier transformer taps. It is possible though, by using the
loudspeaker transformer taps, to reduce the power drawn by only a
quantity of the loudspeakers, while the remainder draw full power.
Note:
When using the 100 Volt line matching system, the Rated Power of
the amplifier corresponds to the Rated Load Impedance of the
loudspeaker network. The total rated power required should be
calculated, by simply adding the Rated Power of the connected loudspeakers together, taking into
account the
reduction in power drawn when using the loudspeaker power taps. It is important that this total
should not
exceed the rated power of the amplifier.

94
95
Cable lengths.
The maximum permissible cable lengths per size of cable are shown in the accompanying graph.
Example:
Assuming an amplifier of 100 W tapped at 100 V and using a cable of 2x0.75 mm2 . The length of the
cable should not exceed 250 m.
The values refer to a 10% voltage drop, with the entire load concentrated at one end of the cable.
The lengths can be doubled when the load is distributed evenly along the cable.

96
Transformers.
Whilst considering the many advantages of the 100 V line matching system, it is important to
realise that by inserting transformers into the signal chain, certain losses must occur. Any
transformer has an insertion loss. If for example, 10 W is required at the loudspeaker terminals,
using a transformer with an insertion loss of 1.5 dB would require 14.13 W output from the
amplifier.
The impedance of transformers also varies with frequency, which of course has an adverse effect
on the overall system frequency response, and the demands placed upon the amplifiers, especially
when reproducing bass frequencies.
Equalisers
An Equaliser gives extensive control over the whole audio frequency spectrum by means of
presence (gain) and absence (attenuation) filters and can be used for optimising the frequency
response of the sound system.
It can even equalise the complete audio chain, from microphone to ear. Used with care, this would
guarantee maximum amplification for the whole frequency spectrum, at the same time combating
the problem of acoustic feedback by reducing the level of frequencies which cause it.
9.1 EQUALISER TYPES
9.1.1 Basic tone controls
The bass and treble tone control circuits, with which most people are familiar, are basically
amplification and attenuation circuits which operate over a specific (though fairly broad) frequency
band.

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They operate as follows:
1. If the bass or treble potentiometer is turned to the right, from its 0 ('flat') position, the gain is
increased, and the frequencies within its band of influence are amplified, giving an increase in the
volume of the respective bass or treble frequencies. The 'lifting' of the treble frequencies is
particularly useful when it is desired to give speech greater clarity, helping it to 'cut through' noisy
environments 2. If the potentiometer is turned to the left; the respective bass or treble
frequencies are attenuated. Bass attenuation is particularly useful in large rooms, where long
reverberation times at low frequencies cause problems.
3. Bass lift and treble attenuation are rarely required. Bass lift could be used when amplifying
music in a heavily damped room, where the bass frequencies would require reinforcement to give
the music more depth. Care should be taken though not to overload the loudspeakers.

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These treble and bass tone control circuits are very basic units, operating over wide frequency
bands, raising or attenuating all of the bass or treble frequencies.
9.1.2 Band-pass filters
Bass and treble "Hi-Pass" and "Lo-Pass" (or "cut-off") filters are intended to restrict the frequency
band. Their purpose is to severely attenuate all signals below or above a fixed (normally very low
or very high) frequency.
In situations requiring control over specific frequency bands, a variety of equalisers are available
see next page:

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Parametric equaliser
A parametric equaliser is a unit with 3 or 4 filters, and the possibility to adjust the frequency to be
processed.
The processing consists of gain correction (+ , - ),and a selection of the width (Q) of the frequency
band. This makes it possible to alter, if necessary, a very small frequency band, without affecting
the neighbouring frequencies. Because only a few filters are used, the overall response tends to be
quite smooth. (See 9.2.4)
9.1.4 Parametric triple Q-filter
Basically a parametric equaliser but with pre-set fixed (speech) centre frequencies e.g. 1-2-4 kHz.
This filter allows the operator to select the width & slope of the frequency band (Q) and presence or
absence (Gain).
The unit is ideal for optimising the amplification of that part of the frequency-band that is
responsible for speech intelligibility, it adds clarity and compensates for air absorption. An
adjustable bass cut filter provides smooth roll-off of the bass content in the signal caused by e.g.
speaking too close to a cardioid microphone.

100
101
9.1.5 Graphic equaliser
A Fixed Frequency or "Graphic" Equaliser often consists of 30 individual filter sections. Each
control, which is often a sliding potentiometer or "fader", effects a narrow frequency band (third
octave). The "peak", or maximum effect is at the centre of each band, with the surrounding
frequencies being effected to a proportionately lesser degree. The total frequency spectrum is
covered, allowing the signal to be sculptured at several specific frequency bands as desired. To
avoid excessive phase shifting, care should be taken to avoid extremes of variation between
adjacent controls with, for example, one control at full attenuation and its neighbour at full
amplification. The maximum level of both speech and music is in the 250-500 Hz frequency
range. The level at these frequencies should be kept as near to 0 dB as possible to avoid distortion
due to a general level increase.

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Principles of equalisation
The ideal in any audio system is to obtain a flat frequency response over the complete audio
frequency band.
When considering the sound system equipment alone, a flat frequency response can be achieved
within very fine limits, but when taking the sound system as a whole, with its associated acoustic
link, changes are introduced to the feedback frequency response by the very nature of the
auditorium. The cancellation of these changes in the frequency response, whether they be peaks or
dips, is called “Equalisation”.
Using a measuring set-up as explained on the next page (9.2.5) we can obtain e.g. the following
loop response:

The dominant frequency where the acoustic feedback is likely to occur is 160 Hz and secondly 3.4
kHz.

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By equalising the loop response now with an “mirror imaged” filter response, the overall gain can
be increased.
In order to maintain the optimum signal to noise ratio, increasing the gain at dips in the frequency
response, as well as reducing the resonant peaks, should be considered. This can be done manually
by means of a graphic or parametric equaliser or automatically by a so called intelligent feedback
exterminator which work with a number of narrow band filters adjusted dynamically at the critical
frequencies and maintaining a FSM of 6dB.
It is impossible to lay down hard and fast rules as to which equalisation method should be used, as
the requirements will be vary from one auditorium to another. The prime objective is to obtain a
flat frequency response of the loop to obtain max. possible gain for all frequencies and preserve
the signal to noise ratio.
A listening test after equalisation is important because a flat loop response is not always a flat
listening result, a high frequency roll off is sometimes required ( 3 dB/octave > 1 kHz).

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Correction factors:
In order to take environnement or special conditions of installation into account, correction factors
have been introduced.
The cross sectional area of cables is determined using the rated load current IB divided by different
correction factors, k1, k2, ...:
In a speech reinforcement system facing the problem of acoustic feedback, we equalise the whole
loop, which consists of the system microphone(s) - amplification - loudspeaker(s) and room.
The test unit produces a 1/3 octave “warbled” tone, which glides from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, and is fed
into the power amplifier. The corresponding output, reflected by the room surfaces, is received by
the system microphone and plotted on the test unit recorder. Another method is to inject pink noise
in the sound system and measure with a 1/3 octave Real Time Analyzer. This is a good method for
adjusting a 1/3 octave graphic equalizer in the system.

105
106
In a system used for playing pre-recorded sounds, we concentrate our measurements on the
loudspeaker reproduction. In this case we use a calibrated measuring microphone at the audience
position (averaged), and equalise only the power amplifier, loudspeaker(s), and room. The most
convenient method is to inject pink noise

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in the sound system’s line input and measure with a 1/3 octave Real Time Analyzer on the audience
position. A 1/3 octave graphic equalizer is the easiest to adjust but difficult to hide for unauthorised
tempering.
9.2.7 Loudspeaker equalisation & Loop equalisation
For sound systems used for music reproduction and sound reinforcement, where there is a need to
optimise both, the loudspeaker equalisation should be carried out first, and secondly an additional
equaliser should be used in the system microphone channel.
Time Delay
When a sound reinforcement system in an large auditorium, with loudspeakers located at the left
and right handside of the stage and dispersed at intervals along the length of the auditorium, a
problem of timing becomes apparent. When all loudspeakers produce their sound at the same time,
the listener hears the speaker's voice coming from the direction of the closest loudspeaker, instead
of from the stage.
This conflict between the visual and audible experience is rather uncomfortable. To overcome this
disturbing effect, the sound from each (group of) loudspeaker(s) must be delayed using time delay
equipment. If the timing

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109
Compressor/Limiter
A compressor and a limiter are input signal dependent attenuators. The dynamics of input levels
below the threshold are not affected, but the dynamics of levels above are reduced. The attack
time is 1 ms, while the adjustable release time is dictated by the application, short for speech
(100 ms), long for music (>1s).
A compressor reduces input signal variations above the threshold level to about one third (in
dB’s) without introducing distortion.
(30 dB input variation gives only 10 dB output variation).
A compressor is ideal for background music applications to reduce the (often unwanted) large
dynamic range of recordings or broadcastings.
The release time should then be set on >1s to avoid music sounding unnatural (pumping).

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A limiter effectively restricts the output level to e.g. 1V for all input levels above the threshold
level without introducing distortion. A limiter is ideal for mounting in call stations to guarantee a
fixed maximum output level, independent of the person speaking
(male/female/distance/loudness). To utilise this maximum peak level with the full capability of
the sound system, it is necessary to align the rest of the chain in such a way that also the
maximum undistorted output level of the amplifier is reached.

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Automatic Volume Control
Automatic Volume Control (AVC) regulates the loudness of a P.A. announcement relative to the
ambient noise level. This guarantees maximum intelligibility and minimum annoyance.
The ambient noise level is continuously measured by a microphone connected to the sensor input of
the AVC unit, which uses this measurement to set the attenuation of the signal path. During periods
of low ambient noise, the PA system gain is reduced by the AVC-unit, and during periods of high
ambient noise, the PA-system gain is restored to its nominal maximum. A blocking circuit ‘freezes’
the input sensor while an announcement is being made, ensuring that the announcement itself is not
measured by the unit as ambient noise.
The control range of the AVC, with attenuation values from 6 to 21 dB, depends on the maximum
loudness of the sound system. 80 dB(SPL) is regarded as a comfortable maximum listening level. If
the loudspeaker systemis set up so that a maximum of 89 dB SPL can be achieved, then a control
range of 9 dB would be the right choice. An AVC unit with 21 dB control range would only be used in
PA systems which can produce a maximum level of 101 dB(SPL), being 21 dB above the comfortable
listening level of 80 dB(SPL).
The AVC unit is factory pre-set, therefore only the sensing input microphone gain in the
corresponding loudspeaker-zone and the reset time (blocking) needs to be adjusted.
If a microphone is located inside the loudspeaker zone to which it is addressed, the gain should be
carefully set to avoid acoustic feedback. The system should be checked during periods of high
ambient noise and low level talking into the microphone in order to ensure that no acoustic
feedback, automatic attenuation(AVC), or limiting (Callstation) occurs.

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Technical Considerations
13.1 SPECIFICATIONS
13.1.1 Frequency Response
This graph illustrates the typical flat response of an amplifier suitable for music reproduction.
The written specification of this type of frequency response should state the frequencies at the
points where the curves have dropped by 3 dB.
In our example, the frequency response is from 63 Hz to 16 kHz.
When this specification relates to power amplifiers the level at which it is measured should be 10
dB below the rated output power.
Specifications should be read carefully. If a manufacturer chooses -6 dB points as reference, he is
able to quote a frequency response range which extends much wider than more ethical
competitors.

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13.1.2 Power bandwidth
The Power bandwidth is the frequency range in which the amplifier can deliver its rated
power (-3dB) with a maximum distortion level (THD) as stated by the manufacturer
(0.5% for PA amplifiers).
13.1.3 Linear distortion
If an amplifier is not capable of amplifying the full frequency spectrum equally, the
amplified waveform will be altered in a similar way as when tone controls are used. This
unwanted modification of the signal is called linear distortion, which in its extreme
could give rise to a guitar input producing a 'piano' sound output.
Non linear distortion or clipping (THD)
This graph shows an amplifier with too much input signal.
If the amplifier is overdriven, a clipping of the output voltage is likely to occur. This
effect, called non-linear distortion, happens when the input signal exceeds the
dynamic range of the amplifier. When the voltage is clipped, the normal curve of the
signal wave is squared off, producing extra harmonics of the fundamental. This is
commonly referred to as Total Harmonic Distortion (THD).
The result is an audible change, making the sound uncomfortably raw.
Another problem occurs when the current continues to rise, causing too much energy to
be fed into the loudspeakers (beyond their Power Handling Capacity (PHC) limits), which
could cause them to be damaged.
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115
Rated Output Power
Rated Distortion Limited Output Power is the power which the amplifier is capable of dissipating in
the rated load impedance, at a given frequency or frequency band (1 kHz), without exceeding the
rated Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). This is defined in publication IEC 268-3.
Emotional speech, or certain passages of music, can cause pronounced audio signal peaks. Such
instantaneous features of speech and music have to be reproduced without distortion. Generally,
allowance must be made for speech attaining voltage peak values of approximately three times its
average.
This may be expressed as 20 Log 3 = 10 dB. 10 dB, as a power ratio, means that the peak power is
roughly 10 times that of the average power. This is called the 'rated power' of an amplifier. A 100 W
amplifier, for instance, having a input sensitivity of 100 mV, will produce 100 W output when the
input voltage reaches 100 mV.
This 100 W is the maximum output power which the amplifier can produce whilst still keeping
distortion below its specified limit.

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Under normal conditions, however, the average input voltage will only be 33 mV (allowing up to
100 mV for peaks) and the average output power will only be 10 W (allowing up to 100 W for
peaks). This means that, on average, an amplifier normally operates at only one tenth of its
rated (or peak) value. In our example this will be 10 W.
13.1.6 Temperature Limited Output Power (TLOP)
The IEC 65 standard states that an amplifier, running under worse case conditions, should at
least be able to run continuously at 12½% of its Rated Output Power without any components
overheating. This means that 100 W amplifiers, located in ambient temperature of 45° C, with
+ 10% mains over-voltage, stacked on top of each other, in a 19 inch rack frame, should be able
to run continuously for 24 hours per day at 12.5 W average power without overheating.
ADJUSTING SIGNAL LEVELS IN A SYSTEM CHAIN.
1 Microphone in a Callstation is often combined with a pre-amplifier and limiter to optimise
the signal in the transport cable. The max. output signal is due to the limiter restricted to 0
dBV (=1V). The potmeter affecting the gain before the limiter should be adjusted to the
announcer and/or acoustic feedback. The limiter is activated by the peaks in the signal
therefore the average level of speech will be around -8 dBV but the peak level is close to 0 dBV.
2 Routing controller (SM30 or SM40) has 0 dBV input sensitivity for 0 dBV output. The input
adjusters should always be in maximum position and only be changed in the seldom situation
that you do not want the full power out of the system for this corresponding microphone input.
The attention and alarm signals are separately adjustable to an average level of -8 dBV (can be
checked as 0 VU on the amplifier). If signal processing is applied (tone controlling, equalising,
time delay etc.) take care of their gain settings to avoid unwanted gain or attenuation for
speech/music (can be checked with pink noise).
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3 Amplifier needs 0 dBV at the input in order to deliver 100 Volt to the rated load impedance. For
this rated outputlevel we specify THD - Power bandwidth - S/N ratio etc, acc. IEC 268-3 DIN45500
FTC etc.
The Temperature Limited Output Power acc.IEC 65 is specified as 9 dB below the rated output
power under extreme working conditions and is a measure for the cooling capacity of the amplifier
power stages (heat-sinks and/or ventilators). The VU-meter has an integration time of 240 ms and
adjusted so that 40 Volt (sine waverms) reads 0 VU (=8 dB below 100 Volt); therefore in practice,
speech and/or music should give not more than 0 to +3 VU readings as maximum in order to
guarantee that short peaks in the signal (exceeding 100V) do not cause unacceptable audible
distortion.
4 Loudspeakers are (for reasons of electrical power transport and installer requirements)
generally connected via a 100 Volt line system. Matching of the loudspeaker requirements to the
available amplifier power is done via the tapping-down possibilities (1/2P-1/4P)(70-50V).
Generally the Power Handling Capacity acc. IEC268-5 will be greater than the Rated Power of the
loudspeaker in order to avoid damaging of the loudspeaker during excessive signal overload
(acoustic feedback!).
Rated Power of the amplifier corresponds via 100 Volt to the Rated Load Impedance of the
loudspeaker network. Therefore the total rated power of the connected loudspeakers (taking the
power tapping into account) should not exceed the rated power of the amplifier.

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5 Automatic Volume Control (AVC) regulates the loudness of the P.A. announcement in relation
to the ambient noise. This guarantees maximum intelligibility and minimum annoyance. During
low ambient noise level the PA-system gain is gradually reduced with 9 dB by the AVC-unit.
The 9 dB controlrange is chosen to assure a good performance for ambient noise levels upto 75
dB(SPL). The loudspeakersystem should be set-up such that a calculated SPLtotal of 89 dB can be
achieved, being 9 dB above comfortable listening level of 80 dB(SPL). The AVC-unit is factory pre-
set, therefore only the gain of the sensing input should be adjusted to the applied microphone(s)
in the corresponding loud-speakerzone and the resettime (blocking).
The AVC-unit should be by-passed for announcement microphones placed in the addressed
loudspeakerzone for acoustic feedback stability. If not, the system gain will be reduced by the
control range of the AVC during low ambient noise. Acoustic feedback stability should then be
checked during high ambient noise levels and low level talking in the microphone in order to
avoid any automatic attenuation or limiting.
The AVC-unit with 21 dB control range is only for those PA-systems which can produce a maximum
level of 101 dB(SPL) being 21 dB above comfortable listening level of 80 dB(SPL).

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RADIO AND MAINS BORN INTERFERENCE
Bosch amplifiers and distribution systems contain extensive protection against external
interference sources and, in normal circumstances, will not be effected by them.
However, extraordinary radio-born and mains electricity supply conditions may cause
problems which have to be solved individually.
Problems may be expected when:
• An electrical field strength exceeds 1 V/m. This would be the case when the system is
installed:
a. Within a 20 km radius of a 1 MW medium wave radio transmitter.
b. Within a 5 km radius of a 100 kW FM or television transmitter.
c. Within a 100m radius of a 0.5 W citizens band transmitter (e.g. 27 MHz),
depending on the directivity of its antenna.
d. Near medical equipment. For instance; within 100 m of a 27 MHz, 1 kW radio-therapy
unit.
Frequencies above 200 MHz (like radar or relay connections >1 GHz) seldom cause
problems.
A factor which normally decreases the interference influence, is the screening property of
the building, especially when metal construction materials or reinforced concrete are
used.

120
• When voltage spikes on the mains electricity supply exceed 800 V.
This can occur when highly inductive or capacitive loads are switched on and off on the mains
network.
Problems of this kind can normally be solved by installing a good mains filter. A variety of special
application
versions exist for this kind of situation.
14.2.1 Prevention of Interference
There are two basic methods of preventing radio born interference:
1. Screening the source of radiation:
Generally the most effective method, but only feasible when the offending cause is located 'in
house', as
would be the case with medical equipment etc. The equipment and the patient would have to be
located
inside a Faraday cage, within which the 'radiation area' would be confined.
2. Screening the effected equipment:
The 19 inch rack unit, within which the distribution system, and/or amplifiers of a sound system
would
be mounted, makes an ideal screen for the electronic circuitry. The rack used must have a top and
bottom plate, and an all metal door. The only holes in the outside surfaces should be for ventilation,
and these should be in the form of louvers or small holes, rather than one large opening. The rack
can
form a more efficient screen when all of the component parts (covers, construction bars, etc.) are
electrically connected.
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122
14.2.2 Interference introduced via cables
Any cable, whether signal, loudspeaker, or mains, is a potential antenna for radio born interference.
Where feasible, disconnect and reconnect each cable in turn, until the offending cable(s) is (are)
found.
The simple modification illustrated can effectively cancel this problem. Experiment with the amount
of windings to find the optimum RF damping.
14.2.3 Interference introduced inside rack unit
In some cases, hum can be induced into a signal line from the radiation effects of mains electricity
voltagecables and transformers. Care should be taken when planning the internal wiring of the rack
unit, to keep inputwiring, where possible, away from mains wiring and transformers.
14.2.4 Interference induced from 100 V loudspeaker wiring
Signal wiring, both inside the rack, and in external cable ducts, should be kept separate from 100 V
loudspeaker wiring. If this is not done, inductive & capacitive coupling might occur, causing the
system to oscillate.
This is done by using short lengths of wire to join each part to its neighbour. On large surfaces, such
as cover panels, these connections should be made in several locations ( e.g. 6 wires on side/rear
covers). In extreme cases it may be necessary to remove paint, and use self-tapping screws every 5-
10 cm to make the cabinet 100% RF immune. See accompanying illustrations for examples.
NINETEEN INCH RACK UNITS
Bosch public address equipment, like distribution controllers amplifiers, monitor panels and many
auxiliary equipment, are designed to be mounted in a cabinet with a standard front panel width,
called a "Nineteen Inch Rack". Some music source equipment (background music players, CD players,
radio tuners, etc.) can be modified, using bolt on accessories, to fit also into these 19 inch racks.
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To simplify calculation of 19 inch rack space required, a standard height 'HE' equal to 44.55 mm
(1.75 inches) has been chosen. Most power amplifiers for instance, are 3 HE in height, requiring
133.65 mm of rack space. The use of this height standard eases the problem of calculating the
number of amplifiers, modular distribution units, or panels that will fit
into a given rack. Certain rules should be observed when planning the equipment layout of the
rack.
1. Cassette front loaders, tuner scales, and other frequently used equipment should be mounted at
a height which makes the front panel clearly visible to the operator. 2. If power amplifiers are
mounted beneath rack frames containing microprocessor controlled distribution units, a heat shield
should be installed above them. This is necessary to deflect hot air currents, which could otherwise
cause instability in the microprocessor units.
3. When several high power amplifiers are used, a fan unit should be mounted in the bottom of the
rack to ensure adequate ventilation.
Ceiling loudspeakers
A ceiling loudspeaker is a cone loudspeaker, mounted on a front panel, which may be recessed into
a ceiling or hollow wall. They can be spaced at regular intervals to give a fairly even coverage of
sound. A common used calculation-method leads to the mutual distance between the speakers:
D = 2 H tan (α/2) ( H = Ceiling height to Ear height
and α = opening angle at 4 kHz )
And the total number of the speakers:
n = Area / D2
The accompanying tabel shows the level variations which can be expected for different opening
angles.
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Loudspeakers
The loudspeakers used in the audio reproduction chain are a vital factor in
determining the overall quality and success of a sound system. Because if
this, it is vital to understand the different types of loudspeakers available,
and their particular strengths and weaknesses.
Bosch offer a wide range of loudspeakers in their product range, but all are
designed and rigorously tested to reproduce speech clearly, and to provide a
very high level of reliability.
LOUDSPEAKER TYPES
Cone loudspeakers are the most commonly used units, which in order to
function properly must be mounted in correctly designed enclosures (cabinets
or boxes). Dependent on the enclosures in which they are mounted, the
characteristic of handling a wide frequency range makes them particularly
suitable for the reproduction of music and speech. Loudspeakers with larger
cone diameters generally give better low frequency reproduction.

125
The fact that they are less efficient, and do not produce a high SPL, compared with diaphragm
(horn) type
loudspeakers, limits their use in areas of high ambient noise, or where the loudspeaker must be
mounted a
great distance from the listeners. The following units are based around cone loudspeakers:
15.1.1 Standard loudspeaker cabinets
Standard (infinite baffle) loudspeaker cabinets, are in principle a sealed box containing 1 cone
loudspeaker, and
have a typically wide dispersion pattern. Their shape makes them convenient for mounting on
walls or pillars, or
suspending vertically from the ceiling, to give a wide beam of sound.
The bass response of the sealed enclosure is very much dependent on its inside volume. Normally,
a large
sealed enclosure will provide better bass response than a small one. In high quality
reinforcement and
Hi-Fi installations, enclosures are "tuned" to the resonant frequency of the (bass) loudspeaker,
often by building
in a bass opening or elongated port having very critical dimensions.

126
127
Note:
a: Caution should be taken when mounting these units in particularly
high ceilings (> 5 meters) and in noisy environments. The level of
sound reaching the listeners may be unacceptably low, due to the
distance involved, and the limited maximum SPL available from the
units.
b: It is difficult to obtain good results from a ceiling loudspeaker
system in rooms with a reverberation time of more than 2 seconds
(see chapter 18 for indoor acoustics).

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Sound columns
Sound columns are a group of (usually 4 to 10) loudspeakers mounted close together in a vertical
array. Due to an interesting acoustical phenomenon, though the beam of sound emitted horizontally
is approximately the same as a normal cone loudspeaker, the beam of sound emitted vertically is
narrow (10-150) and therefore very directional, especially at higher frequencies. Column
loudspeakers are particularly useful in situations where a great degree of control is required over
the vertical spread of sound, and no spill of sound is acoustically allowed.
A typical instance would be in reverberant environments (e.g. churches) where it is desirable to
beam the sound down onto the listeners, without it reflecting off hard walls and ceilings.
Unfortunately the bass frequencies are less directional than the higher frequencies, and spread
much wider than the useful loudspeaker opening angle.
In reverberant environments this wide spread of low frequencies can excite a reverberant field,
causing great problems with intelligibility. In situations where the microphone is in the same room
as the loudspeakers, this can also cause acoustic feedback. This can be overcome by the use of
equalisation (described in chapter 10), reducing the volume of the bass frequencies in the signal.
Though this is acceptable for speech purposes, it would have an adverse affect on the quality of
music reproduction, so care should be taken not to completely eliminate the bass content of the
signal if music is to be amplified.

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131
Horn loudspeakers
Horn (or 'diaphragm') loudspeakers, are different to cone loudspeakers in
that the sound produced is generated by a small, thin metal diaphragm,
and amplified by the shape and size of a folded horn. They produce a very
powerful, concentrated, beam of sound enabling them to reach listeners at
a great distance.
Because the diaphragms are normally mounted in moulded plastic or
metal folded horn enclosures, they can be easily rendered weatherproof,
which allows them to be used outdoors and in dusty and humid
environments. They may be mounted on masts or higher buildings and/or
arrayed in a column to produce a directional vertical beam.

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The diaphragm loudspeakers used in public address installations have the
limitation of having a fairly restricted frequency range, giving a diminished output at low
frequencies due to the
diameter of the horn and at high frequencies due to folding of the horn. This makes them
generally unsuitable
for satisfactory music reproduction, but can to some degree be compensated for by combining
them with cone
loudspeakers.
15.1.5 Full range high power loudspeakers
Loudspeakers with diaphragms mounted directly onto the mouth of an exponential horn are often
used as the treble component of a "full range" multiple loudspeaker enclosure. The audio signal is
fed through a suitable crossover filter which eliminates the bass content, which could damage the
diaphragm. These enclosures, often grouped together in a cluster, are used in installations to
produce full range high power sound.

133
Combining the horn in the centre of the woofer
loudspeaker has the advantage of a compact
stackable or arrayable unit.

134
MATCHING LOUDSPEAKERS TO AMPLIFIERS
Two systems are available for connecting
loudspeakers to amplifiers:
-The direct low impedance system
And -The 100 Volt Line Matching System (which is normally used in public address emergency &
announcement systems).
The loudspeakers could be connected in a series/parallel
arrangement, as illustrated, to exactly match the amplifier's low
output impedance.
This is only a feasable solution if the power leads to the loudspeakers are
reasonable short, otherwise line losses are considerably.
If the loudspeakers differ in power and impedance, it is very difficult indeed to match them to the
power amplifier. In this type of situation, or in an application requiring long loudspeaker cable
lengths ( e.g. public address systems), the 100 Volt line system should be used.
When loudspeakers are connected to the 100V tap on the amplifier's line matching transformer,
their full power is used, whereas if they are connected to the 70V tap, only 1/2 of their rated
power is used.
This means that the 70V tap enables the amplifier to power twice as many loudspeakers, with each
loudspeaker producing 1/2 of its potential power. Similarly, the 50V tap allows loudspeakers to use
1/4 of their rated power, so that the amplifier is able to power 4 times more loudspeakers, with
each producing 1/4 of its potential power.

135
The transformers fitted to loudspeakers have similar taps, but in this case the actual
power which the loudspeaker will draw (e.g. P, P1/2, P1/4, or 6W, 3W, 1,5W), instead of
the voltage, is printed beside each power (+) tap. A reduced loudspeaker volume can be
set by using these taps. For instance if the same type of loudspeakers are powered from a
common amplifier, and it is desired to have one of them producing less volume than the
others, then it is a simple matter of connecting the signal to either the 1/2 or the 1/4
power (+) tap. This would reduce the output of the loudspeaker by 3dB or 6dB
respectively.
Note:
When using the 100 Volt line matching system, the Rated Power of the amplifier
corresponds to the Rated Load Impedance of the loudspeaker network. The total rated
power required should be calculated, by simply adding the Rated Power of the connected
loudspeakers together, taking into account the difference in power drawn when using the
loudspeaker power taps. It is important that
this total should not exceed the rated power of the amplifier.
Loudspeakers in the Bosch product range are manufactured with a Power Handling
Capacity (PHC) according to the IEC268-5 standard. These loudspeakers are actually
capable of withstanding power input greater than the PHC, which enables them to avoid
damage during times of excessive signal overload (acoustic feedback! )

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137
The Acoustic Environment
The characteristics of sound and the way it is transmitted are very much altered by theenvironment
in which it is generated. The same audio signal would sound quite different in a sports stadium as
compared to a large reverberant church or to a heavily damped lecture room.
In general, it is possible to differentiate between two situations: the outdoor and the indoor
environment. In both situations though we are striving primarily at:
1. Speech Intelligibility - delivering the message to the ears of the listener clearly.
2. Quality of Reproduction - delivering e.g. music to the ears of the listener as unchanged as
possible.
Outdoors
In the outdoor environment several factors must be considered which influence sound reproduction
and reception:
• Sensitivity
• Power
• Directivity
• Distance
• Reflection
• Absorption
• Refraction
• Air absorption
• Humidity
• Temperature
• Echoes
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TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
17.1.1 Power
Each time the input power of a loudspeaker is doubled, the SPL rises
by 3 dB. The effect, at a distance of 1m, is shown in the table, which lists
the increase in SPL with doubling of power, from a nominal value of
100 dB (SPL)
Intermediate powers may be accounted for by:
dB (SPL) at measured power = SPL 1.1 + 10 Log P/P0
where:
SPL 1.1 = sensitivity of loudspeaker in dB (SPL) for 1 watt at 1 meter
P = power (W)
P0 = reference power (1W)
Using our reference of 100 dB(SPL), for an increase of 12 W the calculation is:
100 + 10 Log 12 = 100 + 10.8 = 110.8 dB (SPL)

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Directivity
Before attempting to calculate coverage, it is necessary to know a little about the different
characteristics of certain types of loudspeakers. One of the fundamental differences in loudspeaker
types is their 'opening angle'.
This is the dispersion (measured as an angle) of sound which radiates from the front of the speaker.
Dependent upon the environment and the particular application needs, it may be necessary to use
loudspeakers with a wide opening angle, which disperse (spread) their sound over a wide area.
Alternatively it may be necessary to concentrate a beam of sound in a particular direction. This
would be important where an unnecessarily wide spread of sound is not only wasteful in amplifier
energy, but could reflect off nearby buildings, or disturb people in neighbouring areas. This is
particularly vital when the microphone is also outdoors, and exposed to sound coming from the
loudspeakers. An uncontrolled spread of sound could return a large amount of the audio signal into
the microphone, which will be amplified again, causing acoustic feedback or howl. Take care to
place the loudspeakers in such a position that there is a "quiet” area around the microphone
location, if possible with the loudspeakers in front of, and pointing away from, the microphone.
Even though certain types of loudspeakers produce a fairly wide spread of sound, by grouping
several of them in a vertical configuration, commonly called a column, the shape of the total beam
of sound can be altered to make it more directional. This is discussed in greater detail in 15.1.3.
InIn installations with low output level loudspeakers, mounted along the length of an area, spacing
the loudspeakers less than 15 meters apart will help minimise echo. See 10.0 for details of using a
delay line in this type of situation.

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17.1.3 Attenuation due to Distance
When sound is reproduced in an outdoor situation, without any objects to cause reflection, the
listener hears only direct radiation. The sound pressure level drops by 6 dB(SPL) each time the
distance is doubled.
The table below shows SPL decrease with the doubling of distance, from a nominal value of 100
dB(SPL)

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Assume that a loudspeaker source has a sensitivity (SPL1.1) of
100 dB(SPL). An input of 1 W gives the following results:
For intermediate distances:
dB(SPL) at measured distance = SPL1.1 - 20 Log r/r0
where:
SPL1.1 = sensitivity of loudspeaker in dB(SPL) 1W;1m
r = measured distance (m)
r0 = reference distance (1m)
Using the nominal value of 100 dB, the calculation of the SPL at 25 metres is:
100 - 20 log 25 = 100 - 28 = 72 dB(SPL)
Variations of both distance and power
Assume that a loudspeaker has a sensitivity of 100 dB. To calculate the dB(SPL) at 26 m with
an input of 10W:
At 26 m the loss in dB(SPL) = 20 log 26 = 28.3 dB
And at 10 W, gain in dB(SPL) = 10 log 10 = 10 dB
The total effect of both variations is simply their algebraic addition:
100 - 28.3 + 10 = 81.7 dB(SPL)
Generally we can calculate as follows:
Ldir = Ls + 10 Log(Pel) - LQ - 20 Log(r) Ls = SPL1.1 = SPL value for 1W at 1m on axis.
Pel = power consumption of loudspeakers (W)
LQ = on/off axis level difference
r = distance from the source

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Indoors
18.1 TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
When designing a sound system for indoors, the situation is made difficult by a number of problems
which must be taken into consideration.
Because the listener is often seated some distance from the source of the sound, high frequency
signals are absorbed by the air, while the lower signals activate reverberation as they bounce off
hard walls and ceilings. This means that, in a reverberant environment, with increasing distance,
we encounter two problems at the listeners:
• A decreasing original (direct) speech spectrum (SPLdir), discussed in 17.1.3.
• An reverberant low toned indirect/reflected speech spectrum (SPLrev). This means that the
listeners may hear everything loudly, but the consonants in the speech are hidden or masked by the
reverberation, causing low speech intelligibility, so that they cannot understand what is being said.
Reflection & Absorption
When a sound source is in a room and enclosed e.g. by walls and a ceiling, these surfaces will partly
reflect and partly absorb the sound. The intensity of the reflected sound wave (Iref) is smaller than
the incident one (Iinc), a fraction α of the incident energy is lost during reflection, or:
Iref = (1-α) Iinc α is called absorption coefficient Most of the building materials have measured
absorption coefficients (α) and reflection coefficients (r). α + r = 1.
If all the sound is reflected (r = 1), no sound is absorbed by the material (α = 0).
The list with absorption coefficients is provided (see appendix) for a selection of materials; a
higher figure per octave band = greater absorption. As can be seen, soft materials generally have
more effect on higher frequencies.

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144
Reverberation
If sound is generated in a room, part will travel directly to the listener; more will arrive after
having been reflected, and still more after successive reflections.
The effect of these repeated reflections is called reverberation, which leads to the build-up of
diffuse sound throughout the room, called the reverberant field.
The actual level of the reverberant field is determined by three factors:
• the nature of the sound source
• the physical volume of the room
• the reverberation time.
18.1.3 Reverberation time
The reverberation time (T) of a room is a measure of the time taken for the sound level of the
reverberant field
to fall by 60 dB. The following points regarding reverberation time are assumed:
• the reverberation time in a room is the same whatever the position of the sound source;
• the reverberation time in a room is the same wherever the listener happens to be;
• the lack of intelligibility in a room is almost always due to a long reverberation time;
• reverberation time is determined by the room volume, and total amount of sound absorption in
it.

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The reverberation time according to Sabine:
T = 0,161 Volume / Absorption
The absorption : A = α S + 4mV + nAP α S = Σ (Si αi)
Thus: T = 0,161 V/(αS + 4mV + nAP )
where: V = total volume of the room (m3 ) α = average absorption coefficient
A = total absorption (m2 or Sabine) n = number of persons
S = total surface area (m2 ) AP = absorption per person (m2 or Sabine)
Si = surface area (m2 )
m = atmospheric absorption (attenuation constant) see chapter 1,4 for details.
The effects of the number of people in the room should normally be taken into consideration. In
many theatres and cinemas however, the effect of the variation in audience numbers is minimised
by the use of plush soundabsorbing seating, having the same absorption as a person actually in the
seat.

146
In other situations like airports where the reverberation time of the empty hall is known, the
influence of the audience can be calculated by:

147
148
149
 Calculation of Direct and Indirect Sound Fields
It is important to have a good understanding of the different sound fields in a room. Early sound
carries the intelligibility, late sound gives the disturbance. Early sound is experienced by our ears
as the sum of all speech related sounds arriving in a time window of 20-30 ms. This is the direct
sound coming straight from the source(s) plus the indirect sound due to reflections as long as they
are within the time window (splittime).

150
151
Calculation of Reverberant Sound Fields
All the speech related sound which arrives later than 20-30ms is regarded as useless and disturbing
and consists of a chaos of reflections and is called reverberation.
The level of this reverberant disturbing sound (Lrev) depends of the source(s) , the volume and
the reverberation time of the room. The following formulas can be used to calculate the
reverberant sound field:

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Calculation of the early / late ratio
The level difference between useful Direct sound and disturbing Reverberant sound is called
early/late ratio and is a good measure for Speech Intelligibility. The useful sound level will vary at
different positions in the room, depending on distance, angle and useful reflections. The reverberant
sound level is only caused by the total radiated sound energy and the room properties like V, T. (1-
α). The early/late ratio is the input for the speech intelligibility graph on the next pages and gives a
quick insight in either STI or Alc.
After calculating on a particular position in the room this level difference we enter the chart at the
bottom and go up to the intersection with the actual reverberation time (e.g. T = 3s) and read the
Speech Transmission Index (STI) value at the right edge of the chart. ( Example: 4dB > STI = 0.585 )
Calculation procedure for the different sound pressure levels.
Example: In a rectangular room 20 x 20 x 10m we recommend loudspeakers mounted at the left and
right hand side of the stage and both aiming to the centre(16m) of the auditorium.
We calculate with the 1000Hz data of the room and the loudspeakers.

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154
Speech Transmission Index (STI & RASTI)
Introduction
In any location where verbal communication takes place, the quality of the speech transmission
is of interest,
and in many cases such as auditoria, theatres, conference rooms etc., it is of paramount
importance.
Many different approaches have been taken in the past to try and assess 'intelligibility', using
both subjective
and objective methods. The subjective methods used have been based upon word scores which
are arrived at using teams of trained speakers and listeners. This method is time consuming and
not always practicable due
to the human factors involved. Efforts have therefore been directed to devise methods which
yield an objective
measure of the speech intelligibility based upon the important acoustic factors background noise
and reverberation. The method of Articulation Index (AI), for example, is based primarily on the
measured signal to noise ratio with corrections being applied to allow for the effects of
reverberation.

155
Designing For The Acoustic Environment
LOUDSPEAKER PLACEMENT AND COVERAGE
A few practical considerations must be taken into account when selecting,
placing and aiming a loudspeaker in a sound system design.
1. The loudspeakers must be positioned in such a way that they are able to
produce an even spread of sound, reaching all audience areas of the room with
adequate loudness and clarity. If this is not so, some listeners could be
exposed to an uncomfortably high SPL, while others may have difficulty in
actually hearing the audio signal sufficiently.
2. Speech requires generally a good transmission and reproduction of the 500
Hz to 5 kHz frequency band, while music requires at least 100 Hz to 10 kHz to
give satisfactorily results. This should be taken into consideration in selecting
a loudspeaker type.
3. For speech applications, upto the 4 kHz octave band is essential for the
annunciation of consonants, and therefore intelligibility. Therefore we use the
loudspeaker opening angle data at 4 kHz for the calculations for equal
coverage.
156
4. For ceiling systems the spacing of the loudspeakers should be determined by looking at the
covered areas (-6dB) at 4 kHz. The audience area divided by this coverage area gives the number of
speakers. It means that the audience will hear the announcements at about the same level for the
required spectrum.
5. In installations with multiple loudspeakers, spacing the loudspeakers less than 15 meters apart
will help minimise echo otherwise proper delayed signals should be applied. (See chapter 10 for a
description of time delay)
6. Given the specifications of the loudspeakers we intend to use, it is possible to calculate the SPL
at any point in a room or area, either by using the formulas provided in chapters 17 or 18 in this
manual or using "EASE", the software package described in the Simulating and Measuring Appendix
at the end of this book.
7. Depending on the application, a good general rule would be to calculate the level (SPL) at 1.20
meters from the floor, which is the average ear height of a person sitting.
A popular speech peak level, known as the Comfortable Listening Level (CLL) is generally agreed
upon as 80 dB(SPL), which is the peak level in average conversation measured on a distance of 1m.
This assumes that the ambient noise level is low in the room, which is not always the case.
8. Background noise, or ambient noise, can make a great deal of difference to the level required
for an adequate intelligibility, especially in noisy environments such as factories or airports. To
keep the level more than 15 dB louder than the ambient noise, the use of proper callstations with
build-in compressor/limiter is required.

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SUMMARY OF THE LOUDSPEAKER-DESIGN
One of the vital requirements of any sound system is its ability to produce an even spread of
sound, reaching all parts of an area or room with equal intensity and clarity. In doing this, the
complete speech spectrum should reach the listener's ears as unchanged and
true to the original as possible.
The performance of a sound system can be predicted before it is installed or purchased.
The level of the direct sound as received from the loudspeakers, including beneficial early
reflections from side walls and/or ceiling, are calculated for the important octave bands.
With these calculations we optimise the coverage for the audience at 4000 Hz.
The level of the reverberant sound caused by the selected solution can be calculated if the
Volume / Reverberation time / Absorption is known.
This can be done per octave band (125 - 250 - 500 - 1000 - 2000 - 4000 - 8000 Hz).
After that the intelligibility is calculated with the values for 1000 Hz, to verify that the
listeners can hear the reproduced sound clearly.

158
159
SPEECH INTELLIGIBILITY IN CHURCHES & COMMUNITY HALLS
The impact of a good sermon or message is greatly affected by the degree to which
speech is intelligible at the ears of the listener. Because of this, large amounts of money are
often spent on a sophisticated sound installation intended to get the word into every corner of
the listener area. Microphones - mixing desk - amplifiers - equalisers and loudspeakers are
the things wrestled with to achieve the desired effect. Unfortunately the final result is often
disappointing and at times even worse than having no sound system at all. If we look around
in many churches, the acoustic difficulties are obvious. Ancient churches are often high and
monumental, having awesome acoustics for traditional music - organ - choir and community
singing. Unfortunately this is per definition always in conflict with speech requirements.
Often the reverberation is so high that a sound system adds to the problem instead of
solving it. For good speech intelligibility we need a sound system that avoids an increase of
the reverberation but still amplifies articulation.

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Let's start at the beginning - with the human voice: Speech consists of words and
pauses. Words contain both vowels and consonants. There is loudness variation. There is
pitch variation. There is a frequency spectrum (which is the lowest bass sound through to the
highest treble one). Let's first look at loudness. The vowels in a sentence have a frequency
spectrum below 1000Hz (two octaves above middle C for the musicians), and they create the
impression of loudness. The human mouth producing these sounds does so with a wide
opening angle and because the sound hits everything within range, this causes lots of
reverberation.
The consonants of the words in a sentence, having a frequency spectrum above 1000
Hz, provide the articulation. The human mouth produces these sounds with a narrow opening
angle and, because of this, is very directional. See the graph showing the loudness of
speech and the contribution of each octave band to speech intelligibility.
The complete speech spectrum should arrive at the listeners ears as unchanged as
possible. Unfortunately, because the listener is often seated some distance from the source
of the sound, the higher notes are absorbed by the air, while the lower notes activate
reverberation as they bounce off hard walls and ceilings. At the listeners ears we therefore

161
encounter two problems :
1. A decreasing original direct speech spectrum.
2. An increasing reverberant low toned indirect/reflected speech spectrum.
This means that the loudness might be okay but the consonants in the speech are hidden or masked
by the reverberation, causing low speech intelligibility or in technical terms the so called "Speech
Transmission Index" (STI or RASTI) is low.
19.3.1 Small reverberant traditional church building.
The sound system is normally needed for enhancing the speech intelligibility, and because the
reverberation is mainly low toned, the only thing we need to do is reproduce the mid and high
frequency spectrum of speech (above 1000 Hz). The loudspeaker system suitable for this venue is a
few columns with a multiple loudspeaker-array. These radiate in a nice wide horizontal pattern
while almost no sound is radiated vertically. This avoids sound hitting reflective ceilings etc.
avoiding unwanted reverberation. The columns should be placed vertically and mounted close to,
and somewhat at each side of the person speaking, taking care that every seat is within the audible
reach of a column.
19.3.4 Large high ceiling auditorium.
We can use the previous solution but, due to larger areas to be covered, we now need more and/or
more powerful full range loudspeakers. To ensure that every seat receives roughly the same direct
sound (<5dB), we can group several loudspeaker cabinets in a cluster high above the stage. Cabinets
with "constant directivity" (the same opening angle for all the relevant frequencies) are ideal for
this purpose. Cabinets located throughout the audience area can provide an alternative solution,
but then we need proper time delays to avoid sound coming from the wrong direction. If a TV-
monitor system is used, we need to lip synchronise our audio to the video image, and in this case no
time delays should be applied. 162
Large reverberant monumental cathedral.
We can use the previous solution but due to larger distances we now need a more widely
distributed loudspeaker column solution. Mounting the long cardioid loudspeaker columns on
every pillar, to improve on the decreasing direct speech spectrum, will help. Unfortunately the
loudspeakers produce the sound at the same time, which means that the congregation hears
the preacher's voice from the direction of the closest loudspeaker. To overcome this disturbing
effect, the sound from each (group of) loudspeaker(s) must be delayed (5 metres = 15
milliseconds) using time delay equipment.
SUMMARISING THE DESIGN PROCEDURE
1. Select the correct loudspeaker type(s).
2. Select the optimum loudspeaker position(s).
3. Select the best aiming points.
4. Check the coverage at 4000 Hz.
5. Calculate the SPLdir on the aiming point(s).
6. Calculate the SPLdir on the - 6dB points.
7. Select the Powertapping(s).
8. In reverberant rooms calculate SPLrev.
9. Check the intelligibility in STI or Alcons(%).
Repeat(?)1-7/9 for other loudspeaker/place/aiming

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19.3.3 Small low ceiling auditorium.
This type of venue does not cause too much trouble with respect to reverberation, but due
to the room's absorbent character, the loudness is normally low and in need of pure amplifica-tion.
We can achieve this with columns and/or with a nice pattern of (delayed) ceiling loud-speakers in
order to cover the complete audience area. If music must be reproduced too, full range two-way
loudspeakers should be used in front. In this case several sound signals (speech & music) are
amplified by the system at the same time and a mixing desk, controlled by an operator, is needed.
As an added bonus, a cassette recording can be made of the music and sermon, and the mixer
could also feed a separate induction loop amplifier for the hard of hearing. These two functions
should be considered in all applications.
19.3.5 Wide low ceiling auditorium.
Because a high mounted cluster might be impracticable, we must now consider a ceiling mounted
system. The advantage here is that an almost ideal coverage can be achieved, with direct sound
from the loudspeakers providing good intelligibility. Unfortunately, the fact that the sound is
coming from above may appear very spiritual, but it isn't audibly correct. Ceiling loudspeaker
groups with electronic time delay will solve this.
If music amplification is also needed, full range loud-speakers, placed left & right at the front of
the room, will give good low tone reproduction and solve the orientation problem. The delayed
ceiling system gives the extra mid and high tones needed for clarity and intelligibility.

164
The total (church) sound system chain
Microphones are the receivers of sound generated by such sources as preacher, singer, musical
instruments and congregation. These microphones are either directional and mounted on stands, or
omni-directional and tie clipped or lavalier. To get more freedom of movement, wireless
microphones with transmitters can be used, with radio receivers connected directly to the mixing
desk. Accessories like floor stands; table stands; screened (balanced!) cables (with XLR plugs) etc.
are also needed.
The Mixing Desk is the heart of the audio system and is the control console where all the
microphones, guitars, electronic organ, cassette player, etc. come together. This is where the final,
mixed sound is sent to the amplifiers, tape recorder and/or monitor loudspeaker(s).
In order to give the sound engineer an undistorted judgement of the total sound, the favourite
place for this desk is in the middle of the auditorium.
An Equaliser gives extensive control over the whole frequency spectrum and can be used for
optimising the frequency response of the loudspeakers. It can even equalise the complete audio
chain, from microphone to ear. Used with care, this would guarantee maximum amplification for
the frequency spectrum required, at the same time compensating for the menace of acoustic
feedback.

165
The Amplifier is used to amplify the power of the mixing desk to a level that will feed the
loudspeakers properly. This is either a 100V or 70V line level amplifier (favourable if long
loudspeaker distances are involved) or a direct low impedance 4 or 8 ohm amplifier. If using the
latter, make sure that the amplifier wattage is always lower than the loudspeaker wattage so that
the amplifier is not able to overload the loudspeakers.
Loudspeakers used solely for speech are mostly column types, having small vertical opening-angles
to reduce reverberation. For speech and music, use good full range two-way cabinets, which
generate the full speech and music spectrum.
For small churches needing only speech amplification, we can reduce the equipment to a few
microphones, one mixing amplifier and a few loudspeaker columns. The individual microphone
volume levels are controlled on the amplifier, which also allows tone-control of the loudspeakers.
Once carefully set up, such a system should work without intervention, every time you switch on
the amplifier.

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19.3.7 Predicting & calculating the performance of the church system.
The performance of a sound system can be predicted before it is installed or
purchased.
Per seat, the amount of direct sound (received from the loudspeakers), and the
amount
of reverberant sound (via the reflections) can be calculated for every relevant
octave band
(125 -250 - 500 - 1000 - 2000 - 4000 - 8000 Hz). After that the timing of the sound
from
individual loudspeakers is checked and the speech intelligibility is calculated.
Nowadays this time-consuming calculation work and the corresponding
presentations
can all be done with PC software like Catt Acoustics or E A S E. (Electro Acoustic
Simulator
for Engineers). The program provides pictures of the audience areas with plotted
calculation
results regarding: coverage(SPLdir), loudness(SPLtot) clarity(dB), intelligibility(STI),
arrival
times(ms), etc.

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Introduction
Call and communication systems – also known as ‚Nurse Call Systems‘ – are designed especially to
help people in emergency situations, to save lives and to prevent dangers. The complexity of
these systems ranges from simple call functionality to complex systems, which are oriented to
the requirements of modern care services and which are subject to DIN VDE 0834. This standard
has been brought into force by the Deutschen Elektrotechnischen Kommission (DKE) (German
Electrical and Electronics Commission) in DIN and VDE in agreement with the
European Standards Organisation.
Nurse call systems are call systems with the help of which persons can be summoned or
sought or information can be forwarded.
Typical for these systems is a variable degree of danger that can occur for the caller or other
party if calls are not indicated as the result of a malfunction or malfunctions are not recognised
in time.
These requirements often exist in:
• hospitals
• homes for the elderly and senior citizens
• retirement homes
• care institutions
• forensic clinics
• prisons
• homes for the disabled
• accessible toilets for the disabled in public
facilities
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DIN VDE 0834 describes a human envaronement , in which a person seeking help summons
assistance and is therefore applicable everywhere. The standard sets the framework conditions for
technical boundary limits, for timing and function procedures and for the interface between humans
and the system.
Application areas such as hospitals, prisons or homes for the elderly are only listed in the DIN VDE
0834 as examples.
Call systems are independent systems. They possess their own supply or transmission network,
independently of third-party systems, that must be controlled and monitored by the devices of the
call system themselves. Call system devices may carry out telecommunications,
media technology and information technology functions, in order to be able to offer the user (e.g.
the patient) a complete, easy-to-use and perfectly matched service package. These functions are,
for instance, light control, radio reception, remote control of TV equipment, multi-media,
telephone connection and debt collection functions. According to DIN VDE 0834, call functions must
always have unlimited priority over all other services and emergency operation must
be guaranteed.
The system must be protected by means of secure cut-off points against the transmission of
impermissible higher voltages and must be functionally completely independent of third-party
systems that are attached to the call system. The exchange of data with other security and
communication systems may only take place via interfaces that are certified by the manufacturer of
the call system.

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So, for example, the switching off of the auxiliary telephone system, the failure of a TV or
short-circuiting of a bed light must under no circumstances have an effect either on the
functional capability of the call system or on its functional characteristics.
When using medical equipment or other intensive care devices, the use of the call system
does not replace the rules and regulations for the personnel and the duty of care when operating
such devices. The system can, however, additionally transmit messages to accelerate observance
of calls and alarms.
Aims and Application Areas
DIN VDE 0834 is the central standard for the realisation of call and communication systems.
Non-compliance or ‚liberal interpretation‘ of this standard carelessly endangers patients, those
requiring protection and, in particular, the elderly. Unfortunately, it has been discovered in the
past that not all companies that deal with this subject observe this standard. Through ambiguous
arguments and clearly false interpretations, conceptual deficiencies in their own technology are
sometimes covered up and necessary investment is
avoided.
As a result of the potential dangers for affected persons, it would appear to be necessary to
address clearly and plainly the points that are vital for the standardised implementation of the
call and communication systems.

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This, the 4th edition of this brochure, should assist all interested parties in the
application of DIN VDE 0834, thereby achieving a manufacturer- wide standardisation of
the procedures and terminology. Investors, planning offices, installation companies and
operators gain a comprehensive overview for project planning, installation, extension,
modification, operation and maintenance of call andcommunication systems.
The Committee of Experts for Nurse Call in the ZVEI represents manufacturers of call and
communication systems for hospitals, senior citizens’ residences and care institutions,
forensic clinics and prisons.
Its member companies have invested heavily in the functional and operational safety of
their products and systems. Members have the experience and competence gained over
many decades available to them, from planning to the operation of call systems. The
products and systems of the companies that have come together as members of the
Committee of Experts for Nurse Call are the results of continuous innovation, in which
the desires and the safety of the user, the requirements of the planner and installer, as
well as the latest state of technology are incorporated.

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Prisons, Forensic Clinics
Detainees in prisons or patients in forensic clinics are restricted in their freedom of movement
and are confined to small areas for long periods of time in the daily routine. Experience has shown
that under these conditions, living closely together with people with different educational
backgrounds and personality structures can lead to social tensions with the danger of the use of
physical and psychological violence against others, against themselves and against installations. This
danger confronts the prisoners themselves, as well as the officers and carers supervising and looking
after them.
The recreation area of the prisoners and the areas where prisoners and supervisory staff meet must
therefore also be so equipped, because of the particular duty of care, that every possible hazard can
be recognised early, can be reported by those affected and help can be requested.
1.4 General IT Networks and Nurse Call Systems
Conformity to DIN VDE 0834 must also be observed when using IP networks. Notes on standards
compliant design can be found in the ZVEI leaflet ‚Call systems and IP? Of course‘ This also applies
to wireless networks.
Short Overview of Minimum Requirements
According to DIN VDE 0834
DIN VDE 0834 takes into account rapid technological advances, in that it does not specify
which technologies should be used. However, it sets the framework conditions for technical
boundary limits, time and functional procedures and for the interface between people
and system.

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For a quick initial orientation, the most important design parameters are summarised here.
Functions and terminology from the area of hospitals/care institutions are used for this. They can be
used analogously for all call situations and all persons, who are exposed to danger, e.g. also for staff
in a prison:
• Every bed must have a call release assigned to it, which can be easily reached by bedridden
patients.
• Call buttons are always red, have a clear call symbol and must be easily recognisable in darkness
(orientation light).
• The call release must be indicated optically in close proximity to the call element (reassurance
lamp).
• In all rooms in which the personnel to be contacted can be found, manual or automatic presence
buttons and acoustic noise generators for call forwarding must be present
• Additional text displays in the corridors should still be clearly readable between 5
lux and 500 lux at a distance of 20 m.
• Optical and acoustic signals must be unambiguously specified so that mobile experienced response
personnel can operate the call systems of different manufacturers without instruction. Only
permanent lights, slowly flashing lights and fast flashing lights are permissible in a system. Likewise,
for call forwarding a maximum of three acoustic signals are defined for normal calls, emergency
calls and alarm calls.

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 For further applications a maximum of one more acoustic signal is permissible, which
must be clearly distinguishable from the tone sequences of the call forwarding. An
emergency call by a person providing assistance to fetch further persons providing
assistance must be released automatically by means of pressing the available call
buttons. This release must be prepared through the marking of presence for this location.
• Outside every room it is essential to provide a corridor indicator lamp, which
indicates the call (red) and the presence (green) as a minimum. These indicators must
still be clearly recognisable with an ambient luminous intensity of 500 lux. A call release
must be indicated within one second.
• The time period between the call releaseand reaching the personnel responsible must
not be longer than five seconds.
• The marking of the presence of personnel in the call area may be used for deleting
the call.
• Rooms, which cannot be looked into from the installation location of the presence
recognition, such as bathrooms, must be provided with a separate call cancellation.
• Call and operational equipment must not be mounted under a common cover plate
together with devices belonging to high voltage units and must be clearly distinguishable
from these on the outside.

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For call systems with speech communication, remote cancellation of the call must only take place
if a speech connection has actually been established. For calls without speech possibility, remote
cancellation must not be possible. These calls may, however, be acknowledged, in order to suppress
acoustic call forwarding, as long as an optical indication still occurs.
The power supply of the system must not exceed 30 V effective value or 60 V direct current. This
low voltage must not be used for other systems or devices as well.
Exceptions are electronic latching relays for reading light control and call system interfaces to
other products. They must be securely connected and must be provided with their own overload
protection. On the installer side suitable protective measures against impermissible voltage peaks
must be provided.
• All call systems must be supplied with emergency power, which takes over within
15 seconds of the failure of the normal current supply and maintains the operation for a minimum
of one hour. With a power failure, existing calls must remain stored as an interim measure for at
least 30 seconds.
• Transmission paths of other systems must not be used for the call system.
• Conversely, transmission paths of the call system may be used by other systems if all input and
output signals are used via their own interfaces or those approved by the manufacturer of the call
system and malfunctions of the third-party system do not affect the call system, i.e. are
noninteracting.
• All earth wires connected to the call system must be connected to the same main potential
equalisation. If this is not possible, then the individual areas must be electrically isolated from
each other.
• Cables that interconnect buildings must be provided with overvoltage protection or be
electrically isolated at the exit points.
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Hospital call systems
In hospitals, it is desirable for each patient to be able to call a nurse to his/her bed. Figure
11.1 is a wiring diagram of a simple circuit for achieving this. There is a call unit at each
bed which contains a push button, a relay and an illuminated reset lamp push. When the
patient pushes the button, the relay is energized and holds itself in until it is released by
the reset lamp push. While the relay is energized, a lamp is illuminated; it can be either
next to the patient’s bed or over the door of the room. At the same time, a buzzer and
light are operated in the ward office or wherever else the nurse is to be called from. The
buzzer can be silenced by a muting switch, but the light can only be cancelled by the
resetting push on the patient’s unit. Secondary or pilot lamps and buzzers can be placed
elsewhere so that a nurse’s attention can be attracted in more than one place or so that a
nurse can supervise the activity of his/her staff.

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When the call is made, the duty nurse has no indication from where it is coming and
must, therefore, walk around all the places on the system until s/he sees the individual
lamp which has been illuminated. The system is therefore limited to small areas. An
extended version which does not have such a limitation is shown in Figure 11.2. A call
unit is provided at each bed and also in each toilet; the toilet unit differs from the bed unit
by being operated by external push buttons instead of by buttons within it. There is a button in
each WC compartment and in each bath compartment, all of them being cabled in parallel
with each other to the operating contacts of the single toilet unit. Each call unit
illuminates a lamp over the door of the room in which that unit is. Thus all the units in a
ward illuminate the same lamp over the ward door. Several rooms are grouped in a
section and when any unit in one section is energized a signal lamp for that section is
illuminated in the nurse’s office. There can also be a parallel signal lamp at a suitable
position in the corridor.
When the duty nurse receives a call, the indicator in his/her office shows which
section the call is coming from. When s/he gets to that section of corridor, s/he will see
which door has a light over it, and once inside the room she can see which call unit has
the reset lamp alight. Further central stations can be added in parallel with the main one
in case staff have to be called from more than one area or in case supervision of staff
activities from another office is necessary.

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Figure 11.1 Hospital call system

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It will have been noticed that the reset button on the call unit is in the form of a lamp
which stays alight until it has been pushed to reset the unit. One reason for this is to show which
unit in a ward of several beds has been operated, but the
presence of the light also helps to reassure a nervous or frightened patient that assistance
is on the way. It is simpler and cheaper to make the reset push contain the light than to
install a separate button and lamp.
The call units and central station can also incorporate a combined microphone and
loudspeaker so that the nurse can speak to the patient from her office. The diagram of
Figure 11.2 is repeated with this facility added in Figure 11.3.
The indicator units and signal lamps are all made for extra-low voltage so that there is
no possibility of electrical shock to the users if any faults occur. Another reason for using
extra-low voltage is that it would be unnecessarily expensive to have mains voltage
signal lamps. It is, therefore, usual to make the whole system an extra-low voltage one
and to size the cables accordingly. The design of the wiring thus becomes similar to that
for fire alarms discussed in Chapter 10, but it is not so essential to protect the wiring from
fire damage. Ordinary PVC cables may be used and there is not the same objection to the
use of a transformer from the main building supply. In fact, call-system equipment is
normally made for a 24V d.c. supply, and the manufacturers also make a power unit
consisting of a transformer and rectifier. A 250V a.c. is supplied to the primary of the
power unit and 24V d.c. is taken from the secondary or output side. The cables must
obviously be sized to keep the voltage drop to an absolute minimum, and in a large
building it may be necessary to have several independent systems in order that the cables
are sufficiently short.
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Electronic circuits enable relays to be replaced by transistor switches and lamps to be
replaced by light emitting diodes. This reduces the power consumption drastically and,
because currents are reduced to the order of milliamps, voltage drop ceases to be a major
consideration. Bells and buzzers still require appreciable power but can be operated
through amplifiers and relays from sources close to them. The operating principles are the
same as for the power-operated systems described and the methods of connection are similar
but, because of the small currents, telephone-type cables can be used. In some
cases it may be convenient to use multicore cable.

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Figure 11.2 Hospital call system

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A typical indicator to receive the calls in the central office is shown in Figure 11.4. An
indicating lamp suitable for mounting over a room door is shown in Figure 11.5. It has a
cast-iron or steel box with a lampholder to take a low-wattage sign-type lamp or a LED
and an overlapping brass cover with a ruby glass dome. The box is built into the wall so
that the cover is flush with the face of the wall.
A single call button is shown in Figure 11.6. This is contained in a box and is suitable
for fixing in a wall within reach of a bath or toilet. An example of a complete call unit is
shown in Figure 11.7. It contains the push button, reset light and also controls for the
patient’s bedside radio outlet. The call unit also contains a switch for a bedside lamp and the
microphone for a speech system.
They are on the end of a wander lead and are designed so that they can be held
comfortably in the patient’s hand. The wander lead ends in a multiway connector plug
which fits into a mating socket in the bedhead trunking shown in Figure 11.8. The
permanent wiring of the installation ends in this the trunking.

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Door indicators
A call system which is being increasingly installed is the door indicator. This is an
illuminated sign, with or without a buzzer, fixed outside an office door and operated by a
push at the desk in the office. The sign can be ‘Enter’, ‘Engaged’, ‘Next Patient’ or any
other message such as ‘Keep Out’. An enter sign is shown in Figure 11.9, together with
its wiring diagram. A transformer is contained in the same box as the sign and the system
operates at extra low voltage. The table push energizes a relay, which is also contained in
the sign box, and this connects the lamp behind the sign to the low-voltage supply. The
equipment can be arranged so that the light stays on until reset by the table push.
Standard equipment for these applications is made by a number of manufacturers. The
particular one shown is suitable for surface mounting, but they are also made for flush fixing, and
clearly for a new building this would be
preferable.
The sign could be relay controlled, such as outside an X-ray room at a hospital. When
the X-ray equipment is about to be operated the relay automatically activates a ‘Keep
Out’, or other warning sign.

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Figure 11.3 Call system
with speech facility

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Figure 11.4 Alarm indicator
(Courtesy of Gent & Co. Ltd)

Figure 11.5 Indicator lamp (Courtesy Figure 11.6 Call button (Courtesy of
of Edison Telecom Ltd) Edison Telecom Ltd)

Figure 11.7 Call unit (Courtesy of

Edison Telecom Ltd)

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Figure 11.8 Bedhead trunking Figure 11.9 Door sign
(Courtesy of Cableflow Ltd)

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Terminology, Basic Functions,
Characteristics, Requirements
Some terms, devices and basic functions are explained below and
their characteristics and requirements are commented upon, in
order to facilitate a common language for the multiplicity of system
types and to avoid misunderstandings.
The terms are not arranged alphabetically, but in the sequence in
which they occur when planning systems and requiring decisions.
The information refers to hospitals and old people’s homes; the
same applies analogously
to prisons.
Organization

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Feature: Controls all the functions of Nurse call
systems by controlling the main receiver with the
central controller made by using micro processed
scale program. Installation and maintenance is
easy for all functions are divided into circuit and
operation mode.
Power: AC 110~220V
Wiring: 4 line/ 10 line common method
Dimensions(W/H/D): 328 x 420 x 105(mm)

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ES-420(Shower booth emergency call) By activating the emergency call while in shower, lobby and
corridor light will emit for alert.
Pull-down rope type attached to wall
Waterproof preventing erosion
Adjustable by height
PS-100C(Moving handset)
By allowing patient and nurse to interact, it delivers convenience to medical support
and service.
Remote controller for 2 lamps
Specialized cable preventing stretching
Easy-to-attach connector type
CC-200(Calling code) Patient can get the medical support and service needed simply by pressing
a button.
Adjustable clip to bed sheet
Specialized cable preventing stretching
Easy-to-attach connector type

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 ES-400/ 410(Restroom PB-500(Nurse-in button)
CL-302C(Corridor light) emergency call) By pressing the button,
Installed above ward door, By activating the emergency lobby
it notifies nurse or doctor call and corridor light will
for while in restroom, lobby and emit to
any patient’s need. corridor indicate that nurse is in
Up to 4 colors of light light will emit for alert. the room.
4 different types of light Pull-down rope or button type Button type
indicator Waterproof preventing erosion Solid and elegant
(regular call/ nurse in/ Solid and elegant aluminum aluminum
emergency call/ panel panel
medical service call)

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Radiation room interphone Hi-power intercom is specially designed for
entrance call for patients waiting for radiation room, communication between
patient and personnel in dressing room, operating room in order to deliver
accurate information and smooth communication.
In Germany, the leading guideline for the safety of nurse call systems is the
DIN VDE 0834. Although it might not be legally binding, it is the reference
that defines the “state-of-the-art” in a court of law and thus sets the
minimum requirements to be adhered to – regardless of what technology is
being used.
a. Fields of application
The DIN VDE 0834 features two fields of application (A and B) according to
the degree of risk patients are exposed to in the event of failures. The B field
of application usually applies to medical facilities since it provides options for
the connection of medical devices and for the operation of nurse call system
in intensive care units or in high security areas (prisons).
The call function is primary in this context, with all other functions and
services being second day.
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b. Networking
The transmission lines in a nurse call system may be shared by other systems
only on condition that: “[...] It is particularly ensured that the call system is
not affected by faults in third-party systems.” In other words: The primary
alarm cannot be carried out over the general data network without further
ado. This would not even be permissible in areas where 99.9% of availability
seem to be sufficient, such as in areas exclusively designated for the provision
of care. Safety, Nurse Call
Systems and IP Solutions:
the DIN VDE 0834
DIN VDE 0834
as the yardstick
Call function
has priority
Reliability and emergency operation
Szenarien 1 und 2

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Dedicated IT network for cross-zone networking
Several zones (e.g. different buildings) are
interconnected over standard network
infrastructures in compliance with DIN 0845
(surge protection).
The central networking of the call system is
made over available IT network structures in
compliance with EN 50173 by using dedicated
network components (switches, routers etc.).
All components are clearly and unambiguously
labeled (incl. sockets, patch cables etc.),
approved by the manufacturer and equipped
with a separate circuit (with separate UPS).

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Nurse call systems used in care environments must always work flawlessly. Yet is a separate supply
network actually necessary for this? After all, modern care communication uses numerous other
functions which are network-based. A closer look at the DIN VDE 0834 standard gives insight into the
possibilities of connecting nurse call and LAN according to standards.
In hospitals and care facilities a trend towards the convergence of systems is clearly discernible. At the
same time costs are ever increasing in the public health services. This is where standardized
infrastructures play an important
role in terms of savings: If IT, telecommunication, nurse call system, medical technology, building
control technology and other systems could be operated with standard components, expenses for
wiring and ICT (Information, Communication and Technology) would decline. Even operation and
maintenance costs of the networks could be lowered. On a long-term basis integrated systems would
additionally adjust more flexibly to future requirements and offer more investment security.
At the same time, a common IT landscape provides an opportunity for the generation of concise added
values - for patients, personnel and operators of hospitals and care facilities. Value added services
such as multimedia, Video on Demand, IPTV or Internet for example are brought to the patients’
bedsides with only a minimum of effort. This increases the level of comfort for patients and residents
and creates additional sources of income.

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Another advantage of common networking via IP:
All functions and services are combined directly at the Point of Care (patient environment), ideally in
one intelligent terminal device which makes the operation as well as the service, exchange and
expansion of the terminal devices significantly
easier. Many options for the optimization of care processes are thus created right at the point of care.
Automatic presence logging, electronic documentation at the patient’s bedside and targeted call
forwarding ease the amount of routine work carried out by the staff. This simultaneously
raises the level of security during the whole care process as well as during revisions. Eventually the
patient’s safety must also be 100% reliable with IP-based solutions.
Nurse call systems used in care environments must always work flawlessly. Yet is a separate supply
network actually necessary for this? After all, modern care communication uses numerous other
functions which are network-based. A closer look at the DIN VDE 0834 standard gives insight into the
possibilities of connecting nurse call and LAN according to standards.
Flexibility and investment security
New sources of income Safety and process optimization

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Use of hybrid cabling for cross-zone networking
The nurse call system function is realized in compliance with
the standard via a bus line while the value added services
reach the point of care over standard network infrastructures
and, where appropriate, already existing lines.
Both cables end at an integrated terminal device.

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Electrical isolation
The safety specifications of the DIN VDE 0100 and 0107 standards must be
adhered to during the planning and installation of the nurse call system to
prevent any dangerous shock currents. The EN 60601 also plays an essential
role in secondary alarms in medical-technical devices over nurse call systems.
A reliable electrical isolation is the main requirement in this respect, even in
bathrooms and intensive care areas.
d. Behavior during malfunction
As a general rule, fault messages have to be unambiguous to the staff.
Moreover, the call indication via corridor lamp has to be in working order at
all times as a final safety level of sorts. For type B security zones the
following condition has to be fulfilled additionally:
“Larger call systems are to be subdivided into separate zones, independent of
each other, to cover a maximum area of one station. Faults in one of these
zones must not affect the remaining sections.” Using chances – minimizing
risks

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In order to use standardized infrastructures for nurse call systems, such solutions must be
able to provide the same safety standard as a completely autonomous installation. The
underlying reason for this: The DIN VDE 0834 is consulted for liability assessment. In this
case the operator of the system – along with the planner and the installer - has to prove
that the damage is not to be attributed to technical reasons. The operator must be able
to document (among other things) that
• the nurse call system was in flawless working condition (this includes call forwarding
and prioritization of calls)
• interference by other systems was ruled out
• danger due to non-standard installation was ruled out
• organizational shortcomings were ruled out at the time of the event (short-handed
staff situation, call escalation etc.) Problems may arise, for example, if components
were used which the manufacturer did not approve. However, structured cabling can be
intelligently used for the reliable operation of nurse call systems. One possible strategy
would be to ensure the flawless operation of such a system by means of continuous risk
management. This approach is based on the IEC 80001 dealing with the reliability of
medical devices as parts of IT networks in general – but not with nurse call systems as
such. Nevertheless, it seems to make sense to bundle the competences and
responsibilities for technical reliability into one, even if additional organizational efforts
are required.
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CCTV Systems
1-1. What are CCTV systems?
Televisions systems are now one of the most indispensable information and
communications
means in our daily life. They can be broadly classified as shown in Figure 1-1, and
are used in a wide range of applications, including standard television broadcasts.
 An open-circuit system refers to a system that is targeted at an indefinite number of
 people, as in television broadcasts.Closed-circuit systems, on the other hand, are
designed
 to provide video to specified viewers. One closed-circuit system that is primarily
designed
 for surveillance purposes is generally called a closed-circuit television or CCTV
system.
 CCTV is used in a wide variety of applications which include security, disaster
prevention,
 energy and manpower saving, sales promotion and information services, production
 management, industrial measurement, medical care, education and military fields.
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1-2. What are security systems?
Security systems are integrated systems made up of different types of equipment and
devices, the combined operation of which helps protect human lives, property, the
environment
and information. Crime prevention literally represents preventing violation of the
law and public interests and disturbances to social order through acts of crime, which
should be punished by law. Crime prevention facilities and equipment are classified as
shown in Figure 1-2. Long-distance picture transmission systems and surveillance camera
systems are encompassed within CCTV systems designed for crime prevention.

The aims of the installation of crime prevention facilities are to let criminals know the
risks of crime and function as a deterrent of crime or keep constant watch over potential
criminal acts. When a criminal act is detected, the facility’s sensors or emergency
warning switches are operated to sound an alarm and ideally cause criminals to go
elswhere.
Thereafter, information is sent to related departments or personnel for taking
appropriate
measures to avoid loss.

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How television works
A camera is analogous to the human eye and light passing through its lens is changed
into an electric signal by means of a charge-coupled device (CCD) or other image sensors
that correspond to the eye’s retina. The electric signal is output to a monitor via electrical
circuitry.

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The monitor’s image is made up of small black and white or Red, Green and Blue dots
(or pixels) similar to those that can be seen when a newspaper photo is enlarged. Like
these small printed dots, the smallest element the monitor uses to configure an image is
called a pixel. In newspaper photos, the size of the dot varies to create light and shade, but
in television, the size of each dot remains the same, with shades of lighter and darker dots
arranged accordingly. The greater the number of image pixels, the more finely on-screen
details can be clearly seen and a high-resolution image can thus be obtained.
In a television system, pixel energy is converted into electric energy and transferred to
another location, where the converted electrical energy is further converted into light. This
process of converting light into electrical energy is referred to as “photoelectric conversion,”
while the reverse is referred to as “current to light transference.” It follows that cameras are
photoelectric conversion devices and monitors or televisions are current-to-light transference
devices.
Regarding methods of conveyance, each pixel’s black and white brightness and darkness
or color tone is converted into electrical signals in an orderly sequence, similar to
repeatedly reading text from left to right till the end of the page is reached.

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The converted electrical signal is then transmitted to a television monitor which in turn
arranges each pixel in the same order and same positional relation and at the same time
reproduces each pixel’s black and white darkness as well as color tone from the electrical
signal to reconstruct the same image as the original. In other words, the image to be
transmitted is resolved in specified order and the pixels of the resolved image are
reconstructed
in the same order. This operation is called scanning and the operation of enabling
solution scanning at the camera in step with scanning reconstruction at the monitor is
called
synchronization, while matching the timing, as just stated, is called synchronizing.
Because the human eye experiences an afterimage phenomenon, if one picture is
transmitted every 1/30-second (NTSC) or 1/25-second (PAL), the human eye perceives it
as a moving image. This single picture is referred to as a frame and its scanning method is
as noted above. In reality, however, the beam first scans lines 1, 3, 5 and when it reaches
the bottom of the picture area, a rapid retrace takes place. The beam then scans lines 2,
4,
6 until it reaches the bottom then repeats. Using this method, when transmitting 30
(NTSC)
or 25 (PAL) screen frames per second, it appears that two-times coarse 60 (NTSC) or 50
(PAL) field screens are transmitted. Therefore, 2 fields equal 1 picture frame image.
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This method is called “scanning line interlace”, in which the method of scanning exactly
the center of the space between two previous lines is called a 2:1 interlace and that of
scanning an arbitrary path between two previous lines is called random interlace. The 2:1
interlace is generally used in surveillance camera systems. The random interlace produces
screen flicker or deterioration of vertical resolution, but because of its simple circuit construction,
it is sometimes used in small surveillance camera systems.
With the recent movement from analog to digital technologies, some televisions employ
the progressive scanning system, which features higher resolution and is used when reproducing
pictures. In NTSC television, for instance, the progressive scanning system
scans all 525 lines in succession, instead of scanning odd-numbered and even-numbered
lines alternately like the interlace method, thus reducing flicker.
Television system
Unless the element that determines the television system is standardized, the compatibility
between components that sense an image, transmit the signal and receive it cannot
be achieved. Each of the NTSC, PAL and SECAM systems is one of the world’s largest
television systems. The NTSC system is employed in such countries as the United States,
Canada, Japan, Korea and Taiwan. The countries that use the PAL system include western
European countries, China, Asian countries and Middle Eastern countries. The SECAM
system is employed in France, Russia and other eastern European countries, African
countries and parts of the Middle East.

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Further, the following video signal methods exist:
1) Composite video signal
Called VBS (Video and Color Burst signal) for color and VS (Video and Sync) for
monochrome, these signal method(s) are currently used for most video signals. It consists
of a luminance signal (Y), color signal (C), horizontal/vertical synchronizing signal (S) and
color synchronizing signal (B). However, the color signal and color-synchronizing signal are
not used for monochrome.
2) Y/C signal
This method transmits a luminance (Y) signal and a color (C) signal separately for higher
resolution.
3) RGB signal
In this signal, which is used in many industrial-use video projectors, the red (R) signal,
green (G) signal, blue (B) signal, horizontal synchronizing signal (H) and vertical
synchronizing
signal (V) are separated. Although a personal computer’s monitor output employs
this method, since the video frequency band differs depending on the type of equipment,
care is needed in setup.

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CCTV System Design
2-1. Designing a CCTV system
System design may sound difficult, but what is important is “The aim of the system,” that
is, ”What a building owner requires of the system.” Making this aim concrete is the system
design. Dividing work into the following procedures will facilitate the system design.
1) Understand the intended aim of the system.
2) Study the installation locations of cameras and monitors.
3) Understand the environments where cameras and monitors will be installed.
4) Select cameras, lenses, and pan/tilt drives.
5) Select signal routing, monitors, and switchers.
6) Select recording methods.
Let’s proceed with the design by following these procedures.
2-2. Aims of a surveillance camera system
The aim of the CCTV system is broadly classified into the following categories:
1) Security (Crime Prevention)
This application is generally referred to as “crime prevention cameras”. This aims not
only to create a psychological effect to act as a deterrent to crime, such as theft and molestation,
but also to help identify criminals after crimes are perpetrated by reviewing recorded
images resulting from the installation of a CCTV system. The system is used to
monitor conditions of facilities and places where people, material goods and money converge.

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2) Safety (Disaster Prevention)
The CCTV system is also installed in facilities and places where accidents and disasters
are liable to occur. Its main aims include the prevention of accidents caused by natural or
man-made disasters, minimization of property loss and personal injury resulting from
disasters.
This permits understanding the situation immediately after the occurrence of accidents
or disasters and examination of the cause of accidents after they occur.
3) Manpower Savings
The aim is to reduce manpower, expenses and time. The number of active security
guards can also be reduced in the above security and safety applications.
4) Customer Service
The CCTV system is used to improve service to customers. Examples of this include:
store owners monitoring and improving employees’ attitudes toward their customers, skiers
at riski resorts checking the congestion of the slope on the monitor installed in their
hotels,
and waiters monitoring the timing for the delivery of the next course in a restaurant.
5) Other Applications
Other aims include applications such as: video conferencing, sale presentations and
distance learning educational television systems.

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2-3. System design elements
Based on the system’s intended purpose, examine the number of cameras, monitors and
their installation locations. System design should usually begin with clarification of the input
and output of an image and/or sound. In other words, the “Input device” implies cameras
and microphones, while “Output device” refers to monitors and speakers. Determining
these elements first, followed by components connected to such equipment, will permit the
system to be easily designed.
The range of areas or rooms to be monitored can to a certain extent be imagined without
actually visiting them, depending on the types of buildings or facilities the system is installed
in. Let us give you some concrete examples.
1) Convenience Stores
With the increase in the number of convenience stores where ATM’s and color copy
machines are installed, the number of crimes at these facilities has also increased. It is said
that convenience stores suffer much damage and loss resulting from shoplifting and employee
theft. This is a situation that has stimulated demand for surveillance camera systems.
The standard convenience store system consists of four fixed cameras, with dummy
(nonfunctional) cameras added in many cases if four cameras are insufficient.
The range of areas to be monitored: Inside the store and particularly blind spots hidden
from the sales counter.
Monitoring room: Office and security guard room.
Monitoring person: Clerks and security guards.

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3) Office Buildings
A great number of surveillance camera systems have been installed in public facilities
and large buildings in order to maintain safety by quickly detecting crime and taking appropriate
actions.
The range of area to be monitored: Building entrances, emergency exits, public spaces and
rest room entrances.
Subject: Suspicious object left unattended and suspicious persons.
Monitoring room: Office and security guard room.
Monitoring person: Security guards.
4) Senior Citizen Centers and related facilities
With the rapid increase in the number of elder care facilities relative to the quick pace of
aging society, care facilities intended to accommodate Alzheimer’s and other patients have
also increased in number. Many facilities suffer shortages of workers to take care of these
elderly people. To compensate for this manpower shortage, some facilities have employed
surveillance camera systems to maintain the safety of those living and working in these
facilities. However, since many of these elderly people are long-term care patients, special
considerations must be given to the camera installation method in order to protect their
privacy. Because patients suffering senile dementia often loiter around outdoors without
any particular purpose, they need to be monitored by surveillance systems in which cameras
are interlocked with sensors specially installed at building entrances and windows in
order to prevent accidents.

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The range of area to be monitored: Corridor, lobby, entrance, visiting room and garden.
Subject: Facility occupants and suspicious persons.
Monitoring room: Office, security guard room and night watchman’s room.
Monitoring person: Nursing Staff and security guards.
5) Hospitals and Other Medical Facilities
Places to monitor include the lobby, waiting room and entrance. Taking into consideration
the fact that some visitors dislike overt cameras, perform unobtrusive monitoring by
using dome type cameras.
6) Department Stores and Supermarkets
The surveillance camera system is installed as a means to prevent and detect shoplifting
as well as fraudulent insurance claims from staged accidents. Not only does the system
monitor the inside of the store, but it also acts as a deterrent to shoplifting by overtly
showing cameras to indicate that shoplifters are being watched. It permits all camera images
of the inside of the store to be monitored from the office, thereby leading to smooth
customer flow and improvement of service. For example, by monitoring checkout or sales
areas, the number of checkout or sales clerks can be increased or reduced depending on
the checkout processing time.
It is also possible to monitor sales areas or parking lots from the security guard room. By
installing a surveillance camera system, security guard workloads are reduced, leading to
possible staff cutbacks, which can in turn eventually reduce expenses

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7) Hotels
Installing the system at the entrance, hall, lobby, elevator or parking lot can help prevent
troubles with guests. Dome-type covert cameras are used in hotels as well. One application
is to install cameras in the banquet hall to monitor from the kitchen to check the timing for
serving meal courses. In wedding ceremonies, high-quality 3-CCD cameras are used to
relay video images of the ceremony to the outside or record them on a videocassette or
DVD system.
8) Factories
Specially designed industrial-use camera systems are used for product inspection, but
normal camera systems are used to monitor work progress. The aims of these systems are
to analyze work processes for higher productivity or to monitor dangerous locations to
document accidents. In particular, surveillance cameras are installed in clean rooms or
other locations that workers cannot easily access, so that the work operating conditions or
instruments are monitored. Since specially designed camera housings may be required in
factories for protection of the camera against dust, heat or chemicals, care is needed when
designing the factory systems.
9) Transportation
At train stations, surveillance systems are installed to monitor arriving and departing
trains in order to prevent accidents on the platform. The systems are also used for transmitting
information or providing guidance. For example, passengers in a station can view
monitors displaying the train arrival and departure information as transmitted from the
camera.

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10) Other Applications
Many other applications and aims of camera surveillance include monitoring of dams (for
prevention of accidents when water is discharged) and traffic congestion.
The range of areas to be monitored should be carefully determined in consultation with
owners and architects, with the cameras installed in the locations finally selected.
Conditions for equipment selection
As noted above, the CCTV system is basically comprised of the camera, monitor and
signal transmission path that connects the two. When selecting the camera, it is important
to consider performance that is appropriate for the intended application. Regarding camera
housings, it is important to select the most appropriate type depending on where each
camera is to be installed. Pan/tilt heads and lenses may also be required depending on the
mounting method or the monitoring range. In addition, accessories and remote controllers
for operating the camera movement from distant locations may be required. Table 2-1
shows conditions that must be determined for equipment selection.

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Camera installation
1) Notes on camera installation positions and orientation.
This section describes precautions designers should bear in mind when installing cameras
in one area.
(a) An ultra-wide angle lens is required regardless of the room size when monitoring a
whole room.
(b) The use of an ultra-wide lens makes a subject smaller.
(c) Two or more cameras are required to display a subject in a close-up and monitor a
whole room.
(d) If space does not permit multiple cameras to be installed, use pan/tilt heads or zoom
lenses.
(e) Avoid backlight conditions. (Be aware of windows facing east or west.) When necessary,
use cameras that provide backlight compensation such as the TOA Wide Dynamic Range
cameras.
(f) When planning a small system, a camera and monitor can be used to select the optimal
location for camera placement. There are methods of simulating the picture range to be
displayed on the monitor using a PC and the appropriate software such as the TOA CMS
software.
2) Installation environments
Following the determination of the camera installation location, take care to completely
understand the environment where the cameras are to be installed, then specifically select
the necessary equipment. First, select the camera, lens, housing, and motorized pan/tilt
head. Conditions that you should know are as shown in Table 2-2
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3) Brightness
The camera to be used also needs to be considered depending on the brightness of the
subject to be monitored. Monochrome cameras require brightness of at least 100 lux, while
color cameras require that of over 300 lux in terms of recommended subject illumination.
When wishing to monitor subjects in low light conditions, consider turning on lights or using
high-sensitivity or infrared ray cameras. To maintain visibility in smoky conditions, thermal
cameras other than the infrared ray cameras can also be used.
(a) High-sensitivity Camera
This camera achieves high sensitivity with minimum subject illumination (0.03lx) by
slowing down shutter speed and using signal accumulation. One drawback of this camera
is that the signal accumulation method causes a frame-by-frame image advance or lingering
afterimage.
(b) Infrared Camera
This camera uses a CCD sensitive to light in the near-infrared region of the spectrum. In
surveillance applications, it may be used in conjunction with a near-infrared emitter to
enable nighttime surveillance even in pitch darkness. Note, however, that the video images
thus produced are monochrome and the range of observation may be limited depending on
the near infrared emitter capabilities.

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(c) Thermal Camera
This camera uses a CCD sensitive to light in the far-infrared region of the spectrum. It
was originally developed for monitoring temperature distribution in medical and research
applications. In the past this type of camera was typically expensive and somewhat difficult
to handle, particularly due to its cooling components, newer versions that are easier to
handle and more economical have lately become commercially available.
4) Temperature and Humidity
(a) Temperature
The operating temperature range for cameras in general is 14°F to 122°F(-10°C to 50°C).
A protective housing will be required for any camera installed in a place where temperatures
outside this range are anticipated. Two types of housing are available, one being a
simple housing only, the other housing outfitted with temperature-adjustment devices like
heaters and/or fans.
Cameras can be equipped to endure even higher temperatures if necessary, by outfitting
them with housings incorporating electronic coolers (for ambient temperatures up to 150°F
or 70°C) or water coolers (for ambient temperatures up to 212°F or 100°C).

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(b) Humidity
The most hazardous condition affecting camera operation is the formation of dew resulting
from rapid increases in relative humidity. Such dew condensation occurs when
moisture in the air condenses into water droplets on a solid surface. If this takes place inside
the camera or lens, it can cause the metallic parts to rust or corrode, eventually leading
to malfunction or early failure of the camera. Consequently, it is necessary to house cameras
within a sealed case.
5) Lightning
If a camera or its wiring is installed outdoors in a region frequently subject to lightning
strikes, steps must be taken to protect the equipment from lightning damage. Protection
from direct lightning strikes generally requires large-scale measures like lightning rods,
without which it is difficult to counter the risk of damage. However, it is possible to protect
the equipment from the lesser hazard of lightning striking the ground in the vicinity by installing
a video signal protector. A CCTV system generally requires three different types of
protectors, one each to protect the video signal, power supply, and control signal.

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6) Electromagnetic Waves
If cameras are installed under high-voltage power lines or in the vicinity of a broadcasting
station, noise may appear on the monitor due to induction. The high frequencies, such as
video signals, make it very difficult to eliminate such noise entirely, but some improvement
may be gained by using a video transformer. With coaxial-cable superimposition (sin-gle-cable) type
cameras, however, such a transformer must be of the DC passing type to
allow installation. Another convenient counter-measure is to equip the camera with a
grounding wire.
7) Radiation
Because most of the CCD elements used in cameras are vulnerable to radiation, cameras
installed in nuclear power plants are usually based on image-pickup tubes or incorporate
special radiation-resistant CCD’s. In medical radiology labs, CCD cameras can be
used because the intensity of the radiation is lower than in nuclear power plants, but they
are still affected over time and must be replaced at regular intervals. In x-ray photography
rooms and cobalt treatment rooms, the surface of the camera lens typically discolors brown
over time, blurring the video image, and the camera image itself is affected by white spots
that eventually expand to fill the whole screen. Therefore, such cameras are usually installed
within a protective housing, the front glass of which is regarded as a consumable
part to be replaced as needed.

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8) Corrosion
Protecting cameras against corrosive environments is very difficult. The required
measures, such as coating or sealed construction, can be very expensive. If surveillance is
required in corrosive environments, the only possible protective measure is to minimize
corrosion by choosing the best (minimum exposure) installation placement.
In locations near the seashore, salt-carrying sea breezes are likely to corrode metallic parts.
In swimming pool facilities the culprit is likely to be chlorine vapor rising from the pool water.
Cameras are also vulnerable to corrosive gases including ammonia, hydrochloric acid,
sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, fluorine and carbon disulfide. Particular care may
be required in factories handling or processing paper pulp, fertilizers, non-ferrous metals,
soda, sulfuric acid and synthetic fibers.
9) Explosion-Proof Areas
In operations like petrochemical plants and tunnel-excavation sites where flammable
liquids are handled or there is a strong danger of flammable gas leakage, strict regulations
are applied to all installed equipment and electrical works. When installing surveillance
camera systems in such places, it is absolutely necessary to select camera models with
appropriate specifications meeting local legal and regulatory requirements, for example
those with explosion-proof housings.
10) Rain and Dust
The rainproof outdoor housings are used wherever cameras might be exposed to precipitation
such as: where water sprinklers are used for cleaning, or where considerable

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exposure to water droplets is likely (e.g. swimming pools). Similarly,
dustproof indoor
housings are used in dusty indoor locations, not only for the camera, but also
to protect
relay boxes and other peripheral equipment.
Depending on ambient temperature and humidity, the front glass panel of the
camera
casing can become clouded by condensation or frost. Defrosters are available
to handle
such conditions. Similarly, wipers may be used for surveillance in the rain.
Both defrosters
and wipers may be turned on and off by the remote controller as needed.
Camera housings manufactured in compliance with IEC (International Electro
technical
Commission) standards bear “IP” grades used mainly to rate types of boxes.

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Camera Selection
3-1. Types of cameras used in CCTV systems
1) Color and Monochrome Cameras
Color cameras can send images in color to the monitor screen. They are relatively more
expensive than monochrome cameras, but recently have come to be used in most CCTV
applications.
For surveillance applications in particular, it may be important to be able to recognize
clothing or vehicle color. Some color cameras come with an increased sensitivity function
that use image accumulation to deliver images of subjects in conditions with low
illumination.
Monochrome cameras (also called “B&W” or black-and-white” cameras) are less
expensive
than color cameras. Generally they have lower minimum illumination requirements
compared to color cameras and therefore can produce clearer images of dark objects.
They
also usually use single-plate type CCD’s, meaning they can produce images with higher
resolution than color cameras.

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2) Camera Shapes
CCTV cameras are available in various shapes including cylindrical, box, dome and
combination dome types, each appropriate for specific applications and purposes.
(a) Cylindrical and Box Types
Either a cylindrical or a rectangular outer form can be selected depending on the size
and design of the installation space.
(b) Dome Type
The camera is covered with a dome that conceals it from casual view. Both the
horizontal
(pan) and vertical (tilt) orientation of the camera can be adjusted. Most models come
equipped with a built-in 2X manual zoom lens.
(c) Combination Dome Types
Camera, motorized pan/tilt head and motorized zoom lens are integrated into a single
unit, operated by using a remote control. The camera case is sealed to provide
excellent
protection against dust and moisture and helps to reduce noise (including the noise
generated
by camera rotation).

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Power supply systems
1) AC-Mains System
Power is supplied to the camera via the AC mains. Since the AC mains is also used to
power many other pieces of equipment besides the camera, it may be a lower-cost
option (depending on the conditions).
2) 24V AC System
Power is supplied to the camera via a 24V AC power supply, typically a 24V adapter or a
relay box. This system reduces the total cost when the camera is used in combination
with
a housing and pan/tilt head.

12V DC System
Power is supplied to the camera via a 12V DC power supply. Since 12V DC power
supplies are usually used for sensor systems as well, cameras can be integrated with
these
to achieve relatively inexpensive systems. One drawback of such power supplies is that
their direct-current power source does not allow them to be used for video signal
synchronization
and because of the voltage drop in long cable.

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4) Single-Cable (Superimposing) System
By superimposing the video signal and the power supply over the coaxial cable, with the additional
use of a camera drive unit, this system reduces the wiring between camera and camera drive unit to
a single cable. However, while it simplifies cable installation, it is not suitable for use over long
distances. Since the video signals superimposed on the power supply differ from normal signals, the
format cannot be used for units transmitting signals by way of twisted-pair cables or for coaxial
multiplex control systems. While most manufacturers offer single-cable systems, the superimposing
method used tends to differ for each.
This means that TOA cameras and camera drive units cannot be used in conjunction with
those from other manufacturers.

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3-3. Camera performance
The most important aspects of camera performance are its resolution and the minimum subject
illumination. “Resolution” is the quantitative measure of how clearly an image is presented on the
screen. It is measured both in horizontal resolution and vertical resolution.
Horizontal resolution is the maximum number of vertical black and white lines that can be clearly
distinguished by the eye when the image is displayed on a screen. The color cameras used in
surveillance systems generally offer horizontal resolution between 330 and 480 lines. If higher
resolution is required, three-CCD cameras with horizontal resolution greater than 600 lines are
recommended.
Vertical resolution is the maximum number of horizontal black and white lines that can be seen in
the reproduced image. Vertical resolution is constant and varies between 350 and 400 lines,
depending on the scanning system. (NTSC, PAL or SECAM)

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“Minimum subject illumination” is the lowest intensity of illumination required for the camera too
barely catch an image of the subject. At this minimum level of illumination, the subject cannot be
clearly distinguished by the eye. The illumination permitting reproduced image to be clearly visible
is called “recommended subject illumination”. Illumination is a measure of brightness and is
measured in units called “lux” (lx). One lux (1 lx) is equivalent to 1 lumen of light flux falling on a
surface with an area of one square meter. It is generally true that a brightness of 1 lx corresponds to
the light of one candle viewed at a distance of one meter. Fig. 3-7 shows guidelines for brightness.

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3-4. Camera functions
TOA color cameras incorporate various advanced functions that allow them to operate properly
amidst various surrounding conditions. Models equipped with a DSP (digital signal processing)
circuitry ensure wide dynamic range and offer stable color and clear image reproduction. The various
camera functions offered are described below.
1) Backlight Compensation (BLC)
When a window or other bright light source enters the screen, the adjustment of brightness to
accommodate this bright area of the image may make the subject in front too dark. For example,
when observing an entrance door in security surveillance applications, bright light entering from
beyond the door may cause images of the faces of those entering to be completely darkened. The
BLC function can be used to display the image of the subject at an appropriate brightness.

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2) Wide Dynamic Range
The wide dynamic range cameras becoming increasingly popular recently are designed
to release their automatic electric shutters (AES) twice per frame, and then synthesize the
resulting two images so that both the dark and bright subjects are shown in a way more
easily visible.
While BLC cameras allow dark subjects to be seen clearly, wide dynamic range cameras
help ensure clearer reproduction of both the dark and bright subjects in an image.

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3) Image Enhancer
The enhancer function adjusts and sharpens the contours of the subjects for clearer
image reproduction.
4) White Balance
The white balance function permits white objects to appear correctly within color image
reproductions. When this adjustment is made automatically it is referred to as "automatic
white balance" (AWB). Users can choose from two automatic white balance systems: an
automatic tracking type (ATW) system that continuously analyzes the image for white

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balance adjustment during camera operation and AWB systems that adjust and correct
white balance when the power is turned on.
In a candle flame, the different colors in different parts of the flame correspond to different
high temperatures; usually measured using a scale of units called “Kelvin” (K). When
a candle flame is observed through a surveillance camera, the white portions appear bluish
white while lower temperature portions appear yellowish red. This represents the white
balance corresponding to the temperatures of the light source, with color temperature for
the standard white being 6500 K. Similarly, we may sometimes notice that the colors of our
clothing we perceive indoors seem different when viewed outside in the daylight. Nevertheless,
white always appears white to our eyes, regardless of the light source, because the
human eye is capable of adapting to light source color temperatures. Surveillance cameras,
in contrast, have less adaptability to color temperature and therefore reproduce colors
differently depending on the light source. It is for this reason that white balance is required
to adjust color tone without bias.

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5) Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
This function adjusts video signals electronically in order to maintain a constant screen
brightness. When an input signal of intensity exceeding the predetermined level is received,
the gain is adjusted to prevent the signal from exceeding that level. Or, if the signal is too
weak, it is boosted to the preset level. Thus, AGC is an automatic gain adjustment function
for the purpose of keeping the signal intensity at a certain level. (Note: In the condition of
low light, AGC operation can result in picture noise.)
6) Automatic Sensitivity Adjustment (AES)
This function maintains the brightness of the screen at a certain level by changing the
shutter speed instead of relying on the aperture of the lens.
Note: AES cannot be used in areas where the power frequency is 50Hz, because the
shutter mechanism is already utilized by the Flicker Reduction function.
7) Flicker Reduction
In areas where the power frequency is 50 Hz, light from fluorescent or mercury arc lamps
may cause annoying screen flicker. This phenomenon is caused by a timing discrepancy
between the standard 1/60-second shutter speed of the surveillance camera and the
1/50-second-flicker cycle of such lamps. Setting the shutter speed at 1/120-second can

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suppress these flickers, although it may also make the screen a little darker.
8) High-Sensitivity Accumulation Function
This function makes the shutter speed slower than normal to allow the camera to accumulate
images over a longer period of time, thereby enabling color images of subjects to
be produced even in dark places. Enabling this function may cause noise, after-image or
frame loss on the screen. When the camera is in an extremely dark place, this function can
be used in conjunction with the Day & Night function described in the following subsection.

9) Day & Night Function

When the camera is used in a place darker than 1 lux, the Day & Night function and the
High-Sensitivity Accumulation function can be used together. To use the Day & Night
function under dark conditions, remove the infrared cutoff filter located in front of the CCD,
so that an infrared emitter is used as the light source for monitoring subjects.
Note: With this arrangement, even color cameras will generate monochrome images at
night.

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10) Privacy Masking Function
Taking privacy issues into consideration, up to four image subject positions can be masked on the
screen, so that places like the windows of apartment buildings that must not be photographed can
be exempted from surveillance.
Note: Privacy masking provides for camera movement tracking and scalability for zoom.
11) Other useful functions include:
(a) 2X Electronic Zooming
(b) Camera Title Display, which displays the name of the location under surveillance on the current
screen.
(c) Screen Reversing, which corrects inverted or reversed images.
3-5. Synchronization methods
“Synchronization” refers to the timing with which video images are scanned. The timing of scanning
the screen from left to right is called "horizontal synchronization", while the method of scanning
from top to bottom is called "vertical synchronization." The frequency of the horizontal synchronous
signal is either 15.734 kHz (NTSC) or 15.625 kHz (PAL) and that of the vertical synchronous signal is
either 59.94 Hz (NTSC) or 50.00 Hz (PAL).
When using a switcher to select among multiple video signals, failure to synchronize these signals
correctly may cause annoying momentary disturbances of the screen with each switch. There are
three different types of camera synchronization: internal synchronization, external synchronization
and line lock synchronization. The camera may be set to use any of these methods.
1) Internal Synchronization
Scans the video signal using the timing of the synchronous signal generated by the
cameras built-in synchronous signal generating circuit. This method does not allow coordination
with other cameras.
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2) External Synchronization
Sends the camera the reference synchronous signal generated by an external synchronous signal-
generating device. This method adjusts the scanning timing (synchronization) of each camera by
supplying the same synchronous signal with identical timing.
There are two methods of external synchronization: vertical external synchronization and gen-lock
synchronization.
(a) Vertical External Synchronization
Vertical external synchronization superimposes a vertical synchronous signal on the video signal.
This method eliminates the necessity of additional cables for synchronization, making it easier to
achieve synchronization.
(b)Gen-lock Synchronization
For Gen-Lock Synchronization, the camera’s gen-lock input is connected to signals from
other cameras to synchronize them. This kind of synchronization requires connection via
two coaxial cables.

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3) Line Lock Synchronization
This method adjusts the vertical synchronization by
taking advantage of the fact that the
60 Hz frequency of the camera’s AC power supply
(commercial power supply) is nearly
identical to the frequency of vertical synchronization.
While this method permits easy
synchronization by using a power supply of the same
phase, it cannot be used in areas
where the power frequency is 50 Hz instead of 60 Hz.

Note: Non-synchronous cameras can be used in a system

that utilizes a “Digital Video
Signal Processor”. The DVSP performs “Time Base
Correction” to the input signals with the
result that all the input signals become synchronized.
3-6. Camera mounts

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1) Mount
Cameras are usually mounted on walls or ceilings in indoor applications and on walls or
poles in outdoor applications. In normal surveillance systems they are usually installed 3 to
5 meters above the floor, making them difficult to reach but allowing relatively easy to access
for inspection and service.
Camera mounts should be selected carefully based on the camera’s size and weight, as
well as its housing, taking into account weight limits and connector locations.
2) Motorized Pan/Tilt Head
Motorized pan/tilt heads are used to move cameras to provide wider coverage of the
area under surveillance. They can be rotated by remote control both horizontally and vertically.
Horizontal rotation is called "Pan" and vertical rotation "Tilt."
“Auto-pan” allows the pan/tilt head to repeat the same panning pattern. Select the type of
pan/tilt heads with weight limit capacities appropriate to the camera and lens to be mounted.
There are both indoor and outdoor use types.

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4. Lens Selection
4-1. Angle of view settings
The angular range covered by a camera is referred to as its “angle of view” and is determined
by the focal length of the lens and the size of the imager (CCD) on which the
picture is formed.
Note: For multiple lenses with identical focal lengths, the angle of view will not match if
the size of the cameras CCD is different.

CCD screen sizes are available in 1/4", 1/3", 1/2" and 2/3" types, measured based on it's
diagonal dimension. This difference in size makes almost no difference in terms of performance,
but it does change the range of the view field.
Formulas for calculating field range

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308
The angles of view for different lenses are listed in the specification sections of catalogs.
Generally these are as shown in Table 4-1.
4-2. Lens mount
The part connecting the lens to the camera is referred to as the “lens mount.” There are three
types of mounts: C mounts, CS mounts and bayonet mounts. If a lens mount type does not match the
camera requirement it will not be able to mount the lens to the camera properly.
C mounts and CS mounts have the same thread pitch and diameter. The only difference between the
two is in the flange back (the distance from the mounting face to the CCD image-sensing surface)
which is 17.526 mm for C mounts and 12.5 mm for CS mounts.
Note: CS mounts are shorter than C mounts, but C mount lenses can be mounted on a
CS mount camera using an adapter.
As technological progress has made cameras increasingly smaller, CS mounts with their shorter
flange backs are becoming more popular. The bayonet mount is often used for 3-CCD type cameras
and has no interchangeability with either C or CS mounts.

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4-3. Auto-iris lens
Cameras equipped with an “auto-iris” function automatically adjust the aperture (iris
opening) to match ambient brightness in order to maintain the brightness of the picture on
the screen at a certain level. Lenses with manual aperture adjustment and without auto-iris
are also available for use in windowless warehouses or other places where brightness does
not change over time.

The two types of automatic aperture lenses include the Video type and the DC type (to
be selected according to the camera specifications). The video type adjusts the aperture
opening based on the video signal (supplied to the lens) as it is analyzed within the lens
electronics. In the DC type, analysis is conducted by the camera microprocessor to send
the DC control voltage to the lens. These two types offer very similar performance, but the
DC type is less expensive .
If a camera uses a manual iris lens and is equipped with AES (a function that maintains a
constant screen brightness level by adjusting the shutter speed), then it picks up scenes the
same way as an auto-iris camera does. The AES function cannot be used in areas where
the power frequency is 50 Hz and fluorescent or mercury arc lamps are used as the light
source. In such cases the shutter function will already be in use for reducing flicker.

311
4-4. Types of lenses
The following types of lenses are usually used for surveillance cameras:
1) Fixed Focus Lens
This type of lens offers a lineup of standard, wide-angle and super-wide-angle versions,
all with a fixed angle of view.
2) Varifocal Lens
A zoom lens that is manually adjusted is referred to as a “Varifocal” lens. Although this
type of lens cannot be remotely controlled, its focal length can be adjusted manually when
the camera is installed. This eliminates the need to select a specific lens, making it more
convenient and versatile than fixed focal lenses.
3) Motorized Zoom Lens
This zoom lens can vary its focal length to permit subjects to be displayed in close-up or
wide-angle. The focal length ratio between the telescopic end to the wide-angle end is
referred to as the “zoom ratio”. Any given zoom lens is generally described as a “##:1 (##x)
zoom lens” to express this ratio. The greater this ratio, the more range you have to change
the size of the image. The motorized zoom lens has a built-in motor for changing the focal
length and can be remotely controlled. Cameras with motorized zoom lenses are normally
used in combination with motorized pan/tilt heads, with their zooming and focusing (iris)
operations controlled via a remote control unit.
4) Aspherical Lens
The radius of the surface of this lens is not fixed, which has the advantage of minimizing
image distortion in peripheral areas of the lens. In addition, an aspherical lens can offer
images that are brighter relative to its size (that is, allows it to be a lens with a smaller aperture
ratio). 312
5) Pin Hole Lens
This is a kind of fixed focal-length lens usually installed behind a wall or in a ceiling to
monitor the room through a small hole (with a recommended diameter of 3.5mm). Such
covert cameras are useful in situations where building occupants might feel uncomfortable
being monitored by a more obviously positioned camera.

6) Prism Lens
This also belongs to the fixed focal-length lens category and is installed in a ceiling with
only the prism portion exposed. This lens type can be used when it is preferable that the
camera be invisible to building occupants.

4-5. Lens selection

Selecting the proper lens type requires taking into consideration the location or position
in which the camera will be installed and simulating the coverage area to be picked up in the
camera image. Such simulations can be approximated roughly based on the field of view.
Several points to bear in mind when selecting the proper lens are summarized below:
1) Wide-angle lenses provide a wide coverage area but subjects picked up in their images
will be shown smaller.
2) Standard lenses show the subject larger but have a narrower coverage area.
3) To eliminate blind spots within the smaller the room, the wider the lens view angle
needs to be.
To pick up detailed images from the whole of a wide area, either use multiple cameras or
equip one or more cameras with pan/tilt heads and zoom lenses.
313
314
5. Monitor Selection
5-1. Monitors
Most CCTV monitors are designed solely for industrial applications and therefore do not
include built-in TV tuners. Therefore, they cannot receive broadcast TV programs. When
selecting a monitor, consider the positional relationship of the monitor to its operator to
determine the proper size.

If a 4-segment split-screen display is to be used, Distance B should be shortened slightly

since the images will be smaller. Smaller monitors such as 9-inch types are easy to install
and can be mounted in equipment racks, but they are not suitable for observing the finer
details of images displayed on the screen. If the size of a room does not permit a small
9-inch monitor to be installed in usably close proximity to the operator, a larger monitor
should be selected.
Liquid crystal display (LCD) CCTV monitors for commercial applications are becoming
increasingly available and more accessibly priced. Their remarkable features include
space-saving thinness, lower power consumption and freedom from the danger of image
burn-in. The advent of LCD monitors is also bringing solutions to problems that have
proved difficult to solve using conventional CRT monitors. For example problems involving
contrast, off angle viewing and display speed.

315
5-2. Reduced image scale on monitors
When the camera picks up a subject, the range of the coverage area varies depending
on the lens selected. This is also true of the monitor and the size of the subject that can be
viewed on the screen will differ depending on the size of the monitor. The actual size of a
subject that can be displayed on a given screen can be calculated using the following
formulas:

316
317
318
Values 4.8 and 3.6 are both constants for a 1/3” type
camera. The constants for 1/4", 1/2”
and 2/3” CCD types are as follows:

Example : What will be the size of the image of a

170cm tall person when displayed on
a 9-inch monitor when picked up from 10 meters away
using a 1/3” type camera equipped
with a 4mm focal length lens?

From the above calculation, it follows that the image of the person
when displayed on the
monitor will be approximately 2.5 cm.

319
5-3. Notes on monitor installation
Bear the following points in mind when installing monitors:
1) Installation Location
Determine where to install the monitor. Multiple operator rooms may be required depending
on the intended purpose of the system. The number of required monitors is determined
by the size of the room in which they are to be installed and the number of operators.
2) Monitor Installation Height
For around-the-clock surveillance applications, monitors should be positioned at a height
slightly below operator eye level. Consider the operators’ normal working styles as well.
According to some statistics, four is the maximum number of monitors an operator can view
effectively at one time. When multiple operators will view a single monitor, a large projector
may be used. In any case, be sure to at least determine the maximum number of monitors
that can be installed and the minimum number of monitors required for the system requirements.
3) Room Brightness (Lighting)
If the monitor is placed in a dark room, operators may suffer eye fatigue. On the other
hand, too bright a room exposed to the direct sunlight may negatively affect the view-ability of the
screen. Also, installing lighting equipment in close proximity to the monitor or installing
lighting equipment with no directivity could result in annoying light reflections from
the monitor screen.

320
4) Ventilation
Since monitors generate heat, they need to be positioned to allow for heat to escape.
Overheating of the surveillance room in general should be prevented. Especially when monitors are
placed on the operation table or in monitor racks, it is recommended that they be equipped with
ventilating fans.
5) Power Supplies
Remember that a large surge of electric current flows into monitors when their power is turned on.
When designing a system employing many monitors, it is important to ensure that the system has
sufficient circuit breaker capacity, as well as delay circuits that can stagger power input.
Power supply voltage should be kept stable whenever possible. If voltage fluctuations cause image
distortion on the monitor, it may be necessary to change the power supply layout or use a voltage
stabilizer.
6) Induction
When multiple CRT monitors are installed side by side or one on top of another, magnetic fields may
cause horizontal oscillation wave interference, possibly resulting in color variations or noise
appearing on the screen. Placing a ferrous metal type plate between the CRT monitors can
neutralize the influence of these magnetic fields. When using large CRT monitors side by side, mount
them in a metal monitor rack.
7) Image Burn-In
If a CRT monitor continuously displays the same picture for a prolonged period of time (about 6 to 12
months on average, consult the CRT manufacturer for model specific information and
recommendations), image burn-in may occur. To avoid this, take care to avoid continuously
displaying the same image on the screen. In particular, bright images are more likely to cause burn-
in, shortening the CRT life span.
321
6. Switcher Selection & Video Recording
As the number of camera's increases, the number of monitors also increases. Since there is a limit
to the number of screens a single operator can view at one time and because space for monitor
installation is also limited, the number of monitors can be reduced by switching camera outputs in
sequence on a single monitor or by using multi-segment split-screen displays. Also, since operators
cannot always view all screens, sensors connected to time-lapse VCR’s or DVR’s may also be
required to capture unviewed images for later playback if necessary.
6-1. Sequential switcher
To view multiple camera outputs on a single monitor, switch the outputs displayed on the monitor in
sequence or display them together on a split screen. A manual switcher is designed to allow manual
switching among camera's images. An automatic sequential switcher switches the images at
specified intervals.
When sequential switching is used, the screen can display only one camera output at a time,
meaning that other camera images cannot be viewed simultaneously. In this case, important scenes
could be missed or discovered too late. If, for example, 12 camera outputs are sequenced to display
on a single monitor at 10 seconds intervals, the total amount of time to display images from all
twelve cameras is 120 seconds. Therefore, the greater the numbers of cameras, the longer the
sequence cycle interval. To prevent important scenes from one camera output from being missed
while another camera output is being displayed, the switcher should be equipped to receive the
sensor signal in the form of an alarm that instantly and automatically switches the display to the
relevant camera image.
Note that when switching among multiple cameras by means of the switcher, the cameras
must be synchronized (see section 3-5 Synchronization Methods).
If three cameras are sequenced, the monitor screen will be switched as shown in Fig.
322 6-1.
323
6-2. Multi-viewer
A Multi-viewer has a split-screen display function that allows multiple camera images to be viewed
on a single monitor. Either a 4, 9 or 16 segment split-screen display is possible.
The larger the number of segments, the smaller each will be on the screen requiring use of a larger
monitor. A Multi-viewer can also be connected to a sensor to switch the screen to a sensor-operated
camera output.
Since the video signal is digitally processed, cameras need not be synchronized. Other versatile
Multi-viewer functions include a screen freeze function and a 2X-zoom function that digitally
magnifies part of the screen. Using a split-screen display, multiple camera images can be viewed
simultaneously.
6-3. Matrix switcher
For systems with multiple operator rooms, the “distributed method” was conventionally used by
CCTV systems to distribute camera images to sequential switchers installed in each.

324
Nowadays, however, to save cables for video signal transmission, a new Matrix Switcher control
method that switches images at a matrix section has replaced the conventional method.
The signal routing made possible by a Matrix Switcher can switch video signals manually or
automatically. It can also be used to remotely control the zoom lenses and pan/tilt heads from
remote control units installed in several locations. In systems employing a large number of cameras,
the centralized system has an economic advantage over a distributed system.
6-4. Multiplexer
Because Multiplexers include a frame recording function, they can be used in conjunction with a
time lapse VCR or DVR to record 9 or 16 camera images on a single VCR or DVR in quasi-moving
picture formats. The following table shows the recording differences between a Multiplexer and a
sequential switcher.

325
To record images from more than one camera, either prepare as many recorders as
there are cameras or connect one recorder to the sequential switcher or Multiplexer to
record images displayed on the switched or split screens. Keep in mind, using the switcher
or Multiplexer may involve the problems mentioned above, including missing recording of
important scenes (sequential switcher) and image size reduction (Multiplexer).
A Multiplexer allows multiple images to be recorded by switching them frame by frame.
Thirty frames (NTSC) or 25 frames (PAL) are transmitted per second from each camera,
with one camera output being assigned to one frame and recorded in the frame recording.
When reproducing images for playback, individual frames from the same camera output
are retrieved and compiled into quasi-moving picture formats. With this method, all camera
outputs are recorded and only those cameras required can be selected for reproduced
playback. Recorded images can be displayed in sequential order, as well as on 4-segment
or 9-segment split screens. Note that because this method has not been standardized, TOA
models are not compatible with frame-switchers by other manufacturers. Take this into
consideration when using a TOA multiplexer in combination with non-TOA time-lapse
VCR’s or DVR’s.

326
6-5. Time-lapse VCR recordings
1) Recording
VCRs are used when:
(a) Recordings should be kept as potential evidence of crimes or accidents.
(b) An operator does not always attend monitors.
(c) Performing remote surveillance.
In remote surveillance applications, if it is difficult to transmit images from places like
elevators, then a VCR can be used to record surveillance images for reproduction only as
needed. Either of the following methods may be used for this function.
(d) The tape is set in a recorder and recording takes place until the end of the tape is
reached. The tape then automatically rewinds and is used again, overwriting the previous
recording.
(e) Several tapes are prepared and used in rotation. In one typical example, seven
120-minute tapes are used in 24-hour mode, with each being replaced by the next at 8:00
AM each morning throughout the week.
This approach preserves video images for up to one week, since that is how long it will take
until any given tape to come back into the cycle to be reused and overwritten.

327
2) Searching for Specific Images
Inevitably it will be necessary to search for a particular segment of video recording for
later playback. The larger a system becomes, the larger the number of VCR’s and tapes will
also become. Tapes themselves can be organized and labeled for later use based on their recording
time and location, but it can be quite difficult to search within any given tape for a
specific event, especially if the event occurred over a short period of time. To facilitate such
searching, some VCR’s can record an alarm signal along with the video signal that sounds
during playback.
Recent advances in digital video compression technology have also made it possible to
record images onto media such as hard disks, DVD’s, or DV tapes as digital data. Since
these methods eliminate the need for cumbersome mechanical fast-forwarding and rewinding,
searching is relatively easier than with conventional VCR recordings. It is also
possible to record such data along with sensor information, so that alarm-activated scenes
can be searched using a computer.
6-6. Digital video recorders (DVR’s)
Digital video recorders (DVR’s) are classified into three types depending upon the recording
media used. These include hard disk drive (HDD) types, optical disk (DVD) types
and combined DV cassette tape and HDD types. They can also be divided broadly into
multi-channel types equipped with frame-plexer functions and one-channel types not
equipped with such functions. Since digital video recordings also have their own life spans,
recorded data must be backed up. Unlike time-lapse VCR recording, digital video recording
uses compressed digital images offering the following advantages.

328
1) Easy searching
It is possible to locate and call up only those scenes tagged with alarm data, or to select
particular scenes by specifying there recording date and time. Both functions allow desired
scenes to be located more quickly and easily than was possible conventionally.
2) Simultaneous recording and playback
Video recording and playback can be performed simultaneously, a function that is not
possible with time-lapse VCR recording. Recording does not stop even during playback.
Using this function, images currently being recorded and reproduced can both be displayed
simultaneously using a multiple-segment-split screen.
3) High-quality video recording
In digital recording, the fact that the original signal does not deteriorate allows for higher
quality recordings. The deterioration of tape media and record/playback heads that are
normal with time-lapse VCR equipment do not occur, allowing higher quality images with
less variation in quality over time to be recorded.
4) Easy data handling
The digital nature of image data makes it easy to handle. Since every piece of information
is recorded and stored as digital data, it can be input into a computer for editing or
transmitted easily over a LAN or other network.

329
7. Sensor Type Selection
Camera surveillance systems are not always attended by operators keeping a constant
watch on the events displayed on the monitors. For this reason, they may be outfitted with
sensors to prevent important recorded scenes from being missed while operators are away,
or to allow the system to operate more efficiently when switching among multiple camera
outputs.
Sensor types include magnetic proximity switch types, shutter types, infrared types,
glass-break types, passive types and ultrasonic types. Table 7-1 outlines the features of
each of these.

330
331
7-1. Infrared sensors
An infrared sensor is comprised of a light transmitter and a light receiver. When the near
infrared light beam from the transmitter is interrupted by the passing of an intruder, a relay
contact closes causing the sensor to send an alert signal.
The properties of the near-infrared light used in such systems are close to those of light
in the visible spectrum, meaning that they can incorporate most types of optical equipment
without any modification. Near-infrared light also causes a strong photoelectric effect on the
receiving unit and it is therefore easy to work with.
As beams of light travel through the air they gradually weaken, a phenomenon called
“attenuation.” Attenuation is caused by two different factors, “absorption” and “scattering.”
Absorption occurs when radiation energy is transformed into another kind of energy; scattering
occurs when the radiated light encounters small particles in the air that change
its direction of travel in small increments. Attenuation occurs in the air even when the air
does not contain dust or vapor. Near-infrared light, however, can travel longer distances
than visible light (depending on the specific wavelength) with less haze-caused attenuation
because its wavelength is longer than that of visible light.
An infrared sensor system is generally comprised of a light transmitter unit that transmits
a beam of infrared light and a receiving unit that receives the light and processes the resulting
signal. These two units can be installed on the same surface (reflection type) or on
opposite surfaces (opposing type). Figure 7-1 shows the basic equipment configuration for
the opposing-type system.

332
333
Opposing-type infrared sensors are available in 20-, 40- and 60-meter versions, depending on the
size of the area to be monitored. They can be installed between 80 and 100 centimeters from the
floor surface. The space between light transmitter and receiver must always be completely clear of
any obstructions.
It is also important to ensure that the space between the light transmitter and receiver is not
directly exposed to strong light sources such as sunlight or headlights. The entry of the strong light
into the light axis of the equipment over an extended period could reduce its life span.

334
7-2. Passive sensors
Passive sensors detect the presence of an intruder by sensing changes in ambient temperature.
Because such sensors are susceptible to wind, they are not appropriate for outdoor applications.
All substances with a temperature higher than absolute zero radiate some amount of infrared
radiation. Far-infrared light cannot pass through the materials used in a building’s walls, floors or
windows. Although glass appears transparent, it does not allow infrared light
with wavelengths longer than 2μm to pass through it.
A passive sensor’s detector utilizes a current-collection effect generated when electric charge
induction resulting from slight temperature changes is caused by a condenser or other dielectric unit
receiving the infrared rays. The sensor collects an electric charge by filtering those far-infrared rays
between 7 and 14μm, which is the range of wavelengths radiated by the human body. The detection
area to be monitored (specific spots, planes or three-dimensional areas) determines the layout and
number of optical equipment pieces.
Factors such as mounting position and wall/ceiling height determine the detection area and
require the selection of an appropriate sensor.
An alarm zone (the range of the spread of the light) made up of a single optical system is referred to
as the “sensing zone.” If an intruder enters this sensing zone, the sensor’s detector
picks up the far-infrared rays radiated from the intruder, causing the amount of electric charge
induced in the detector’s current collection unit to change. When this change exceeds a
predetermined level, the sensor outputs an alarm signal. The detector is set to be most sensitive to
speeds within 0.4 to 1 meter per second (1.5 – 4 kilometers perhour), which is the usual speed range
of intruders attempting to walk stealthily.

335
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7-3. Motion detectors
Motion detectors react to any change in brightness within the detection zone set on the
monitor screen, without using external sensors. This type of sensor is particularly useful in
locations where it is difficult to install sensors or cables in the monitored location. One
drawback of this type of sensor, however, is that it often fails to function accurately and
cannot be used for many outdoor applications. Some multiplexer's come with a motion
detection function.

337
8. Remote-Controlled Surveillance and Network Cameras
8-1. Remote-controlled surveillance
If the distance between a camera and a security room is over 3 kilometers (1.9 miles) or
if coaxial cables cannot be installed for some reason, then surveillance must be controlled
remotely. If it is difficult to install a coaxial cable, systems using laser, near infrared rays,
spread spectrum or mobile telephones might be considered. Care must be taken to secure
the power supplies of the equipment employed. Connection may also be achieved using a
LAN or lines furnished by Internet communication providers.
1) Laser
This method uses a laser beam to transmit a video signal over a distance to a receiver.
Since laser light offers excellent linearity, it can transmit signals over distances of 3 – 5
kilometers (1.9 – 3.1 miles), although it is necessary that there be no obstacles in between
and that the transmitter and receiver are fixed securely in place.
A laser system is not susceptible to rain or snow, but fog, birds or insects may interfere
with video transmission. Also, the laser-light generating device must be installed so as to
prevent the potentially damaging laser light from entering people’s eyes.

338
2) Near-infrared light
In this method, video signals are transmitted between a light transmitter and a light receiver
by means of infrared light rays. Although this method is less costly than the laser
system, the transmission distance is much shorter at 300 – 800 meters (328 – 801 yards).
As with a laser system, signals cannot be transmitted past obstacles or if the transmitter
and receiver are not fixed securely in place.
An infrared system is not susceptible to rain or snow, but fog, birds or insects may interfere
with video transmission. Infrared light is not dangerous to the eyes or other parts of
the human body, so the system can be installed even in locations where people might be
exposed to it.
3) Spread spectrum
Also called the “SS radio transmission method”, this system uses radio waves in the
2.4GHz ISM band to transmit video signals over distances 1 – 2 kilometers (0.62 – 1.124
miles). Although such video transmission cannot be performed if there are any obstacles in
between, the use of radio waves instead of visible or near-visible light means that the
transmitter and receiver do not need to be securely fixed in place.
4) Mobile telephone
Video signals are transmitted via dedicated equipment connected to a mobile telephone.
This system can be used everywhere provided the mobile telephone is within good reception
range. The monitor at the other end also requires a telephone line. However, since
such images are compressed,* they may suffer frame loss or mosaic images depending on
transmission conditions. Further, since this method entails telephone fees, it is usually not
suitable for constant monitoring applications. There are also some countries in which mobile
telephones cannot be used.
339
5) Telephone line
Video signals are transmitted using a dedicated transmitter device connected to a
telephone line. As with transmission by mobile telephone, the image data is compressed.*
6) Fiber optic cable
Fiber optic cables allow video signals to be transmitted over distances up to 3 kilometers
(1.86 miles), with the added advantage that the transmission path is not affected by external
noise sources. Because video signals are transmitted “as is” (i.e. not compressed), a
relatively wide frequency band up to 50MHz may be permitted, which in turn requires a
quartz-clad cable (such as a GI cable). Fiber optic cables clad in ABS resin cannot be used.
*Video signal compression formats include the following:
(a)JPEG
Used to compress still-frame video image data at compression rates from 1/10 to
.١/١٠٠
(b) M-JPEG
Compresses moving picture data recorded on each frame using the JPEG method to
continuously record compressed data or reproduce decompressed data.
(c) H.261/263, MPEG
An image data compression method that achieves highly efficient compression by
eliminating and encoding time-related and space-related redundant portions of video data.
The general MPEG standard encompasses several specific formats including MPEG1,
MPEG2, and MPEG4.

340
8-2. Network camera system
1) Network
Cameras may be connected to an existing data network to transmit video data over the
network’s lines or to control surveillance remotely using a personal computer connected to
those lines or accessing the network over the Internet. Monitoring video signals over
networks built on the already widely used Ethernet network standard is very likely to become
one of the most popular options. Types of network include LAN’s (Ethernet including
10BASE, 100BASE and 1000BASE types, FDDI, ATM, etc.) and WAN’s (private lines, data
communication networks, wide area LAN services, VPN (Internet), etc.).

341
2) Equipment configuration
Equipment is connected directly to the LAN or other independent network to control or monitor
video images and/or speech audio. A network system can be combined with a conventional system
using: network cameras that connect directly to the network; a network video transmitter that can
send composite analog signals over the network and a network video receiver that can receive
analog signals and convert them to composite analog signals.
A network camera system compresses images and can transmit and receive that compressed data
over the LAN or other network using protocols like TCP/IP. Advantages of the network camera system
include easy camera expansion and movement, image viewing using a PC and the ability to control
cameras remotely. It is also possible to incorporate a data router into the system to monitor remote
locations over ISDN or Internet lines.
Data compression methods generally used include JPEG, M-JPEG, H.261/263, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4.
However, since these are usually incompatible with one another, be sure to check the system’s data
compression methods and PC viewer software carefully before operating such a system.
When video surveillance is to share the LAN with other network systems (a company’s PC network,
for example), try to design the network with sufficient bandwidth that minimizes the negative
influence of the image data transmission, since the data involved tends to be relatively heavy.
Also note that the limitations of the network itself may restrict the number of transmittable
image frames, picture quality and screen size.
When transmitting image data over the Internet, equip the system with a password and/or encrypt
the data to prevent unauthorized access.

342
343
9. Video Signal and Control Signal Transmission
9-1. Coaxial cables
Coaxial cables with impedance of 75Ω are normally used
for video signal transmission.
Coaxial cables are identified using following symbols:
RG - # # / U
RG: Radio Grade, High frequency cable classification
symbol
#: Type number
U: Universal, General use

1) Maximum coaxial cable lengths

Table 9-2 shows maximum video signal transmission
distances. Signal transmission is
still possible even if the distance exceeds the indicated
limits, but the longer the coaxial
cable length, the more resolution will deteriorate. Note:
Even if the cable length does not
exceed the indicated limits, video signal transmission can
still fail or be adversely affected if
it is subject to interference by AC power supplies or
other electromagnetic field sources.
Use the guidelines in Table 9-2 to determine approximate
usable cable lengths. 344
2) Cable compensator
Transmitting video signals over long distances may
degrade image quality and make the
on-screen image appear out of focus, resulting in
deteriorated resolution.
A cable compensator enhances the contours of subjects
to compensate for such image
degradation, thereby allowing video signals to be
transmitted over longer distances, as
shown in the right column of Table 9-2.

9-2. Twisted-pair cable transmission

In elevators or other locations where a coaxial cable
would be difficult to install, a good
option is to change the impedance using a video
transformer and transmit video signals
over a twisted-pair cable. A twisted-pair cable has the
advantage of reducing the influence
of noise induced from external equipment. However, this
method cannot be used for single-
cable cameras.
(An example would be power over coax type.) Camera
looks like ACmain type that is
not our line-up. 345
9-3. Control signal circuits
Signals used to control lenses or pan/tilt heads remotely
are referred to as “control
signals”. Since many different types of signals need to be
transmitted, depending on the
control target, it is best to use multi-core cables
appropriate for each control target. Both
CPEV and CPEE cables are often used for such control
signal transmission.
CPEV: Pair-type polyethylene insulated vinyl sheathed
local cable
CPEE: Pair-type polyethylene insulated polyethylene
sheathed local cable

1) Short-distance control
A “direct control” system draws power directly from the
remotely controlled unit. Over
longer distances, however, drops in voltage will gradually
make such control impossible.

2) Long-distance control
A “relay control” system performs control from a remote
control unit via a relay box.
346
Maximum cable lengths will differ depending on
the type of pan/tilt head used, but approximate
lengths are as shown in Table 9-4.

Table 9-5 shows remote control targets.

3) RS-485 systems
RS-485 systems control the camera, zoom lens and/or
housing using communications
based on the RS-485 standard. As shown in Figure 9-5, a
pair of twisted-pair cables is used
as the control cable between a Combination Dome
Camera and the Remote Controller,
facilitating cable installation.

347
9-4. Electrical power construction requirements
Be sure to confirm the voltage and power capacity when
specifying the electrical power
supply requirements. Note that the voltage of
commercially supplied power may fluctuate in
some cases. Further, since a large surge of electric
current generally flows when the power
to monitors is turned on, special care needs to be taken
to ensure proper power capacity.
For systems using a large number of monitors, a circuit
breaker capacity of three times the
rated power consumption is recommended, as is the use
of an electrical power distributor
with a built-in delay circuit that supplies power to each
monitor one after another instead of
all at once.

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Recording
In many cases CCTV systems are used as a deterrent or for live monitoring, with the recorded image
quality being a secondary consideration. However, not configuring the recording system correctly
could be a costly mistake;
particularly should the images be required as evidence in court.
Analogue systems based on standard VHS recorders were straightforward to operate. Video was
recorded onto tapes and when each tape was full, the old one was ejected and a replacement
inserted. A single tape could generally hold 24 hours of (time-lapse) video, so tapes could be
changed on a daily basis. A stock of 31 tapes would provide a month’s storage, after which the
oldest tape could be re-used.
Digital video recorders tend to record on standard hard drives as found on most computers;
although ideally they should be of high quality and reliability as they will be running continuously,
possibly for years. When the drive is full, the oldest data on the system will be overwritten with
new
material. Digital recorders can store many days if not weeks of video from multiple cameras, but be
warned that invariably most systems on any setting will not store images of the same quality as seen
on the live view. Consider the following when deciding on how best to record and save your

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video:
• How many days worth of video do you need to retain?
• What image quality do you require from your recorded video?
• How many frames per second do you require?
Remember that for an off-the-shelf CCTV recorder, increasing the retention
time may result in a decrease in image quality, because the compression level
needs to be raised to fit more video on the hard drive, i.e. Best Storage
usually means Worst Image Quality. Thankfully hard drives are getting lower
in price and higher in capacity, so this should become less of a constraint
when specifying a system.

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Storage Capacity
The total storage requirement for a digital CCTV recorder should be
estimated before a system is installed, so that a hard drive of the appropriate
capacity can be specified. It is vital to ensure that sufficient capacity is
available so that compromises do not have to be made on either the image
quality or retention time.
The storage capacity needed in a CCTV system depends on several factors,
which are summarised below. Typical values for each variable are given in
table 6.

Frame Size – This value is the average size of each image as recorded. The
actual figure will be a function of the image resolution (in pixels or TV lines)
and the amount and type of compression applied to the image or video
sequence (It is particularly dependent on whether interframe compression, as
discussed in section 4.6.1 is used, in which case the average frame size will
be an average of larger I-frames and smaller P-frames.) These factors are very
much specific to the specific CCTV recorder, which can make the image size
difficult to estimate accurately, and assistance should be sought from the
system supplier.

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Frames per second – The number of images recorded each second by a
camera has a significant impact on the amount of data being generated. The
preferred frame rate should have been identified during the level 2 operational
requirement capture process.
This value could be dynamic if a camera is triggered by external alarms or
motion detection. For some systems there may be no recording unless activity
is detected. For others, there may be continuous recording at a low frame rate,
say 1 fps, until activity is detected, when there will be a short period of
recording at a high frame rate, say 12 fps. If this is the case an average value
should be calculated by estimating the number of anticipated triggers in a 24-
hour operational period, e.g.
Standard rate (RS) = 1 fps
Triggered rate (RT) = 12 fps
Triggered period (T) = 3 mins
Number of triggers anticipated per day (N) = 10
Number of minutes per day at triggered rate = N x T = 30 mins
Number of triggered frames generated = 30 x 60 x RT = 21600
Number of minutes per day at standard rate = 23 hrs 30 mins = 1410 mins
Number of standard frames generated per day = 1410 x 60 x RS = 84600
Total number of frames generated per day = 21600 + 84600 = 106200
Average frame rate per second = 106200 / number of secs in 24 hrs
= 106200 / 86400 = 1.2 fps

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Number of cameras – This is the number of recorded cameras used for the
whole system under consideration, as specified in the operational
requirement.
Operational hours – This is the number of hours the CCTV system will be
operational, within a 24-hour period, as specified in the operational
requirement.
In a simple system this could be for the full 24 hours per day, whereas in a
more complex system it could be for a predefined number of hours whilst the
premises are occupied / vacant.
Retention Period – The time for which the CCTV footage should be stored
on the system before being overwritten, as specified in the OR.
A general equation has been given to aid in estimating the total amount of

storage required:

353
Where:
Size = Image size in kB
fps = Images per second
C = Number of cameras in the system
Hours = Total number of operational hours in a 24 hour period
TR = Retention period
3,600 is to convert seconds into hours (60 x 60)
1,000,000 is to convert kB to GB
This equation can be used for very basic systems where all the cameras are
recording at the same image size, frame rate and operational hours. For more
complex systems a storage requirement can be calculated for each camera and
the resultant totals added to give the overall requirement for that system.

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Example 1
A CCTV system is being specified for a custody suite that is required to
capture high quality images of 20kB per frame. 12 fps per camera are being
generated and there are 8 cameras in the system. Each camera is recorded for
24 hours per day, and the OR has stipulated a retention period of 31 days. The
storage capacity is given by:

As can be seen this represents a large amount of data, and another strategy
might need to be considered to ensure the amount of data being collected is
manageable. In this case it might be considered that the amount of data being
generated is necessary, in which case the storage provisions should be made.
However it might be deemed more appropriate to reduce the image
size/quality on half of the cameras, or to reduce the frame rate on some of the
cameras. Another approach might be to use IR triggers or motion detection to
trigger the image recording.

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Example 2
A retail outlet is installing a small CCTV system to monitor the access points
(windows and doors) whilst the shop is closed. The image frame size has been
to set to a ‘medium’ value (10kb), and the resultant image checked for
suitability against the level 2 OR requirements. The recorder will be triggered
by motion detection and IR sensors and the average frame rate has been
calculated as 2 fps for all the cameras. 6 camera locations have been
identified to offer maximum coverage, and all the cameras will only be
recording for the hours the venue is closed 7pm until 7am. As the reason for
the system is to provide evidence after a break-in the retention time has again
been set to 31 days. The storage requirement is given by:

356
Display type
In simple terms displays come in two main forms, the CRT (Cathode Ray
Tube) or the modern flat panel variety (less commonly rear projection
systems.) The flat panel displays can either be LCD (liquid crystal display) or
plasma. A summary of display technology is shown in Table 5.
Generally CRTs will provide a superior image especially where movement is
concerned, but the trade off is their bulk, weight and heat generation when
compared with flat panels. Flat panels tend to suffer from an effect known as
motion blur, which can make detail on a moving object difficult to resolve
(for example the registration plate of a moving vehicle). They have
nevertheless become the first choice for most CCTV systems, in the same way
that they have taken over the consumer television market.
There are, however, many new flat panel display technologies in development
that aim to retain the benefits of the current screens yet provide the image
quality associated with CRT. LCD screens are improving, particularly in
terms of viewing angle and overall size.

357
358
• Size: Large size and high resolution flat panel displays can be
effective as matrix displays for multiple cameras. High screen
resolution will not improve the capture resolution.
• Heat: The amount of heat a unit generates becomes significant as the
size of the facility increases and can affect not only operator comfort
but also machine efficiency.
• Colour: Modern displays of all types have similar quality colour
reproduction.
• Black level: The ‘black level’ of a screen refers to how well the
screen performs in a well lit environment. The lower the black level
the better the screen works in higher brightness environments.
• Burn in: Most screens can suffer from ‘burn in’ or image burn, where,
if the same background is displayed continuously for a long period,
this can leave a permanent mark on the screen. Plasma and CRT
screens are particularly susceptible to this.

359
360
Every building has to meet several basic requirements for systems such as security, fire-life-safety,
ventilation, lighting, health and comfort. Security comes from the need to protect property,
content and personnel. Examples of security requirements are identification of vehicles entering
and exiting a car park, controlling access to sensitive or secured areas, and precautions
against terrorist bomb threats, robberies and burglaries. Security has become a high profile
global issue in the aftermath of the September 11 2001 terrorist attacks and the ongoing
terrorist threat.
The functions implemented by security systems include the following:
• Surveillance
- CCTV - Analog
- Digital - IP
• Detection
• Alarms
• Access control
• Elevator control
• Master clock control
• Communication and information management
Several of these functions are usually integrated with those of other systems. For example,
in case of a fire, all doors must be unlocked. Table 1 provides a list of typical devices
connected to a security system.
CCTV and access control are two of the main applications for security. This paper examines
how CommScope IBIS can support these applications.

361
CCTV Applications
As the name implies, CCTV is a system in which the circuit is closed and all the elements
are connected directly. Its name was derived to differentiate the technology from broadcast
television which was meant to be an entertainment medium and where any receiver that is
correctly tuned can pick up the signal from the airwaves.
The most widely known use of CCTV is in security systems. Security guards use CCTV to watch
over doors or other points of entry to a building or to observe areas that are vulnerable to
break-in or vandalism. The true scope for CCTV applications is almost unlimited. Some other
examples are listed below:
• Traffic monitoring
• Crime, crowd and vandalism control
• Production process control
• Shoplifting/theft
• Aerial photography

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363
CCTV System
The starting point for any CCTV system is the camera. At the heart of the camera technology
is the CCD (Charge Coupled Device) sensor that converts light into an electrical signal. This
electrical signal is then processed by the camera electronics and converted to a video signal
output that can then be either recorded or displayed on to a TV monitor which is usually
not equipped with a tuner or channel selector. CCTV systems typically involve a dedicated
communications link between cameras and monitors. Remote monitoring and recording may
also be required along with access to pan, tilt and zoom (PTZ) capabilities for a better look at
what may be happening at the remote site (see Figure 1).
CCD cameras can be divided into two main categories: analog or digital versions.
These can be subdivided further into medium resolution monochrome or color, high resolution
monochrome or color, day/night cameras that provide color in the day and monochrome
at night. Currently, most CCTV applications use analog baseband composite video.
A multiplexer/switcher allows several camera signals to be recorded onto one videotape.
To do this it synchronises the camera signals (in time) and marks each one with a code,
allowing every camera to be replayed independently from tape, regardless of how many
cameras are recorded on that tape. In addition, each image is stamped with a time and
date caption. A simplex multiplexer is one that will record pictures to tape or display multiple
pictures on a single monitor. It will not perform both functions simultaneously. When a simplex
multiplexer is used to replay tapes, it will stop recording. A duplex multiplexer is one that
will record pictures to tape and display multiple pictures on a single monitor simultaneously.
A duplex multiplexer will continue to record even when a tape is being replayed. Many
multiplexers also provide the ability to view several cameras simultaneously on one or more
monitors. This is particularly useful when there are a large number of cameras across 364 a site.
365
The use of video recordings is also common. Its purpose is intended to identify an incident
and/or to provide identification evidence of suspects suitable for presentation to the courts.
The quality of the recording is vital and depends on the standard and condition of both the
videotape and the system used to make the recording. Equipment used must be in good order
and regularly, professionally maintained and serviced. It is vital therefore that total integrity of
the system is maintained from beginning to end.
Digital storage is the most effective and efficient method of video recording and archiving.
In digital recording, each field is divided in to an array of individual points or pixels. A single
frame of monochrome video needs about 450KB (Kilobytes) of space for storage and a single
frame of color needs about 650KB. This is the uncompressed size. Consequently to store the
same number of images as a videotape, a total storage capacity of about 280GB (Gigabytes)
would be needed for one camera. This is considerably larger than hard discs and other media
generally available and would also be tremendously expensive. Consequently some means
of compression is required to reduce the amount of space required without adversely affecting
picture quality. This has led to the introduction of digital video recorders (DVRs), which allow
video to be recorded in higher resolutions than VCRs and eliminated video tapes, which in
turn eradicated the need to physically change the tape. The DVR converts the analog video to
digital format and compresses it before storing it on its hard drive. Alternatively, the compressed
digital video can be sent over the LAN. However, the use of digital technologies in the security
world poses some interesting legal issues and these are discussed in section 4.

366
Another function offered in conjunction with a CCTV installation, is the ability to provide an
audio message, via a loudspeaker, when an intruder sets off a detection sensor. Messages are
typically designed for each specific location. Research has shown that although people will
only obey a written notice to leave in 7% of cases, they will obey an audible command 92%
of the time.
Proper grounding of video equipment is important. Visible interference such as ‘hum bars’,
rolling horizontal lines travelling from the top to the bottom of a monitor, are due to noise
currents on the shield of a video connector. They are a common concern with baseband video
transmission since the frequency spectrum of the noise often lies within the bandwidth of the
video signal. An example would be 50/60 Hz noise due to ground potential differences
between power receptacles or between the shield of the video connector and the case of the
video equipment. This type of interference can occur with coaxial as well as balanced cabling.

367
CCTV Video Signal
Figure 2 shows a typical CCTV analog video signal. This is commonly known as the composite
baseband video signal because the synchronising and video information are combined into
a single signal without a modulated radio frequency carrier. Maximum light will produce a
maximum voltage and therefore a white level. No light will produce no voltage and therefore
a black level. In between these will be shades of grey, and this is the luminance information
of a video signal. In the case of a color camera, the chrominance and color burst signals are
superimposed onto the luminance signal to carry the color information.
The total voltage produced is 1 volt peak-to-peak (Vpk-pk), from the bottom of the sync
pulse to the top of the white level. The luminance portion of the signal is from 0.3 volt to 1 volt
(0.7 volt maximum). The bandwidth required to transmit this signal ranges from DC to 8 MHz
for the three main video standards: NTSC (National Television System Committee), PAL (Phase
Alternate Line) and SECAM (Sequential Color and Memory). The NTSC format was developed
in the US and is used in most of the Americas (North/South/Central), Japan, Korea, Taiwan
and Philippines. It utilizes a bandwidth of 6 MHz. The PAL format was developed in Europe
and is used in most of Europe, Asia and Africa, and utilizes a bandwidth of 8 MHz. The
SECAM format was developed in France and is used primarily in France and some eastern
European countries (Bulgaria, Czech Republic and Hungary), and also utilizes a bandwidth
of 8 MHz. Table 2 provides more details for the three main video formats.

368
369
The CCD is scanned across and down exactly 312.5 times (for a 625-line system) and this
creates a video field. A second scan of 312.5 lines is exactly 1/2 a line down and interlaced
with the first scan to form a picture with 625 lines. This is known as a 2:1 interlaced picture.
The combined 625-line is known as a video frame and made up from two interlaced fields.
Typical camera resolution is 350 TV lines, with high resolution cameras producing better than
450 lines.
The quality of a picture will depend on the level of the video signal to the amount of noise
present, that is, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the system. Noise in a video is seen as snow
or graininess, resulting in a poorly defined image on the monitor or video recording. Table 3
provides a guide as what quality to expect from various SNRs1.

370
CCTV PTZ Signal
In addition to providing composite baseband video, some CCTV cameras require a baseband
digital telemetry signal in order to control PTZ functions. Control data signalling formats
include EIA-RS422, EIA-RS232, 20 mA current loop or Manchester. These PTZ signals have
traditionally been sent on shielded twisted pair cables separate from the video signal which is
transported over coaxial cable.
Futhermore, some CCTV camera manufacturers superimpose the PTZ control signalling within
the vertical blanking interval, i.e. lines 1 to 21 of a 525-lines/frame picture so that the
combined video and PTZ signal can be transported over one coaxial cable. Examples of
such equipment are Panasonic System 200 WV-CU254 controller with WV-CS304 unitized
camera, and PELCO CM6700-MXB video matrix switcher/controller with SD5 SpectraDome
camera or PELCO CM9760-MXB video matrix switcher with CM-9760-CXT coaxitron
translator and SD5 SpectraDome camera.

371
Digital Surveillance Technology:
IP or Network Cameras With the advent of IP or Network cameras, the method of installing CCTV
system changes dramatically.
These IP cameras are plug and play devices as far as the network is concerned. They are easy to
integrate into corporate LANs or WANs. There is no need for multiplexing, coaxial cabling, balun
adapters, CCTV keyboards, analog VCRs and tapes.
An IP camera takes the video, compresses it and sends it over the LAN to a network attached storage
(NAS) device, a storage area network (SAN) or a video server. An IP camera is always streaming video
across the network, and therefore, is always using bandwidth. Hence a separate or segmented LAN is
recommended to avoid bottleneck issues on the main corporate network. However, some IP cameras
now incorporate both server and DVR functions and this helps to limit some of the bandwidth impact.
The connection to the LAN is via 10/100/1000 Mbps Ethernet.
Pictures from an IP camera can be viewed and the PTZ movement (if available) can be controlled
using a PC running a standard browser. Additional features include built-in activity detection function
that can be set to trigger an alarm or switch. For example, when there is movement in the field-of-
view of thecamera, the camera could set off an audible alarm or switch on a lamp or send a signal to
lock a door.
In addition, the captured image at the time the alarm was triggered can be sent to an email address
or FTP server. A high-end IP camera can offer PAL output in addition to IP compressed video.
There are many different compression methods that an IP camera can utilise. These include JPEG
(Joint Photographic Expert Group), MJPEG (Motion JPEG), H.263, MPEG (Motion Picture Expert Group:
MPEG1, MPEG2, MPEG4), Fractal and Wavelet. The main difference between them is their bandwidth
consumption.
372
Demand for digital surveillance technology is rising rapidly as the cost of commercial applications
falls
(particularly for storage and maintenance). The quality of digital images is clearly more superior and
the
flexibility offered in storage and transfer options over traditional analog counterparts is highly
desirable.
The digital images can also be replayed many times with very little degradation in quality. However,
the issue of digital images as legal evidence is in focus as this new technology takes off in
the security world. For a court, the key word is ‘traceability’, that is, having a cast-iron audit
trail that takes it right back to the original recording. This means that whatever happens to an
image, whether it is enlarged, printed, or tampered with, the original remains for a court to
examine. In many countries, guidelines are provided to ensure the authenticity of digital images
and suitable procedures must be followed in collecting and monitoring what is captured on camera.
In the UK, digital images unlike analog ones are 6 WHITE PAPER SECURITY

373
SURVEILLANCE & ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS covered by the Data Protection Act which
is very detailed about the way data must be handled and stored. By falling within the remit of
this Act, digital recordings are therefore governed by very stringent guidelines and controls.
Fortunately, digital technology also has the capacity for encryption and security coding so that
an electronic audit trail involving file coding of digital images can be provided. Creating an
audit trail would reduce the chances of undetected tampering of images. A permanent record
of the data that cannot be amended is another possibility, for example, the use of write-once
read many times’ (WORMS) disk.
It seems certain that the increasing popularity of digital surveillance technology means its
widespread use and acceptance as evidence is inevitable. The responsibility for proving the
traceability, reliability and authenticity of the surveillance images is with the organisation that
captures, processes and modifies it. A suitable audit trail is essential and a careful approach
needs to be taken to the way the image is captured, stored and maintained

374
CCTV Application over
CommScope IBIS
CommScope Intelligent Building Infrastructure Solutions (IBIS) is a modular, flexible cabling
infrastructure system that supports voice, data, video and building automation systems (BAS) by
providing a robust and cost effective connectivity for all of a building’s BAS and communication
systems. IBIS utilizes twisted pair and/or fiber optic cables to provide connectivity in an open
architecture environment.
The traditional way for implementating CCTV applications is to use coaxial cables with the
cameras being powered locally. Furthermore, if PTZ cameras are required, the baseband
digital telemetry signals (for controlling the PTZ functions) have traditionally been transported
over shielded twisted pair cables.
However, the traditional coaxial/shielded twisted pair cabling can be replaced with
a more structured and flexible approach using SYSTIMAX cabling. The CCTV cameras can either
be locally or remotely powered depending on the types of cameras and the powering requirements.
The advantages of supporting CCTV applications with CommScope IBIS are:
• Simplifies the cabling and containment requirements.
• Eliminates ground loop noise on the cabling (This type of noise is very common in coaxial
cabling, especially when long distances are involved).
• Provides for easy migration to newer digital surveillance technologies such IP or
network cameras.
• Makes it easier for the IT group to manage as this group begins to assume responsibility
for all security functions

375
The input/output impedance of a baseband video connection on analog cameras is 75 ohms
unbalanced. The conversion of a 75-ohm unbalanced interface to a 100-ohm balanced twisted
pair interface will require the use of a balun (Balanced-to-Unbalanced) adapter. This adapter also
provides the impedance matching function. It is extremely important that the impedances of the
signal source, balun adapter, cabling and load are approximately the same. Any severe mismatch
will produce unpleasant and unacceptable effects in the quality of the picture. These effects can
include ghost images and ringing on sharp edges. Two balun adapters are required for each link.

376
5.1 Locally Powered Analog Cameras
Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of an analog CCTV application over SYSTIMAX
GigaSPEED XL/GigaSPEED X10D cabling. Figure 3a shows an application using a fixed
camera and Figure 3b for a PTZ camera. The PTZ telemetry signal is transmitted on one or two
pair of the 4-pair cable (depending on the telemetry signal required). The 75 ohm unbalanced
composite analog video signal is converted to a 100 ohm balanced signal using a balun
adapter and transmitted over another pair of the 4-pair cable. Please verify supportable
distances and shared sheath capability with respective adapter/equipment vendors.

Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of a CCTV application over SYSTIMAX GigaSPEED XL/
GigaSPEED X10D cabling where the PTZ signal is superimposed within the composite
video signal. This application typically requires balun adapters that are different from those
shown in Figure 3. Again, please verify supportable distances with respective adapter/
equipment vendors.

377
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379
380
5.2 Remotely Powered Analog Cameras
A analog CCTV cameras can also be powered remotely as shown in Figure 5. In this case, the
distances supported will depend not only on the types of cameras (whether they are color or
black & white), but also on the input voltage and power ratings of the cameras.
Table 4 provides the maximum operating currents and temperatures for SYSTIMAX cables and
Table 5 provides similar requirements for connector and connecting hardware as specified
in IEC 60603-7-4.

381
382
In addition to the current and voltage limiting capabilities of a 24-AWG cabling channel, the
maximum distance supported will also depend on the voltage drop across the cabling. This in
turn depends on the DC resistance of the cabling which is given in Table 6.

383
The voltage drop requirement will depend on the type of cameras used. Fixed cameras
typically require 12 VDC (or 24 VAC) input voltage and a maximum of 0.5 A current. Table 7
provides the maximum voltage-drop distances that can be supported for fixed cameras with
various current requirements, assuming a maximum temperature of 25º C, a minimum camera
input voltage of 12 VDC and a remote supply voltage of 24 VDC. For a distance of 100 m
the maximum current draw is 0.627 A. Also, to prevent current overload on the cabling, a
minimum distance of 42 m is necessary (Shorter distances can be supported by using a smaller
remote supply voltage). The power is carried on a spare pair.

384
Table 8 provides information for a maximum temperature of 60º C. For a distance of 100 m
the maximum current draw is 0.553 A. Also, to prevent current overload on the cabling, a
minimum distance of 74 m is necessary. If shorter distances are to be supported, the power
can be carried on two spare pairs. In this case the minimum distance requirement is 37 m

385
PTZ cameras without heaters typically require 24 VDC (or 24 VAC) input voltage and a
maximum of 1.5 A current (PTZ cameras with heaters must be locally powered). Since PTZ
cameras normally require higher input current, it is highly recommended that the power is
carried on two spare pairs. In this case, the applications are restricted to those that have the
PTZ telemetry signals on one pair only. Table 9 provides the maximum voltage-drop distances
that can be supported for PTZ cameras with various current requirements, assuming a maximum
temperature of 25º C, a minimum camera input voltage of 24 VDC and a remote supply voltage
of 36 VDC. Also, to prevent current overload on the cabling, a minimum distance of 42 m is
necessary.

386
Table 10 provides information for a maximum temperature of 60º C. To prevent current
overload on the cabling, a minimum distance of 74 m is necessary.

If the calculated voltage-drop distance is greater than those specified by the respective
adapter/equipment vendors, then the distances specified by the respective adapter/equipment
vendors will take precedence.
Note that Tables 7 to 10 are applicable for DC power and voltages. However, if the camera
AC power and voltage are given, then the formula is given by

387
P = VIcosϕ,
where
P is the average power
V is the rms voltage
I is the rms current
ϕ is the power factor
Hence the power factor is required to calculate the required current. However, most electricity
utility suppliers will aim to achieve a power factor of 1. Typical power factor range is between
0.95 and 0.99.

388
IP/Network Camera
Figure 6 shows an IP/Network camera connectivity over SYSTIMAX GigaSPEED XL /
GigaSPEED X10D cabling. The connection to the camera is via 10/100/1000 Mbps
Ethernet. Many of these cameras are also IEEE 802.3af compliant, i.e. they are Power-over-
Ethernet (PoE) enabled. The maximum distance supported is 100 meter (from Ethernet switch
to camera, consisting of 90-meter horizontal cabling and a total of 10-meter cords).

389
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Access Control Applications
The key purpose of access control is to deny the physical presence of an unauthorized person
inside a restricted area. It can also improve employee safety and productivity by preventing
unrestricted traffic to different areas of a building. The owner of a building can also tell who
is coming and going through the establishment, and this information can be recalled at a later
time since the system can store the information in a database. The security industry utilizes a
vast array of card and reader technologies. This ranges from the very basic (barcode) to the
most sophisticated (biometric). Most access control applications can be integrated to CCTV
surveillance systems, paging systems, energy management systems and fire-life-safety systems.

Access Control Systems

A typical Access Control system consists of a controller (sometimes referred to as the control
panel) connected to several card (e.g proximity2, magnetic stripe, Weigand3 or smart card4) or
biometric (e.g fingerprint, iris/retinal scan) readers, keypads or signature pads, badge printer,
a motion/PIR (passive infrared) detection system, optional guard tour readers, and an optional
photo identification system (see Figure 7).
2 Traditional proximity card uses 125 kHz frequency.
3 Wiegand technology is widely recognized and field proven for over 18 years. A Wiegand card has a
code
strip which contain specially treated vicalloy wires.
4 Smart cards use the newer 13.56 MHz contactless technology and have read/write capabilities.
Compliant
to either ISO 14443 (proximity card - e.g MIFARE developed by Philips) or ISO/IEC 15693 (vicinity
card). 391
Biometrics are automated methods of recognising a person based on physiological or
behavioural characteristics. Among the features measured are face, fingerprints, handwriting,
iris, retinal and voice. Biometric technologies are becoming the foundation of an array of
highly secure identification and personal verification solutions. As the level of security breaches
increases, the need for highly secure identification and personal verification technologies
is becoming apparent. Using biometrics for personal authentication is becoming convenient
and considerably more accurate than current methods such as using passwords or PINs. This
is because biometrics links the event to a particular individual (a password or token may be
used by someone other than the authorised user), is convenient (nothing to carry or remember),
accurate (it provides for positive authentication), can provide an audit trail and is becoming
socially acceptable and inexpensive. It can also be integrated with other technologies such as
smart cards.
An Access Control system can sound alarms and keep transactions when abnormal events
occur. It is also capable of recording all the personnel In/Out transactions for reference or for
monitoring purposes. Optional features include door prop monitoring with digitally recorded
voice messages (this will encourage users to keep monitored doors closed reducing nuisance
alarms), infrared sensor beams to detect tailgating, guard tour (tool to help manage the security
guards by defining sequence of tour points that a guard must visit, maximum time between
points, etc), RFID key tags and mantraps5.

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Access Control Application
over CommScope IBIS
Most of the Access Control systems utilize RS-232, RS-422, RS-485 or Wiegand protocols
between the controller and the card readers. The distances supported will depend on the
vendor’s equipment. The Wiegand protocol is a 3- to 6-wire protocol that provides 26- or
34- bit code format. Table 11 gives the Wiegand interface signals.
The communication protocol between the controller and the central console server is
usually 10/100 Mbps Ethernet but RS-485 protocol may be used by some existing legacy
systems.
Most Access Control systems also provide remote monitoring capabilities using modems
and are usually linked to police control centers. In some countries, installers of these
remote systems may require accreditation from certain national associations. For
example, in the UK, these companies may be required to be NACOSS (National Approval
Council for Security Systems)
approved. NACOSS was formed in conjunction with the Home Office, the police and the
insurance industry to enforce the standards by which these installers operate.

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A typical security door will require the following connectivity:
• Connection from controller to a card reader (some card readers may require more than
4-pair connectivity)
• Connection from the controller to the door lock
-- Door strike (usually solenoid operated) for electric strike locks
-- Door electromagnet for electromagnetic door locks
• Connection from the controller to the exit push button
• Optional connection from the controller to (break glass) emergency door release button
Hence a minimum of 4 outlets are required for connecting a security door to the
controller. A
typical configuration will have several card readers connected in a multipoint bus
topology to
a controller. There should be no more than 5 BAS devices in a multipoint bus for each
branch
as per ANSI/TIA/EIA-862 requirements. For additional design guidelines, please refer to
the
latest issues of following documents:
• CommScope IBIS general design guidelines
• CommScope IBIS test configuration template and building control devices templates
& guidelines
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The mapping of access control signals to the 8-pin modular jack pinouts is
important in order to ensure consistency and ease of problem
troubleshooting/resolution. CommScope IBIS recommends the use of
ANSI/EIA/TIA-568B T568B pin assignment. The allocation of access control
signals to the 8-pin modular jack pinouts is shown in Table 12. It should be
noted that some vendor equipment might require additional signalling such as
compensation signals.
These signals should therefore be assigned to the appropriate unused
pairs/pins.

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A Typical CCTV Network Project
There really are no fixed rules or “one size fits all” solutions when it comes to network
design. However when faced with complex network design, understanding the key
network design considerations will help you identify the most important components
which you will need to focus on, in order to tackle the complexity of the network and
design a solution that will meet those key design considerations.
In this chapter we’ll first describe a sample customer case, which will be used as an
example of how to approach IP network design. Then, a proposed network design is
presented. Different network considerations are raised and explained in detail.
Customer background information
• Acme International Airport (AIA) is an international airport operated by a Acme, Inc.
• A video surveillance system consisting of 810 analog cameras was built 3 years ago to
provide security monitoring and assist with passenger services. The cameras are installed
at 6 airline terminals and one administration building.
• One Operations Control Center (OCC) is located in the administration building, which
manages the video surveillance system centrally.
• To improve management efficiency and reduce the high maintenance cost of the
existing system, Acme plans to build an IP network.

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Project requirements
• The project focuses on designing a new IP network for the video surveillance system.
• The IP network must be very reliable, providing sufficient bandwidth and redundancy.
Network recovery time must be below 50ms should there be any network device failures
or broken links.
• The video feed captured by the analog cameras must be digitized and compressed
before being transmitted on the network.
• The digitized videos shall be archived in a central storage server, located at the OCC.
Videos are archived 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
• Acme anticipates that network bandwidth utilization will grow by 30% in the next 3
years. The network design should take into considerations and accommodate this growth
rate.
Terminal sites
• Two workstations (with required software) are installed at each site. Every
workstation can simultaneously monitor monitor up to 16 live video streams captured
from any local cameras. The video format is 4CIF (D1), H.264, 30 fps (frames per
second).
• At each site, one workstation is installed to simultaneously play backup to 16 archived
videos : • One management server is installed at each site to manage the site network
• All captured videos shall be sent to OCC for storage; the video format is 4CIF (D1),
H.264, 30 fps
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OCC
• One video archive server is set up to store video streams received from the
administration building and all terminals
• One management server is installed to manage the entire network
• Two workstations (with required software) are deployed. Each workstation can
simultaneously monitor up to 16 live video streams captured from any camera in the
administration building. The video format is 4CIF (D1), H.264, 30 fps.
• Five workstations (with required software) are set up; each can simultaneously play
back up to 16 archived videos or monitor up to 16 real-time feeds from cameras
Video cameras
• The company has decided to use a video server which supports one video input and one
video stream (H.264). Every analog camera shall be directly connected to one video
server for video digitization and compression.
• The consumed bandwidth for this video feed (D1 format, H.264 compression, 30 fps) is
around 4 Mbps
• To meet monitoring requirements and optimize operational efficiency, analog cameras
at each site are grouped into “zones”. The cameras in each “zone” can be connected as
“clusters” based on their physical location. There are 4 to 5 cameras in an average
cluster. For each “zone” with 20 cameras, there are approximately 4 to 5 clusters.
The following table shows the number of analog cameras in total and in each “zone” at
each site.
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Proposed Network Design
The proposed network design is illustrated in Figure 2-2. Key design considerations are described in
the following section.

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Design Considerations
Network Requirements
A good network is a network that fulfills user’s requirements and functions reliably. Good networks
do not appear by chance; the first and most important step to a good network design is collecting
and analyzing customer’s network requirements.
Users generally do not consider “requirements” from an underlying technical, systems, or network
design perspective. Instead, users’ “requirements” are primarily oriented around business goals,
application functionality, accessing applications efficiently, and experiencing minimal
interruptions when there is a system failure. It is the network designer’s responsibility to
understand and convert these broad, business-level requirements to specific network
requirements.
Network requirements should be clearly communicated and well defined before a network design
starts, though in some cases a network designer needs to clarify additional details along network
design process.
Network requirements are also the benchmark to measure the success of the network design
against.
In our sample case, we can summarize the key network technical requirements as follows:
• An IP network which connects OCC (inside Administration Building), all 7 sites (6 Terminals and 1
Administration Building) and CCTV cameras spreading over the 7 sites. With a clear understanding
of the relationship among cameras, video zones, terminal and administration building, a structural
view can be drawn as shown in Figure 2-3.

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• Video live viewing, archiving, archive playback functions are supported at
sites (Terminals and Administration Building). The network must have
sufficient network bandwidth, and plan for future network growth (30%).
• Network recovery time <= 50ms
Network Hierarchy
Business requirements are evolving, and so is the supporting network. To
cope with changes effectively, the network must be scalable. A flat or
collapsed network may appear simple, but it is difficult to scale and
manage.
Depending on their roles and physical locations, network devices can be
divided into “groups” which share similar networking characteristics. The
“groups” are the building blocks of a network. Within the group, networking
services like switching, routing, redundancy, security, traffic prioritization,
etc. can be planned and deployed accordingly.
This hierarchical or modular approach provides several benefits:

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• Availability - Reduces failure domains - Enhances redundancy
• Manageability - The network can be configured by group - Easier troubleshooting -
Minimum impact to entire network from individual changes - Effective policy
implementation, e.g. security, traffic prioritization
• Scalability - Easier to replicate, change and expand
A three-layered network architecture is commonly used and has proven to be effective.
The three layers are:
• Core Layer This layer provides very high speed transport to distribution layers and
ensures reliable delivery of data packets. It is the backbone of the network.
• Distribution Layer This layer provides transport between access and core layers. More
network transmission control is implemented at this layer, like VLAN, filtering.
Redundancy and routing are implemented too.
• Access (Edge) Layer End nodes such as network devices and workstations are
connected to this layer. Switching functions are implemented along with administrative
policy, such as security, traffic prioritization.
In the case of AIA, the entire network should be able to transport data traffic among
cameras, workstations and servers. (CCTV camera quantities and locations are listed in
Figure 2-1.) These cameras capture video and send video data over the network for
viewing and archiving.
The location and quantity of workstations and servers are listed below.
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407
Consistent with network hierarchy best practices, we will divide AIA’s network into 3 layers: Access,
Distribution and Core Layer. The location of each AIA network element in this three-layer structure is
illustrated in Figure 2-5
Access Layer: The layer provides network access to all cameras and transports video streams to
Distribution Layer.
Distribution Layer: This layer connects the Access Layer and Core Layer and provides network access
to workstations/servers at Terminals.
Core Layer: This layer provides network access to workstations/servers installed at OCC,
transporting data traffic coming from or going to the Distribution Layer.

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Network Topology
There are different topologies to choose from when connecting devices
together to form a network. No matter what topology you opt for, the most
important consideration is how to achieve high network availability. A highly
available network minimizes the impact to business applications from a single
point of failure in the network, regardless of whether the failure is caused by
a link, component in a network device or network device itself.
To improve network availability, normally additional links or network devices
are introduced to create redundancy. In an Ethernet layer 2 network,
redundant links sometimes cause loops which results in a serious downgrade
to network performance, or even a halt to network operations in the worst
cases.
There are IEEE standard Ethernet protocols that deal specifically with
redundancy. IEEE 802.1D STP (Spanning Tree Protocol) is defined to create a
loop-free network and use redundant links as backup data path whenever a
primary path is not available. It can be implemented on many different
topologies and is widely deployed in many systems
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. STP’s network recovery time ranges between 30 to 60 seconds, however, which is a
limitation in many industrial applications. IEEE 802.1w RSTP (Rapid Spanning Tree
Protocol) is an updated version of STP. Though the protocol greatly improves network
recovery time, it still may take up to several seconds to converge when there is a
network link status change.
To provide network redundancy solution to many industrial applications which require
sub-second network recovery time, some industrial Ethernet switch manufacturers have
developed proprietary protocols, mostly using ring topology. These proprietary protocols
can deliver far faster network convergence than STP or even RSTP
For example, Moxa’s proprietary ring topology is Moxa Turbo Ring, a proprietary self-
healing technology that enables fast fault recovery of under 20 ms (at a full load of 250
switches). It is built on a physically looped topology, ring. In Turbo Ring (see Figure 2-5), a
Master switch is either manually assigned or automatically detected. The master switch
disables a port on the ring, making the ring logically a bus topology. The redundant link
connecting to the blocked port serves as backup path; it does not transport data. When
there is a link or device failure in the ring, the backup path becomes available again. The
network recovery process takes less than 20ms for a network with 250 devices; excellent
performance that meets industrial requirements.

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411
To further enhance network availability, Moxa Turbo Ring technology
supports multi-ring topology. There are three topology options: Ring
Coupling, Dual-Ring, and Dual Homing (Figure 2-7 to 2-9). A customer
can choose the best fit option based on specific network redundancy
requirements and deployment or cabling costs.
Moxa's Turbo Chain is another innovative breakthrough that allows the
creation of multiple redundant networks beyond the current
limitations of redundant ring technology. Turbo Chain is easy to
configure by linking two user-configured end ports within the same
network segment. Turbo Chain easily connects and extends existing
redundant networks by enabling high network availability with its
self-healing capability (recovery time < 20 ms). In addition, Turbo
Chain supports standard IEEE 802.1w/D RSTP and STP protocols.

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Though Turbo Chain’s network recovery time is <20ms, the overall
network recovery time could possibly be much higher once the
recovery time of the “attached-to” network (the “Network” in Figure
2-10) is factored in. For example, if the “network” uses STP
redundancy protocol, the overall network recovery time may take up
to 60 seconds in some cases. In this case the limitation and
bottleneck is occurring in the STP portion of the network, not Turbo
Chain.
The best results are achieved by hooking up Turbo Chains to networks
that also possess fast recover time, such as Turbo Rings. When
combining Turbo Ring and Turbo Chain together, say Turbo Ring in the
core network and Turbo Chain in the distribution or access network,
the network recovery time will be less than 20ms. The combined
technology provides the greatest flexibility in designing a highly
redundant network and best network performance.
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Because AIA requires very strict network recovery time of less than 50ms, we propose
Moxa Turbo Ring and Turbo Chain technology to fulfill the requirement.
For the core layer, one core switch is planned to provide network access to network
resources at the OCC, the archive server, the network management server, and
workstations (Figure 2-4).
In the distribution layer, one distribution switch is planned to provide access to network
resources stationed at each terminal. Network resources include the network
management server and workstations (Figure 2-4). Twelve distribution switches are used
in total.
The core switch at OCC and the distribution switch at each terminal are connected
together in such a way as to form a Turbo Ring.
For the access layer, at each terminal, the cameras are connected to edge switches. All
switches belonging to the same zone create a Turbo Chain, whose Head attaches to the
first distribution switch and Tail attaches to the second distribution switch in the
Terminal. For cameras whose vantage points are overlapping, it is ideal to connect them
to separate access-layer switches. This creates system redundancy
Figure 2-12 is the simplified view of the network chart according to the layered
hierarchy and Figure 2-2 is the detailed view.

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Overall, the proposed network topology addresses the three most important requirements: network
availability, flexibility and cost.
Bandwidth
The demand for video quality is a key driver of the network bandwidth consumed by a video
surveillance system. The higher the video quality, the more bandwidth and data storage required.
A video is basically a stream of still images or frames. The quality of each image is closely related to
its resolution. The frame rate is the number of frames taken in a specific time span. Higher
resolution and frame rate increase required network bandwidth and storage space.
To save space and increase transmission efficiency, a video normally is compressed before being
transported on a network. Compression efficiency varies greatly depending on the selected
compression technology. Some of the most used digital video formats in IP video surveillance systems
are:
• Motion JPEG
• MP-4
• H.264
Video streams using MPEG-4/H.264 compression are sensitive to packet loss and latency. Adequate
network bandwidth should be prepared to prevent packet loss and latency in the first place. When
planning to provide network bandwidth, we need to consider not just the normal traffic flow, but
also any additional data traffic triggered by a network failures (when the redundant path is
activated), and estimated growth rate.

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In most cases, the significant bandwidth of interest is created by the video
streams going between two endpoints: the source and destination. In terms of
network bandwidth consumption, command and control data, though critical,
consumes trivial bandwidth compared to video data. For live viewing, the
source is a camera or video server and the destination is a monitor. For
playback, the data traffic goes from an archive server to a monitoring
workstation.
For AIA, an additional 30% growth rate for the following three years must be
included when calculating network bandwidth.
Access Network at Terminal
As in Figure 2-13, the access network consists of several edge switches
connected in a Moxa Turbo Chain topology with one end (Turbo Chain Head)
connecting to one distribution switch and the other end (Turbo Chain Tail) to
the other distribution switch. The number of Turbo Chains corresponds to the
number of zones in each terminal. For example, there are 6 zones in Terminal
1, so this Terminal has 6 independent Turbo Chains.

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To estimate the bandwidth requirement for a network, we need to analyze
traffic flow, then calculate the bandwidth consumption from all possible
traffic sources, and also add bandwidth reserved for future growth.
In figure 2-13, the traffic (numbered 1) running on a Turbo Chain is the
aggregation of video streams captured from all cameras of the chain. A zone
consists of 15 to 25 cameras. The table below shows the bandwidth
requirement for a 20-camera zone. Typically the access network bandwidth is
1 Gbps.
Distribution Network at Terminal
As in Figure 2-13, the distribution network comprises a pair of switches at the
Terminal. Each distribution switch transports the data traffic going to the OCC
from local cameras, data traffic running on the Turbo Ring, and that coming
from OCC to local workstations.
The following table summarizes the bandwidth calculation for the distribution
network in Figure 2-13.

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Distribution Switch at Terminal 1
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, the backbone network topology is Moxa Turbo Ring. The
minimum port requirement for the distribution switch, derived from required bandwidth, is as
follows:

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LAN Segmentation and Routing
In order to manage traffic isolation and improve network security, the big
Ethernet layer 2 network is segmented into VLANs. All cameras, workstations
and server in one terminal are deployed in one VLAN. There are 6 different
VLANs assigned to 6 Terminals respectively and one VLAN to Administration
Building video servers. OCC itself is another VLAN for network resources like
archive server, workstations and management servers.
Different VLANs do not exchange data traffic unless layer 3 routing function
is implemented. In the design, distribution switches and core switch are L3
switches providing routing function to VLANs. Routing protocol such as RIP,
OSPF is enabled on these switches.
Currently the maximum number of cameras at any one site (Terminal or
Administration Building) is 130. A 24 bit subnet mask allows up to 254 IP
addresses in one network, which is sufficient for current use as well as for
future expansions.
Customer may have its VLAN and IP addressing policy, the following table is a
reference should the customer not possess predefined rules.
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Multicast
A single video camera (encoder) produces a single video stream. If there is
only one viewer on the network or the video stream is destined to just one
archive server, it is “unicast” data traffic. Sending a video stream to multiple
viewers or network recorders simultaneously requires multiple “unicast”
data streams, which is inefficient. Moreover, the viewers may dynamically
subscribe or unsubscribe to a video stream, making the situation more
difficult to manage. This is when IP multicast technology comes in play for
video surveillance system.
By implementing multicast, a camera (source) produces only one single video
stream regardless of the number of viewers or recorders (destination), the
network infrastructure handles duplication of the video stream according to
where the users are. The benefits of this approach are reducing the load on
the source, minimizing network device processing time, and maximizing
network efficiency. All interested receivers will join a multicast group to
receive the video stream of that multicast group. A multicast group is
identified by a multicast group address.
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The multicast group membership has to be established first before IP multicast functions
as expected. IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol) is the communications protocol
for hosts and adjacent routers on an IP network to establish multicast group membership.
A switch will by default flood multicast traffic to all ports in a broadcast domain, which
results in broadcasting unnecessary data traffic to the ports there are not users on. IGMP
snooping can be implemented to further improve network bandwidth efficiency.
IGMP snooping is a feature that allows a network switch to listen in on the IGMP
conversation between hosts and routers. By listening to these conversations the switch
maintains a map of which links need which IP multicast streams. Multicasts may be
filtered from the links which do not need them.
In the AIA network, a video stream coming from a camera must be sent across network to
OCC for storage and may be viewed by a workstation at local Terminal or/and by a
workstation at OCC. Because any single video stream may have multiple dynamic viewers
on the network, it makes perfect sense that we implement multicast technology so that
every video encoder sends just one video stream and let the network do the duplication
and intelligent filtering/forwarding.
Every single camera (recorder) is assigned a single multicast group with a unique
multicast group IP address. A user (viewer or recorder) then subscribes to that multicast
address whenever it wishes to receive the video stream.

428
In Figure 2-24, each VLAN is a broadcast domain. For multicast traffic to
travel from domain to domain, it requires routers and multicast routing
protocol. The distribution switches at Terminals and core switch at OCC are
performing both switching and routing functions. Multicast routing protocol
should be enabled at these routers so that field video streams can be sent to
viewers and recorder at OCC.
The key design concepts related to IP multicasting are as follows:
• Defining IP multicast group addresses to cameras/recorders - The network
operator should set its IP multicast addressing policy to follow. If not, one
should use the IP multicast address range that is not reserved by IANA, say
230.x.x.x.
• Enable IGMP function in distribution and core switches, and recorders
• Enable IGMP snooping function in access switches
• Enable multicast routing protocol in distribution and core switches
There are several multicast routing protocols to choose from, e.g. DVMRP,
PIM-DM, PIM-SM

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QOS (Quality of Service)
Video traffic is sensitive to latency, packet loss, and jitter. A video stream with H.264 or
MPEG4 compression, is more sensitive to packet loss because an I-frame loss will make a
section of the video difficult to decipher. Network bandwidth and QoS are two critical
factors to reducing packet loss, delay and jitter.
Network bandwidth must be carefully planned so that network congestion can be
avoided. However network congestion may occur even with careful planning, especially
in a network infrastructure that converges data, voice and video. QoS is the solution that
manages network congestion when bandwidth is constrained. QoS does not create
bandwidth, nor does it resolve network performance issues. Data traffic is dynamic and
continuously competes for network bandwidth; QoS gives priority to the traffic that is
marked high or preferred priority, so that the most important data is less likely to be
discarded or delayed when network congestion occurs.
Basically the network supports QoS based on the label marked on data packets. Traffic
priority can be marked in layer 2 COS (Class of Service) and Layer 3 DSCP (Differentiated
Services Code Point) data fields. The layer 2 COS marking uses the 802.1p User Priority
bits (3 bits) within the 802.1Q header. The layer 3 DSCP uses the first six bits of the Type
of Service (TOS) byte of the IP packet header to identify priority.

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The traffic classification and marking is suggested to be enabled at endpoints
so that the network can prioritize incoming traffic according to the QoS
marking. Alternatively, in case that an endpoint does not support traffic
classification, the connected access switch needs to be able to do it based on
pre-determined rules or policies. Once the data traffic is marked, the network
that is properly configured for QoS support will perform queuing and
congestion management.
The following are key concepts when implementing QoS:
• Consistent QoS policy is essential
• QoS should be implemented end-to-end, all the way from endpoints to
access layer switches, distribution and core layer switches.
• Implementing traffic classification at endpoints or access layer switches
• Distribution layer and core layer switches should preserve the marking and
perform congestion management according to the marking.

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Security
The key concepts in enforcing network security are two-fold:
• Implementing access control to protect the network from intrusion
• Protecting network when access control fails to fend off malicious intrusion or there is
unexpected data traffic on the network which presents security risk
The most direct and convenient way to access the network is through access switches at
terminals and the administration building, from either the port connecting to the encoder
or the port that is reserved for future use. Implementing port based security is the
starting point to prevent network access from unauthorized users.
IEEE 802.1X is an IEEE Standard for port-based network access control. There are three
roles in the 802.1X authentication process: the supplicant, authenticator and
authentication server. Video encoder is the supplicant that provides credentials
(userid/password) to authenticator for verification. An authentication server, e.g. RADIUS
server, has to be installed and configured properly on the network for authentication
verification. An access switch is the authenticator that receives credentials from encoder
and submits the information to authentication server for verification. A camera/encoder is
not allowed to access the network until credentials verification is passed.

432
After authentication check is passed, a client is granted network access. The
network is still vulnerable to the data traffic the client sends across. In some
cases, an internal user can jeopardize the network by sending illegal data
traffic, no matter it’s done purposely or unintentionally.
ACL (Access Control List) can be deployed at switches to further filter the
data traffic going into (inbound) and moving out (outbound), giving granular
control over data traffic. It defines what types of data or services can be
accepted and what to reject.
As mentioned earlier in the document, LAN segmentation (VLAN) can divide a
network into multiple sub-networks and limit data traffic on VLAN base, hence
enhance network security.

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POE
Large and distributed networks such as AIA’s are already difficult enough to wire and
deploy. Power wiring adds another layer of complexity and cost to any project. In a
network with a high number of devices, the sheer amount of cabling and power
supplies needed can lead to a messy tangle of electrical cables or even major electrical
re-wiring. PoE is now being used to reduce the number of cables required by delivering
data and power on one cable to end devices. With PoE, no separate power supply is
needed
PoE is defined in the IEEE 802.3af-2003 standard. The IEEE 802.3at-2009 standard,
commonly known as PoE+, provides additional power. PoE+ is particularly useful for IP
cameras that include pan, tilt, and zoom functionality, as the camera motors in those
devices consume additional camera.
However, in the case of AIA, the cameras used are all analog cameras. This means that
PoE will be less useful, as many of the devices at the terminals will not be able to take
advantage of the technology. However, PoE functionality in the access switches might
still be considered as a requirement, if AIA anticipates the need to simplify future
upgrades and expansions to IP-based cameras that can draw power entirely through a
PoE cable.

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When evaluating whether or not to adopt PoE technology for a system, keep in
mind the following considerations:
• The number of end and edge devices in the system that can be supported
solely through PoE.
• How much power wiring would be necessary to deliver power conventionally.
• Whether power outlets or power sources are readily available at all the edge
locations.
Systems that are difficult to wire conventionally and include many remote
sites where an conventional power source might be difficult to locate are
prime candidates for PoE technology. PoE technology also allows greater
flexibility for future changes or upgrades to a network, as network devices can
be easily added, removed, or rearranged, so it is useful in networks that
expect to expand or adapt frequently.

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Selecting Products
Moxa’s portfolio includes products tailored for all layers of an industrial CCTV network. The products
listed below exemplify the characteristics and feature set that network devices need to excel in a
given role.
Core Switches
As the backbone of the network, core switches must support advanced management, high bandwidth,
and high port density with flexible media support
Archetypical Device: ICS-G7848/G7850/G7852
Distribution Switch
Distribution layer switches need slightly less bandwidth and port density than core layer switches, but
still need more of each than edge switches.
Archetypical Device: IKS-6726/6728

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Edge Switches
Edge switches do not need the high port density of distribution or core layer switches, but
they do need to operate in the most exposed field and remote conditions. High physical
durability is a major factor for Edge switches. In addition, compact size and power-over-
Ethernet are very useful in CCTV surveillance systems, as they make the network easier
to deploy in cabinets and difficult-to-wire remote locations.
Archetypical Product: EDS-P206A-4PoE Series

437
It almost sounds too simple.
You know the risks and where they are located better than anyone. Plan out what images
you’d like your camera system to see. In the CCTV world, these ‘images’ are called ‘fields
of view’.
Sketching out your plan may help here, but making good notes is better…
For example, if you have an outside parking lot that you’d like to monitor traffic on…
make a note.
If you have a certain door securing a room of valuables... make a note.
If you’d like to record who and what comes into your facility’s front entrance… make a
note.
Don‘t worry about wide-angle lenses, lighting, and camera height just yet. …just make
notes about what you’d like

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Now the challenging part. You know what you need, but how do you ask for what you want?
Take a minute and review the next pages. While you are doing so, it might help to remember the
areas you identified in Step 1. In any case, here are a couple of helpful things to know:
IP or Analog Cameras
In the CCTV world, this is the difference between digital and analog
based systems. Analog technologies have been around for many years, but IP (internet addressed)
cameras offer the functionality to be viewable on a computer network, not just a DVR or VCR. With
the availability of the internet, it is possible to remotely view whatever your IP camera is seeing.

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PTZ Cameras
an abbreviation of the
definition ‘Pan-Tilt-Zoom’ type of camera.
This camera type allows a user to reposition the view of the camera using a remote
interface;
whether that is a control joystick, computer keyboard, or a remotely accessible web
browser.
In addition, this type of camera can in some cases be configured to ‘patrol’ an area;
constantly
rolling back-and-forth across a predefined path.
The functionality of this camera is not a replacement for the common and familiar
fixed or
static cameras, but a PTZ camera located in a strategic spot can tremendously enhance
the
surveillance capabilities of your camera system.

440
is a measure of light intensity, or how much light is present in a given space*.
Modern cameras are manufactured to operate within a specific LUX range,
depending on the intended location. Listed below are some common ‘LUX
Values’ for familiar areas. Cameras that cover the full spectrum of light
sensitivities are available, from sunlight to starlight (nearly pitch black).

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IR or Infrared Cameras
The ability of a camera to see in variable exposures to light greatly adds to the
utility of the camera… but what about seeing in dark?
Many modern cameras permit for an ‘IR’, or ‘Infrared’ detection operation.
These cameras often have an array of IR emitting LED’s built into the housing
so that IR illumination is directed exactly where the camera is pointed.
Due to the nature of the IR wavelength, no illumination is observed by the
human eye, yet the camera is able to use the emission with great results;
often providing ‘eyes in the dark’ for a cost much cheaper than adding
additional facility lighting.
This feature greatly expands the surveillance capabilities of a camera system.

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DVR or Digital Video Recorder
Being the utility basis for a CCTV system, the ability to record, store, and playback the video observed
by the cameras is often accomplished by the system’s DVR.
The DVR performs it’s function as a terminal clearinghouse for all the video feeds in a system.
Determining how many days (and to which quality) video feeds need to be stored is a function of proper
CCTV design and heavily influences the DVR selection.
DVRs will accept an incoming video feed, catalog it, time stamp it, and even perform basic video
analytics. Modern DVRs can be purchased as network appliances, often being fully integral with existing
computer networks. The features and storage capacities available are often only tempered by the cost
of the unit, with price points ranging from a few hundred to many thousands of dollars.

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PoE or Power over Eathernet
One of the constant design challenges of camera systems has been that for every camera
location, electrical powermust be made available.
In the past, this meant running low-voltage DC power lines from a power supply to remote
locations for use by the camera. This situation added cost due to the materials and labor
involved in the installation.
The impact of this requirement has been lessened somewhat by the advent of ‘PoE’
network switches
and devices. With this type of hardware, the electrical power for the device is carried by
the same singular data cable used to take the video stream away from it.
While the impact doesn’t appear to be significant – requiring only one connection to be
made between the camera/switch – the result is that camera system design has been
greatly simplified
and streamlined.
Cameras can now be hung in locations previously determined to be lessthan-ideal because
of the difficulty in supplying them power. The result:
video surveillance in surprisingly tight or physically restrictive locations.

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Another widely
configurable element of camera system design is the selection of which type of housing (or
enclosure) to choose in containing a camera. Often times, this decision in effect determines the
camera, as certain housings are designed to accommodate for specific cameras.
The design variability of housings offers a great number of considerations:
Will the camera be subjected to wet & cold weather? Then a weatherproof housing with an electric
heater may be in order.
Is vandalism a potential problem? Then perhaps a Detention-Grade housing is the solution.
Mini-dome styled housings are a popular choice for indoor applications. The sleek styling these
housings present often minimize the intrusion of a camera system into the ambient environment.
In addition, a smoked globe often makes it difficult to determine where the camera is pointed.
Effective
deterrence, for certain! Whatever the application, a housing exists to meet the need!

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The good news is that ‘convergence’ is making
life much easier. It is now quite possible to integrate your CCTV camera system,
electronic access control system, and Fire/Burglar Alarm systems all tied together; into
one singular, seamless enterprise platform… ALL systems, in one place. It is ‘force
multiplication’ through technology!
Hybrid System…or, “matching up the old with the new”. Already have an system of analog
cameras in place? They may be rock solid, good-as-new cameras, but they just lack the
nice digital edge that the makes the newer technology so appealing. Guess what? There
are many industry-proven methods for integrating your (old) existing cameras into a new
digital backbone. So you don’t lose your existing capital investment!

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Additional Storage
•Extended Storage options will depend upon the NVR being used
•Storage will either be connected directly to the NVR, or be across the
Network
•When using direct connection storage the connection could be by fibre or
direct Cat 5E/6 cable connection.
•Fibre connection, whilst more money, offers a faster throughput.
The amount of storage required will depend upon the following:
•The number of days required to keep video
•The number of cameras
•The frames per second per camera
•The resolution per camera
•The codec being used, per camera
•The storage requirement must be calculated by the Network Video Recorder
Calculator.

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Network Bandwidth
•The capacity for transferring data over a network is
measured in bits per second (bps), or some multiple
thereof, such as:-
•Kilobits per second (Kbps),
•Megabits per second (Mbps),
•Gigabits per second (Gbps),
•Terabits per second (Tbps).
•How much information you can send across a network
and how fast you can send it is determined by the
available bandwidth in the network

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 CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV) SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS

EMI Systems Limited specializes in CCTV

surveillance systems that ranges from stand-alone
cameras to fully integrated security control centers
and to the immerging IP addressable camera market.
Today we are faced with an explosion of new
technologies that are revolutionizing the way we view
and interact with CCTV systems. At EMI Systems
Limited we are committed to understanding and
recommending the right solution for our customers.

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 CCTV CAMERAS

DOME CAMERA PTZ CAMERA

For less secretive indoor and outdoor PTZ network camera offers pan/tilt/zoom
control over IP networks such as a LAN or the
applications the "Dome Camera" is a Internet. The camera provides wide coverage
perfect camera choice. Easy to install and with its ability to pan 340 degrees, tilt 100
very small this completely enclosed camera degrees and zoom in on specific details. The
can be used in Hotels, public areas and in camera can be manually controlled or scheduled
for switching between color image during
retail operations that demand minimal
daytime, and black/white image in low light or
aesthetic intrusion. night time conditions using the built-in IR Day & Night PTZ
lighting or an external IR lamp for longer Camera
distances. Protective dome housings are
available for indoor and outdoor applications.

Outdoor IR
Dome Camera PTZ Dome Camera
Standard Indoor B/W
Dome Camera PTZ Network Camera
 CCTV CAMERAS

INFRARED CAMERA
An infrared camera is a non-contact device that detects infrared energy (heat) and converts it into an
electronic signal, which is then processed to produce a thermal image on a video monitor and
perform temperature calculations.
Unlike visible light, in the infrared world, everything with a temperature above absolute zero emits
heat. Even very cold objects, like ice cubes, emit infrared. The higher the object's temperature, the
greater the IR radiation emitted. Infrared allows us to see what our eyes cannot. Infrared cameras
produce images of invisible infrared or "heat" radiation and provide precise non-contact temperature
measurement capabilities.

Infrared Camera Colour Infrared Camera

Fixed Infrared Camera
 INTEGRATED NETWORK SOLUTIONS

Network Monitoring System: EMI Systems provides effective branch security network
monitoring, using VSAT. I.e. all the branches of either banks or other companies can be
monitored through this system. The system could also be integrated to monitor the
movement of bullion vans and vehicles and could easily be adapted for use with existing
security systems.

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COMPUTERISED CCTV – VIDEO SHIELD

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 CLOSED CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV) SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS
CCTV systems monitor a variety of areas. They're used as an aid to security, to help control and
deter acts of crime, to prevent employee pilferage and to provide employee safety. In retail
environments, CCTV cameras remain as one of the most effective means of providing evidence, as
well as being an effective deterrent to shoplifting, vandalism, and robbery. In industrial and
commercial applications, CCTV cameras are used to monitor areas that might be dangerous or
inaccessible by other means.

In large complexes, CCTV cameras may be located in multiple buildings and communicate to a
central control point over coaxial cable, fiber, telephone wire, RF, the intranet as well as the
internet.

Cameras, digital and network recorders, monitors and related equipment are researched and
recommended from a vast array of high quality products. Our goal is to create an individualized
and personalized system for our clients. EMI Systems Limited will provide the appropriate
technology, design, installation, and technical support necessary to deliver the system you require.

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• Business Requirement
• Risk Assessment
• Operational Concept
• Requirements Analysis
• Functional
• Technical
• Support
• Budget: what resources are available?
• Through Life Support: specialist skills, recurrent costs
• Constraints: legal, technical, perception, commercial
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• CCTV is one part of the solution, and not a panacea for
public safety and security
• Improve public perception of safety
• Deter and displace anti-social behaviour & crime
• Provide usable, high quality evidence
• Integrated with the environment
• Consider user/corporate/statutory requirements
• Understand constraints, mitigate or design out
• Ensure support is straightforward
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• Select camera/housing based upon:
– Areas requiring coverage, level of detail and resolution
– Distance from camera to target area, and streetscape
– Environmental conditions (e.g. hot/humid; cold/icy)
– Vandalism risk – appraise threat, choose solution
– Whether operational use by police or council required
– Planned system life, durability and upgradability

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 Select CCTV network based upon:
 Need for centralised monitoring/recording or stand-alone
cameras
 Existing network infrastructure (optical fibre/copper/wireless)
 Ownership of assets (lighting poles, power poles)
 Distance between cameras and recording/ monitoring site
 Potential system growth or reorientation

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 Powering can be problematic
 Civil/Electrical works and pole leasing costs
 Trenching/traffic management/MoUs/RoW
 Is mains readily available? Is solar an option?
 Low power CCTV systems, standby modes, movement
activated in remote locations/depots

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 Video archiving is vital
 Evidence preservation
 Local to camera or centrally
 Recording period and video quality
 Protocols for access and release

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• Trees, sculptures, temporary structures will affect coverage
– landscaping is an important factor
• Light doesn’t bend – much – so the camera must be able to
view the target
• High variance in illumination (light/shade) is not desirable
(lighting uniformity defined in AS)
• Architectural aesthetics may not favour even discreet CCTV
positioning
• Consider the effect of new or altered buildings

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 Maintenance strategy to suit environment (inspection,
cleaning, servicing if required)
 Range of fault detection options (tamper, lens
obscuration, incorrect camera position)
 Consider bundled maintenance agreement with well
defined performance criteria

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PRINCIPLES OF INTRUSION DETECTION
To understand the design of intrusion detection systems, it is necessary first to understand the
characteristics of the commonly available intrusion detectors (sensors) on which these systems are
based. Once an intrusion event has been detected by a sensor, the signal must be processed and
appropriate measures taken. This may include sounding loud alarms, turning on lights, and/or
sending signals to central proprietary or private surveillance
services or police.
(a) Sensors with Normally Open (NO) Contacts
These devices are no longer used in any reputable system because the circuits are unsupervised.
As a result, a defective circuit does not indicate trouble, and the system is thereby rendered
ineffective.
(b) Simple Normally Closed (NC) Contact Sensors
These come in a variety of designs, the most common of which are magnetic contacts for doors and
windows, spring-loaded plunger contacts for doors and windows, window foil, and pressure/tension
devices. They operate to transmit an alarm signal, as noted previously. Used in closed, supervised
circuits, they provide a trouble signal when the sensors or circuits are damaged.
(c) Mechanical Motion Detectors
Where window foil or fixed contacts are impractical, a mechanical motion detector can be used.
This device is basically a spring-mounted contact suspended inside a second contact surface. Any
appreciable motion of the surface on which the device is placed causes the contacts to “make”
momentarily, turning in an alarm. These devices are very sensitive and can be activated by sonic
booms, wind, and even a heavy truck passing by. For this reason, most units are provided with
sensitivity adjustment.
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(d) Photoelectric Devices
These devices operate on the simple principle of beam interruption. When the beam is received, a
contact in the receiver is closed. Interruption of the beam causes the contact to open, setting off the
alarm. Older devices of this design use a visible beam (light) and rely for concealment on the fact
that light is seen only when reflected from an intervening object. This is quite effective indoors, but
outdoors, dust, insects, birds, and so on can show
the location of the beam, permitting it to be circumvented. Birds and small animals can set it off,
too.
Dispersion of light also limits the throw of the devices when used outdoors. Modern units use lasers
or infrared (IR) beams, which are less easily detected and can be arranged to distinguish between
intruders and other disturbances. These latter devices have a longer effective range for exterior use.
When a laser beam is used, the signal can be picked up, amplified, and retransmitted in a different
direction, thus establishing a perimeter security “fence” from a single source.
(e) Passive Infrared (PIR) “Presence” Detector
This device (Fig. 30.1a) acts on the principle that all objects emit IR radiation, or heat. The amount
radiated depends primarily on the object’s temperature and secondarily on its material, color, and
texture. The PIR sensor uses a lens or mirror that focuses on a small area and concentrates the IR
radiation collected from the conic volume of space that falls between the device and the target area
of the IR sensor, forming, in effect, a conical beam of coverage called a zone. IR radiation in an area
that is undisturbed (not necessarily unoccupied)
changes very slowly (because object temperatures change very slowly). As a result, any rapid change
in the IR reading of a zone indicates an object entering (or leaving) the space, and this triggers an
alarm. These detectors can be used as occupancy sensors to turn off lights when occupants leave a
space.
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The ability to focus on a particular area is utilized to cover areas both horizontally and vertically by
the simple expedient of using multiple lenses or mirrors to create multiple zones that cover any
desired volume of space Also, inasmuch as the IR detector is not intrinsically sensitive to motion, but
only to heat, it is usable where motion in the monitored area is unavoidable.
The principal disadvantage of PIR detectors is that rapid temperature changes caused by direct
insolation, a cold breeze, a heater turning on, and the like can cause false alarms. PIR detectors can
be, and are, applied as sensitive motion detectors by using a multibeam (zone) unit. Motion is
detected as changes in the IR radiation of adjacent zones or in the radiation of a zone (target) with
respect to the background, both of which characterize
motion.
(f) Motion Detectors
These devices (Fig. 30.1b), which operate at either microwave or ultrasonic frequencies, detect
motion in the protected area by the Doppler effect. (This is the effect that changes the perceived
sound of a car horn or train whistle as the vehicle passes.) Any moving body changes the received
frequency of the signal it reflects, and an alarm sounds. However, because the Doppler effect
depends on relative motion between the source and the moving body, an intruder moving laterally
may go undetected if sensitivity has been reduced to avoid false alarms.
Therefore, units should be located so that the path of an intruder is as nearly as possible directly
toward or away from the detector. Ultrasonic units are cheaper than microwave units but can be
disturbed by strong air turbulence and very loud noises. Microwave units are undisturbed by air or
noise, but because they (like ordinary TV signals) penetrate solids, they can be affected by motion
outside the protected area.

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(g) Acoustic Detectors
These units alarm when the noise level exceeds a preset maximum. Alternatively, they can be
arranged to respond to a particular range of frequencies corresponding to the noise of breaking
glass, forced entry, or whatever is desired. Although applied principally in security systems, they can
also be used as occupancy sensors for control of lighting.
A selection of the devices described in this section is shown in Fig. 30.2.
As with fire detectors, a balance must be struck between the sensitivity of detectors and the
nuisance of false alarms, as, unfortunately, increasing the former increases the latter as well. One
very effective method of reducing nuisance alarms is to use multiple detectors with different
technologies that, in effect, verify each other. Thus, as with occupancy detectors, units are
available that combine PIR and ultrasonic detectors in a single housing. Such a unit does not
transmit an alarm until both detectors indicate intrusion. This dual technique is
applicable to area and perimeter protection as well as portal surveillance.
The previous discussion and that immediately following refer only to intrusion detection (i.e.,
indication of a human presence where it should not be). Access control, which is another area of
security design, deals with controlled entry to an area. It is generally more complex than intrusion
control, and uses different technologies
and a different philosophy of design.

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Introduction
Students used to go into either data communications or voice
communications.
Today, the two fields are merging.
Most voice systems are computer controlled and data networks
support voice.
Anyone studying the field of data communications and networks
must learn some basic telecommunications.

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Basic Telephone Systems

POTS is the plain old telephone system that connects most homes and
small businesses.
POTS lines were designed to transmit the human voice, which has a
bandwidth less than 4000 Hz.
A telephone conversation requires two channels, each occupying 4000
Hz.

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Basic Telephone Systems

A 4000 Hz analog signal can only carry about 33,600 bits per
second of information while a 4000 Hz digital signal can
carry about 56,000 bits per second.
If you want to send information faster, you need a signal
with a higher frequency.
POTS lines cannot deliver faster signals.

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Basic Telephone Systems

The local loop is the telephone line that runs from the telephone
company’s central office to your home or business.
The central office is the building that houses the telephone
company’s switching equipment and provides a local dial tone on
your telephone.
If you place a long distance call, the central office passes your
telephone call off to a long distance provider.

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Basic Telephone Systems

A trunk is a special telephone line that runs between central offices
and other telephone company switching centers.
A trunk is usually digital and carries multiple telephone circuits.
A telephone number consists of an area code, an exchange, and a
subscriber extension.

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Leased Line Services

Most home computer users use POTS lines and conventional modems
to connect to other computer systems.
What if you need a faster service, or one that is used all the time?
You can get a leased line service.
A basic leased line, or TIE line, gives you a 56 kbps data transfer
rate.
A T1 (or T-1) service gives you a 1.544 Mbps rate and is used by
businesses to connect their in-house telephone systems (PBX) and
data networks to the outside world. US
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Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

ISDN is another leased service that provides a digital
telephone or data connection into a home or business.
With ISDN you can have a digital telephone line and a 64
Kbps data line, or one 128 Kbps data line.
2B (Basic User) Channels – 64Kbps each – digital data and
voice 1D (Data Traffic) Channel – 16Kbps – signalling
information for B channels

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Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

H (High Speed) Channel – 348Kbps (H0), 1.536Mbps (H11),

1.92Mbps (H12) – high speed apps, fax, video etc – available
in US
The basic rate interface (BRI) is the service for homes and
small businesses, while the primary rate interface (PRI) is
the service for larger businesses.

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ISDN 2 OnRamp
•Offered by Telstra – Australia
•64Kbps – 128Kbps
•Small businesses – Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
•ISDN Home and ISDN Business Highway are enhanced versions
of Telstra's ISDN 2 service for residential, small office/home
office

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ISDN 30 OnRamp
•Available in 10, 20, 30 channel configurations
•2Mbps connection
•Large ISPs and medium/large businesses

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Frame Relay
Frame relay is the leased service that can provide a high-speed
connection for data transfer between two points either locally or
over long distances.
A business only has to connect itself to the local frame relay port.
Hopefully this connection is a local telephone call.
Once the data reaches the local frame relay port, the frame relay
network, or cloud, transmits the data to the other side.

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Frame Relay
A connection between two endpoints is called a permanent virtual
circuit (PVC).
PVCs are created by the provider of the frame relay service.
The user uses a high-speed telephone line to connect its company
to a port, which is the entryway to the frame relay network.
The high-speed line, the port, and the PVC should all be chosen to
support a desired transmission speed.

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Frame Relay
Consider a company that has four office locations and currently has six leased lines
interconnecting the four locations.
To install frame relay, the company would ask for six PVCs in place of the six leased lines.
The company would also need four high speed telephone lines and four ports connecting the four
locations to the frame relay cloud.

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Frame Relay
The user and frame relay service would agree upon a committed
information rate (CIR).
The CIR states that if the customer stays a specified data rate
(standard rate plus a burst rate), the frame replay provider will
guarantee delivery of 99.99% of the frames.
The burst rate cannot be exceeded for longer than 2 seconds.

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Frame Relay
For example: If a company agrees to a CIR of 512 Kbps with a burst rate of
256 Kbps, the company must stay at or below 512 Kbps, with an occasional
burst up to 768 Kbps, as long as the burst does not last longer than 2
seconds.
If the company maintains their end of the agreement, the carrier will
provide something like 99.99% throughput and a network delay of no longer
than 20 milleseconds.
If the customer exceeds its CIR, and the network becomes congested, the
customer’s frames may be discarded.

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Frame Relay vs. the Internet

Frame relay has many advantages over the Internet,
including guaranteed throughput and minimum delay, and
better security.
The Internet has the advantage of being practically
everywhere, cheaper, and simpler to create connections (no
PVCs necessary).

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Voice over Frame Relay

Frame relay is now capable of supporting voice
communications.
The high transfer speeds of frame relay adequately support
the needs of interactive voice.
If a company requires multiple voice circuits, frame relay is
an interesting solution.

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Switched Virtual Circuits

Frame relay can now also provide switched virtual circuits
(SVC).
An SVC can be created dynamically by the customer.
Good for short-term connections.

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Chapter 12

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a very high speed packet
delivery service, similar in a number of ways to frame relay.
Both send packets of data over high speed lines.
Both require a user to create a circuit with a provider.
One noticeable difference between ATM and frame relay is speed -
ATM is capable of speeds up to 622 Mbps while frame relay’s
maximum is typically 45 Mbps.

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Chapter 12

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Similar to frame relay, data travels over a connection called a
virtual channel connection (VCC).
To better manage VCCs, a VCC must travel over a virtual path
connection (VPC).
One of ATM’s strengths (besides its high speeds) is its ability to offer
various classes of service.
If a company requires a high-speed, continuous connection, they
might consider a constant bit rate service.
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Asynchronous Transfer Mode

A less demanding service is variable bit rate (VBR).
VBR can also support real time applications, as well as non-real
time applications, but do not demand a constant bit stream.
Available bit rate (ABR) is used for bursty traffic that does not need
to be transmitted immediately. ABR traffic may be held up until a
transmission opening is available.
Unspecified bit rate (UBR) is for lower rate traffic that may get
held up, and may even be discarded part way through transmission
if congestion occurs.
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Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Advantages of ATM include very high speeds and
the different classes of service.
Disadvantages include potentially high costs (both
equipment and support) and a high level of
complexity.

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Digital Subscriber Line

Digital subscriber line (DSL) is a relative newcomer to the field of
leased line services.
DSL can provide very high data transfer rates over standard
telephone lines.

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Chapter 12

Digital Subscriber Line

DSL, depending on the type of service, is capable of transmission
speeds from 100s of kilobits into single-digit megabits.
Because DSL is highly dependent upon noise levels, a subscriber
cannot be any more than 5.5 kilometers (2-3 miles) from the DSL
central office.
A DSL service can be symmetric, in which the downstream and
upstream speeds are identical, or asymmetric in which the
downstream speed is faster than the upstream speed.
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Digital Subscriber Line

A DSL service often connects a user to the Internet.
A DSL service can also provide a regular telephone service (POTS).
The DSL provider uses a DSL access multiplexer (DSLAM) to split off
the individual DSL lines into homes and businesses.
A user than needs a splitter to separate the POTS line from the DSL
line, and then a DSL modem to convert the DSL signals into a form
recognized by the computer.

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Chapter 12

Digital Subscriber Line

A DSL service comes in many different forms:
• ADSL - Asymmetric DSL
• CDSL - Consumer DSL (trademarked version by Rockwell)
• DSL.Lite - Slower form than ADSL.
• HDSL - High-bit rate DSL
• RADSL - Rate adaptive DSL (speed varies depending on noise level)

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Chapter 12

Computer Telephony Integration

Computer telephony integration (CTI) is the emerging field that
combines more traditional voice networks with modern computer
networks.
Consider a system in which a customer calls a customer support
number. The customer’s telephone number appears on the
customer support rep’s terminal and immediately pulls up the
customer’s data. The rep answers the phone by clicking on an icon
on the screen and helps the customer. The rep transfers the call by
clicking on another icon on the computer screen.
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Chapter 12

Computer Telephony Integration

CTI can also integrate voice cabling with data cabling.
The company PBX talks directly to the LAN server. The PBX can direct the LAN server to
provide a telephone operation to the user through the user’s computer.
The telephones may still be connected to the PBX or they may be connected to the LAN via
the LAN wiring.

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Computer Telephony Integration

CTI applications could include the following:
• Unified messaging
• Interactive voice response
• Integrated voice recognition and response
• Fax processing and fax-back
• Text-to-speech and speech-to-text conversions

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Computer Telephony Integration

CTI applications could include the following:
• Third party call control
• PBX Graphic User Interface
• Call filtering
• Customized menuing systems

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Telephone systems
The design of telephone systems is beyond the scope of this book, but we must consider
the provision that has to be made for them within a building. In many cases all that is
needed is a route by which the public telephone service, which in the UK is British
Telecom, can bring a telephone cable to an instrument. British Telecom telephones are
operated by batteries at the telephone exchanges and need no source of power within the
buildings they serve. Telephone cable is quite small and if the position of the outlet for
the telephone receiver is known it is sufficient to install a 20mm conduit from outside the
building to the outlet, with the same number and spacing of draw-in points as are used for
any other conduit system. It is usual for the electrical installer to fix the conduit and leave
draw cable in it, which the telephone engineers subsequently use for pulling their cable in
after the building is finished and occupied.
The most common procedure used in the UK is for British Telecom or other cable
network supplier, to supply plastic ducts which the builder puts in the ground from the
telephone main in the road to a point just within the building, and for the electrical
contractor to supply and install metal conduit from the end of the plastic duct to the final
telephone outlet position. A conduit box is provided where the plastic duct meets the
metal conduit, and the electrical contractor puts draw cable into both the duct and the
conduit.

555
If the telephone cable is to come in overhead, as is likely to happen in rural areas, then
British Telecom will do all the outside work, including the fixing of a terminal on the
wall of the building. The electrical installer then has only to provide conduit with draw
cable from the entry point, which in this case will be at high level, to the final
telephone outlet position.
Some buildings have an internal telephone system which may consist of extensions to
the public telephones or may be an entirely separate installation. Here again the
essential matter for the electrical services designer is to agree the outlet positions with
the customer and to arrange for them to be linked to each other by conduit or trunking.
Trunking can be a useful alternative to conduit when the system is a complex one
needing many cables with a large number of junctions. Telephone cables do not have a
protective sheathing and therefore need the mechanical protection of conduit or
trunking.
They can, however, be run exposed on surfaces and this is often done, but in a new
building it makes it rather apparent that the designers forgot about the telephones until
it was too late.

556
An internal telephone installation which is independent of the public telephones must receive power
from somewhere. All telephones work on extra-low voltage and this is provided either by a battery
or by an electronic power pack. A battery needs to be kept charged by a battery charger which in
turn has to be supplied by mains power. A power pack usually contains its own transformer but this
must then be fed from the mains. In whichever way the telephone works, mains power has to be
provided somewhere, usually at the central exchange of the system. The power required is very
small and can be supplied from a socket outlet or fused connection unit on the nearest convenient
generalpurpose power circuit.
Most British Telecom telephones take their power from batteries at the Telephone Exchange, and do
not need power from the consumer’s supply. Some of the British Telecom private branch exchange
systems do however include a power pack which requires a supply from the subscriber’s premises.
The electrical designer should therefore discuss the system to be used with British Telecom and
make sure that any necessary power outlets are provided. They can again be ordinary socket outlets
or fused connection units taken from a convenient power circuit at a point adjacent to the
telephone equipment. The more modern of telephone sets are connected to the permanent wiring
by a jack plug, which inserts into a telephone outlet socket. This socket forms part of a lid which
screws onto a standard conduit box.

557
Public address systems
Public address and loudspeaker systems are somewhat similar to telephones. The details of the
equipment to be used can be settled only with manufacturers’ catalogues and by discussion with the
manufacturers. Once the equipment and its location have been selected, provision must be made for
running cables from the announcing station to the loudspeakers. Because these cables are likely to
be put in after all other building work is finished a conduit system is the almost inevitable choice.
Loudspeaker cables are like telephone cables in that they are small and do not have an outer sheath;
this also makes it difficult to find any alternative to putting them inside conduit.

558
Closed-circuit television systems
There is no real technical difference between the pictures we see at home on television,
and those delivered by a CCTV camera and monitor. The real difference is in the cost of
the equipment. Therefore we cannot expect to have the same quality of picture from
equipment bought for the sums of money a client is prepared to spend, compared with
broadcasting company equipment.
Closed-circuit television is used in many circumstances, including surveillance of
vehicular, and people traffic, entering and leaving a premises. The CCTV standard is
phase alternate line (PAL), also used in normal TV transmissions in Europe with the
exception of France, who use PAL only for CCTV.
The typical types of cable are: (a) coaxial, which is unbalanced, meaning that the
signal is a voltage with reference to ground. The video signal is between 0.3 to 1.0V
above ground; (b) twisted pair balanced, meaning that the video signal has been
converted for transmission along a medium other than coaxial. The signal level is the
voltage difference between each conductor; (c) fibre optics, which are immune to outside
interference and signals without needing amplification.
External interference is picked up en route by all types of cable, with the exception of
fibre optics. Unless suitably screened, power and signal cables should be kept well apart.
The longer the length of cables, the greater the losses. Unlike fibre cables, copper cables
will have a voltage drop over the length resulting in a lower signal level at the receiving
end than that processed by the camera. Provision of cable routes for CCTV is similar to
that discussed in telephone systems.

559
Computer systems
Computer networks are used extensively in organisations to utilise the storage space of a
server. To connect the workstations to the server, a network is used. The network wiring
provides a transmission path between the workstations and the server. Copper cable can
meet most demands at a relatively low cost. The data is transmitted in the form of low
voltage electrical signals, which are unfortunately subject to interference. The cables
must, therefore, be run in situations where interference will not be a problem. Fibre
optic cables can transmit data over longer distances than copper cable, and the fiber
optic cable is not subject to interference. With fibre optic cables the data is converted
into light by a transducer and sent through the fibre optic cable. A second transducer
converts the light signals back into low-voltage signals at the server. Fibre optic cables
are used for higher bandwidth applications. They allow more information to be
transmitted faster but, however, are more expensive to install. Wireless networks use
radio signals to transmit data. They tend to be lower bandwidth than wired networks.
The building services engineer must liase with specialist installation companies to
determine the requirements
of the company with regard to cable runs required.

560
561
Communal TV systems
If all the tenants in a block of flats had their own TV aerial on the roof of the building, the result
would be very unsightly. In the case of a 24-storey tower block having 4 flats on each floor, the roof
would probably not be large enough to accommodate 96 separate aerials. Even a low-rise
development looks ugly if every house has its own aerial; sometimes a four-storey development
consists of two flats and a maisonette above each other so that each ‘house’ would need three
aerials. In fringe reception areas, one needs large aerials mounted very high up. This makes it
difficult to equip each dwelling with its own aerial. In built up areas, large buildings shield smaller
ones, so that if an estate consists of a number of small blocks and one or two towers, occupants of
the small blocks left to provide their own aerials might find it desirable to put them on masts rising
as high as the top of the tower block.
For these reasons, it is an advantage to receive television and radio signals at one suitably sited
aerial array and relay them to individual dwellings by cables or transmission lines. Very large relay
systems exist, serving whole towns, sometimes from a mast receiver several miles away. The
building services engineer is more likely to be concerned with community systems serving a single
block of flats or one small estate of houses and maisonettes. In this book, we confine our attention
to such community systems.
Radio signals are electro-magnetic waves in space. They cover a range of frequencies

562
The electrical mains supply to computer systems requires special consideration.
Information technology equipment inherently gives relatively high leakage current to
earth. To ensure that the circuit protective conductors remain secure in circuits supplying
IT equipment, BS 7671 Section 607 Earthing Requirements for the Installation of
Equipment having High Protective Conductor Currents sets out the special measures
required. For distribution and final circuits where the total protective conductor current
exceeds 10mA, the protective conductor must comply with the regulations with respect to
protective conductors and be not less than 10mm2, or 4mm2 if mechanically protected, or
two protective conductors may be used which may be of different types, e.g. copper, and
steel conduit.
For final circuits only, where the total protective conductor current will exceed 10mA,
the protective conductor is run in the form of a ring, irrespective of whether the circuit is
a ring or radial one. Alternatively, a connection is made between the remote end of the
copper protective conductor and the steel enclosure, if used. If two or more identical
radial circuits are used, a connection can be made between the remote ends of the
protective conductors, on each circuit. This gives a parallel path to earth, for each circuit.
The building service engineers may consider using more final circuits in computer
suites, etc., than would normally be installed in other parts of the building. Using more
final circuits would reduce the leakage current on each final circuit. However, the leakage
current on each final circuit, is cumulative on the associated distribution circuits, and
therefore must be addressed.

563
564
If a signal consists of one frequency only, the only way it can convey information is by varying in
amplitude. As soon as several adjacent frequencies are present, they can combine to form
complicated waveshapes and the total number of distinguishable patterns increases rapidly. This is a
simplified explanation of why the band of frequencies required for a transmission increases as the
amount of information to be conveyed increases. Television provides much more information than
sound broadcasting, and therefore each service requires a large band-width. For sound broadcasting,
each station needs a bandwidth of only 10kHz. A station broadcasting on 1500m (which corresponds
to 200kHz) actually uses all wavelengths between 1457m and 1543m. Provided the next station has a
nominal wavelength of 1587m or more there will be no interference between them; it is obvious that
there is no difficulty about keeping stations separate from each other under these conditions.
A 625 line TV picture, on the other hand, requires a bandwidth of 5.5MHz. It is immediately obvious
from Table 13.1 that this cannot be transmitted at less than HE and that the HF range would only
accommodate five different stations. This is the reason that TV is transmitted in the VHF and UHF
ranges. Even within these, care has to be taken about separation of stations. The five bands of
frequency are, therefore, further divided into a number of channels each of which covers a
bandwidth of 6MHz. These channels are also indicated in Table 13.2. Each station is allocated one
channel, and neighbouring stations are thus prevented from interfering with each other.
Since the distance over which VHF and UHF waves can be propagated is quite
limited, two stations more than a certain minimum geographical distance apart can safely
use the same channel.

565
Figure 13.2 Radiated field Figure 13.1 Principle of dipole

566
Aerials
If an e.m.f. is placed in the centre of a short cable (Figure 13.1), the two halves of the
cable act as capacitor plates, one becoming positively charged and the other negatively.
Each charge produces an electric field. Suppose now that the e.m.f. is alternating; there is
then an alternating charging current in the cable. When the current is a maximum the
positive and negative charges occupy the same place and produce equal and opposite
fields. When the current is zero the positive and negative charges are at opposite ends of
the cable and produce a resultant electric field. Thus there is an electric field which
alternates with the charging current in the cable.
The current also produces a magnetic field which spreads out from the cable with the
velocity of light. The motion of this magnetic field induces a further electric field.
Now the oscillating charges in the cable have not only a velocity, but also an
acceleration. This acceleration is propagated outwards in the electric field at a finite
velocity and, therefore, the field further out is moving with a lower velocity than that
closer in. Since the charges oscillate the acceleration is alternately forward and backward,
and the result is that the complete field radiated forms closed loops which travel out from
the cable and expand (Figure 13.2). It can be shown that this radiated field is appreciable
only if the length of the cable is of the same order as the wavelength.

567
The total electric field thus contains three terms. The first two are the induction fields and
the third is the radiation field. Near the aerial the induction fields predominate, but they
become negligible at a distance greater than about five wavelengths. At larger distances,
the radiation field is the only important one.
By a converse mechanism, a cable placed in an alternating electric field and suitably
orientated to that field will have an e.m.f. induced in it. In fact, it turns out that receiving
aerials are identical to transmitting aerials. In practice, receiving aerials can be made
simpler than transmitting aerials because high efficiency is not so important when
receiving as when transmitting.

568
The simple aerial of the type shown in Figure 13.1 is known as a dipole and its total
length is half the wavelength radiated or received. The description given above is an
attempt to explain in simple physical terms how a dipole radiates and receives. Any
electric current is associated with a magnetic and an electric field, the relationship always
satisfying Maxwell’s equations. The field radiated by an aerial is thus the solution of
Maxwell’s equations for the boundary conditions given by the current distribution in the
aerial and the geometry of the aerial. The mathematical difficulties of calculating such
solutions are so great that theoretical solutions are not given in even the most advanced
textbooks on radio propagation, and aerials are designed on the result of experimental
investigations. The general principle remains that the dimensions of the aerial are
approximately equal to the wavelength. It follows from this that different aerials are
required for different frequency bands.
Aerials are used for services ranging from telegraphy through navigation, broadcasting
and telephony to radar and space communications. There is a very large number of types
of aerial in use to cover the wide range of applications and frequencies employed, but the following
are the types most likely to be encountered by the building services engineer. They are all simple
variations of the basic dipole described above.

569
For band I, a single dipole as shown in Figure 13.3a can be used for reception at a
short range from the transmitter. If the receiver is some distance from the transmitter a
modification is introduced to increase the strength of the dipole. It has been found that the
addition of elements not connected to the receiver cable can strengthen the signal at the
dipole. An element slightly longer than the dipole and spaced about a quarter of a
wavelength behind it has the effect of reflecting waves onto the dipole and thus
strengthening the signal to it. This is illustrated in Figure 13.4 and results in the well
known H aerial shown in Figure 13.3b. A modification of this is the X aerial, also shown
in Figure 13.3b. The principle is illustrated in Figure 13.5 from which it is seen that the
dipole and reflector are partially folded on themselves. It has been found that they then
operate like a straight pair of elements occupying the mean positions shown dotted in
Figure 13.5.
Further improvement in reception can be obtained by adding directors in front of the
dipole at distances of about a quarter of a wavelength, and progressively shorter than the
dipole (Figure 13.4). It is found that the effect of these is to increase the sensitivity of the
dipole to radiation from the direction in which the array is pointing. An arrangement such
as that of Figure 13.4 is known as a Yagi array.
For long-range reception on band I, an aerial consisting of dipole, reflector and
director (Figure 13.3c) is used.

570
 Figure 13.3 TV aerials

Figure 13.4 Strengthening elements

571
Further improvement in reception can be obtained by adding directors in front of the
dipole at distances of about a quarter of a wavelength, and progressively shorter than the
dipole (Figure 13.4). It is found that the effect of these is to increase the sensitivity of the
dipole to radiation from the direction in which the array is pointing. An arrangement such
as that of Figure 13.4 is known as a Yagi array.
For long-range reception on band I, an aerial consisting of dipole, reflector and
director (Figure 13.3c) is used.
As explained later in this chapter, maximum power is transferred from a source to a
load when their impedances are equal. The half wave dipole has an impedance of about
75ohms, which matches the characteristic impedance of the coaxial aerial cable used.
When other elements, that is to say reflectors and directors, are added the impedance of
the aerial is reduced, and much of the power received is lost at the mismatch between
aerial and cable. This can be overcome by folding the dipole, as shown in Figure 13.6. It is still half a
wavelength long but its impedance is higher, and when it is used in an array its impedance matches
that of the cable. Yagi arrays, therefore, generally use a folded dipole.
Similar aerials are used for the reception of FM radio on band II, but they are put
horizontally instead of vertically. This is simply because the radiation broadcast for this
service is polarized in the horizontal plane whereas that for television services is
polarized in the vertical plane. The same types of aerials are used for band III, but
because of the shorter wavelengths the strength of the signal decreases more rapidly and,
therefore, a larger number of elements is used in the array. Typical arrays are shown in
Figure 13.3d, e and f, and combined band I and band II aerials are shown in Figure 13.3g,
h and j.
572
 Figure 13.8 Twin arrays

Figure 13.5 Aerial

Figure 13.6 Folded dipole

Figure 13.7 Polar diagrams

573
All the aerials we have described are directional. The voltage induced in them depends on
the angle between the axis of the array and the plane of the wave of radiation. It is a
maximum when the axis of the array is perpendicular to the wavefront and is zero when
the axis of the array is parallel to the wavefront. The sensitivity can be represented by the
length of a line drawn in the direction of the advancing wavefront. The locus of the ends
of all such lines forms the polar diagram. This is illustrated in Figure 13.7.
Greater sensitivity in the axial direction can be obtained by altering the shape of the
polar diagram as shown in Figure 13.7c. One way of achieving this is to have a pair of
Yagi arrays mounted side by side in a broadside arrangement, as shown in Figure 13.8. It
will be appreciated that in all cases the axis of the aerial array must point as closely as possible
towards the transmitter.
At UHF the range of transmitters becomes much less, although there is less
interference between neighbouring stations. Therefore, the receiving aerials have a larger
number of elements. These are readily accommodated because as a result of the smaller
wavelength they are shorter and more closely spaced. In fact a six-element UHF array
can present a neater and more compact appearance than a single dipole for band I. Also
as a consequence of the shorter wavelength, the reflector can more effectively take the
form of a square mesh. Typical arrays are shown in Figure 13.3k, l and m.

574
Transmission lines
The signal received by the aerial is sent to the television outlets along an aerial cable or
television transmission line. The design of the line is an important part of the design of a
communal TV system, and we must learn something about transmission engineering to
understand it. Transmission engineers are very much concerned with loss of power,
which is usually measured in decibels. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel, and a bel is the
logarithm to base 10 of the ratio of two powers. If the power at the sending end is Ps and
that at the receiving end is Pr the loss of the line is

The decibel is convenient because of the very large losses and amplifications encountered
in communications engineering; for example, if an amplifier has an output 10000 times
the input it is more convenient to say that is has a gain of 40dB. Since the gain, or loss, in
decibels is a ratio, the input level should also be stated.
Power ratios are proportional to the square of the voltage or current ratios. Therefore:

Thus when measurements are made in volts or amps the loss

is

575
If the logarithms to base ‘e’ are used instead of to base 10, the unit is the neper instead of
the bel. This is not used so often, but it is sometimes convenient because the attenuation
of a transmission line per unit length is always a power of ‘e’.
There is a loss of power in all transmission lines. At very low frequencies this is
largely due to the resistance of the line, although inductance and capacitance are
important for exact calculation of long power lines. At high frequencies inductance and
capacitance become much more important, and it can readily be shown that the losses
increase rapidly with frequency. At frequencies above 3000MHz the losses in cables are
so high that transmission by cables is no longer possible and the only way of conveying
energy at these frequencies is by waveguides.
The power engineer distributing power at 50Hz is interested in supplying the power
taken by the load with the minimum loss in the line. The communications engineer
sending signals to a receiver has a rather different outlook. Here much smaller quantities
of energy are being handled, and amplifiers can be installed along the line which feed in
energy from an independent source without distorting the wave shape of the signal. The
main concern is to provide a strong enough signal to the receiver at the end of the line. It
can be shown that maximum power is taken by a load when that power equals the power
lost in the generator. Although at this condition maximum power is taken by the load, the
efficiency of the transmission is only 50 per cent. This is clearly uneconomic for power transmission
but is practicable in telecommunications where the magnitude of the signal
is much more important than transmission efficiency.

576
Frequency translation
In communications, information is contained in a complete waveform covering a band of
frequencies. This band of frequencies is evenly spaced about the carrier frequency, but
the wave can be transferred to any other band of frequencies of equal width, without any
loss of information. It can be transmitted in this form and later transferred back to its
original frequency band, or the information can be read out in the new band.
The losses in a line increase with frequency and in the early days of communal TV
systems it was impracticable to send signals along cables at UHF frequencies because the
losses were too high. UHF broadcasts were therefore translated near the aerial masthead
to suitable channels in the VHF range and transmitted along the communal distribution
system in this form. They were not translated back at the receiving points and the
receiving sets had to be adjusted accordingly. The tuner in a TV set contains a number of
pre-cabled tuning or filter circuits, each set to a particular channel. The station selector
switch connects the appropriate filter, leaving the others out of circuit. All that was
necessary therefore was for a service technician to take out one pre-cabled circuit and
replace it with another pre-cabled to the new channel. This was a very simple operation.
The frequency changing equipment accepted the broadcast signals and translated them
to the required channels by reference to high-stability local oscillators.
Modern amplifiers have made it possible to send UHF signals along aerial distribution
cables so that frequency translation is no longer necessary, but it may still be encountered
on some existing systems.

577
Mixers and splitters
Because the signal received by the aerial is attenuated as it travels along the cable, it must
be amplified. There are difficulties in designing amplifiers which work equally well over
a large range of frequencies and, therefore, two or more amplifiers are used, each
operating on a particular band of frequencies. The output impedance of each amplifier
must be matched to the characteristic impedance of the cable. Also the output of one
amplifier must not feed back into another amplifier to distort the output of that one. It is,
therefore, necessary to insert a mixer unit between the amplifiers and the line. The mixer
unit has to accept two or more different frequencies and combine them, but at the same
time isolate their sources one from another. It achieves this by suitable filtering networks
of inductances and capacitances.
The layout of a scheme sometimes makes it necessary to take two cables away from
one amplifier. The output impedance of one amplifier must then be matched to the characteristic
impedances of two cables working in parallel. This is done by a splitter unit
which divides the output from an amplifier and distributes it between two or more lines.
The splitter is a network of resistances, inductances and capacitances chosen according to
the conditions under which the division is to be made.

578
Power loss and amplification
As we have already said, because of losses in the transmission system, the signal received
at the aerial has to be amplified either at the aerial or along the line or both. Now as the
gain of an amplifier is increased the noise it introduces also increases, and this sets a limit
to the gain which can be used. In practice, amplifiers with a gain of 30 to 60dB are used.
If a 30dB amplifier is used, then the distribution system can be allowed to attenuate the
signal by 30dB before a repeater amplifier has to be installed. Similarly a 60dB amplifier
permits losses of 60dB to be incurred before a repeater is necessary.
Attenuation occurs at a uniform rate along the length of the cable, but at each branch
there is a sharp loss in the junction unit. Consequently, the graph of signal strength
against cable run appears as in Figure 13.16. It will be seen that the signal level at each
branch decreases as one goes along the cable. A TV set must receive a signal not less
than about 1mV but will distort the picture if the signal is more than about 6dB higher
than this minimum. The signal level at a junction must be high enough to accommodate
the losses in the length of line continuing from the junction to the next amplifier. The
attenuation in the shortest branch from the junction must be large enough to bring the
signal strength down from that at the junction to less than the maximum acceptable to the
receiving set at the end of the short branch. The branch cable is quite short and in any
case its length cannot be adjusted to yield the required attenuation. It is, therefore,
necessary to build in some extra attenuation, and this is done in the junction unit itself.

579
The junction unit attenuates the signal to the branch outlet terminals by a given amount
whilst keeping the attenuation to the line continuation terminals as low as possible. This
is the second function of the junction unit which we referred to above and it is achieved
by a suitable network of resistors.
It will be seen from Figure 13.16 that the attenuation required to produce a given
output signal level is different at each junction. It would be most inconvenient to make a
special unit for every junction, but fortunately this is not necessary. A good TV set has a
certain tolerance in the input voltage it can accept, so that a standard attenuator can be
used for several successive junctions giving a small range of outputs within the limits
acceptable to the receivers. Table 13.3 shows a standard range of ratios which have in
practice been found adequate in a large number of cases. The resulting signals available
at the outlets in a typical case are also shown in Figure 13.16.

580
 Table 13.3 Standard junction attenuators

Figure 13.16 Attenuation graph

581
Typical systems
It is generally found that up to about 50 dwellings can be served from one repeater
amplifier. Two typical schemes are shown in Figures 13.17 and 13.18.
Figure 13.17 indicates a housing development consisting of two blocks of dwellings.
Each block has 17 single storey flats on the ground floor (intended for old people) and
three layers of maisonettes above them. Each of these layers consists of three floor levels;
the entrance to all maisonettes is on the middle layer, and alternate maisonettes have the
bedrooms below and above the entrance
and living rooms. Access corridors thus occur only on the ground floor and floors 3, 6
and 9, the other floors containing rooms reached by internal stairs within the maisonettes.
All services follow the same distribution pattern, that is to say, they run in the ceiling of
the access corridors and rise and drop into alternate maisonettes.

582
There is an aerial array which can receive three existing television channels and which
also has provision for the reception of future services on three other channels. The array
is mounted on the tank room on the roof of one of the blocks. The receiving equipment is
fixed inside the tank room and consists of amplifiers and splitters. Two cables are taken
from this main station, one to serve each block. They run along a duct in the roof and
then drop in a duct alongside the main stairs. One cable drops to the ground and then
continues inside a 50mm plastic conduit under an open space to the other block where it
rises in a duct alongside the main stairs. The other cable drops in the same duct of the
first block, but has a junction box at level 9. From this two branches run along the
ceilings of the access corridors with further junction boxes outside each front door. A
third branch from the junction box continues down the duct and feeds repeater amplifiers at levels
6, 3 and 1.
From each of these, outgoing cables run along the ceilings of the access corridors feeding
junction boxes outside each flat.
The cable entering the second block serves that block in an identical manner except
that it works from the bottom up instead of from the top down. The reapeaters are
therefore at levels 3, 6 and 9, whilst the ground floor is served directly from the main
mast-head amplifier.

583
Figure 13.17 Typical scheme

584
Figure 13.18 illustrates an estate consisting of one 24-storey tower block and 18 low
blocks. Of the low blocks, numbers 1–8 and 17–18 are built on top of a podium covering
a ground-level car park. They are of two storeys and alternate blocks contain maisonettes
and a pair of single-floor flats. Blocks 9–16 start at ground level and are four storeys
high. Here alternate blocks contain one maisonette and two flats above each other and
two maisonettes above each other. Each floor of the tower block has four flats.
The aerial array is on the tank room of the tower block. The receiving equipment is
just inside the tank room and consists of amplifiers and splitters together with a power
unit. Eight of the outgoing cables cross the roof and drop inside conduit in the corners of
the tower block. In each corner one cable serves the living rooms in the upper half of the
block with a junction box at each level from which a short stub cable leads to the aerial
outlet. The other cable in each corner drops past these levels without junctions and then
serves the living rooms in that corner in the lower half of the block in a similar manner.
Two other cables from the receiving equipment drop in trunking in the central service
duct of the tower block and then continue underground in 25mm polythene conduit. One
of them runs along blocks 8–2 receiving amplification at points in blocks 8, 7 and 5 and
terminating in a final amplifier in block 2. From each of these amplifiers a final outlet
cable runs at high level in the car park under each block. Under each living room there is
a branch going to the living room above.
.

585
Figure 13.18 Typical scheme

586
On the whole scheme all the junction units are contained in conduit boxes accessible
from outside so that any repairs or replacements can be done without technicians having
to enter flats. This is an important consideration because it is always difficult to get
workmen to a job at a time when all the tenants are there to let them in.
The power to the amplifiers is supplied from the receiving power unit and is fed at
mains frequency along the aerial cable itself. This method of line-feeding the amplifiers
makes it unnecessary to provide power points at each amplifier position and this results in
a significant saving in cost.
A smaller scheme requiring no repeater amplifiers is shown in Figure 13.19. This
development consisted of a four-storey block A of four maisonettes and four blocks of
terraced town houses B, C, D and E. The aerial was mounted on the roof of block A and
there was an amplifier with a splitter and a power unit in a cupboard at high level on the
common staircase of this block. Four cables ran through 20mm conduit within this block
to serve the four living rooms in it.
Two other cables dropped in 20mm conduit in the block and continued in 20mm
polythene conduit in the ground outside. One ran along blocks C, D and E whilst the
other ran along block B. In both cases there was a junction box in the wall of each house from
which a short stub aerial cable ran in conduit to the
outlet in the living room. The longest cable on this scheme served only 13 dwellings and
it was therefore possible to avoid the use of repeater amplifiers altogether. On a small
scheme it is better to have a splitter at the masthead with several distributing cables than
to run a single cable round the whole site with several repeater amplifiers along it.

587
Figure 13.19 Small scheme

588
589
 Antenna Entrance
Subsystems of
Telecommunications Room/Closet
Structured Cabling
Backbone Pathway Tie Pathway

Horizontal Pathway Telecommunications Room/Closet

Equipment Room/Closet

Backbone Pathways

Horizontal Pathway Demarcation Point

Entrance Room/Closet Main Terminal
Space
(Entrance Facility)

Telecommunications Outlet
Interbuilding Backbone

Alternate Entrance Work Area

 Subsystems of
Structured Cabling

Demarcation Point
punto di demarcazione

between outside
dorsale tra edifici service provider
Interbuilding Backbone cables and customer
accesso alternativo cables
Alternate Entrance
 Subsystems of
Structured Cabling

presa di rete

Telecommunications Outlet

Work Area area di lavoro

 Subsystems of
Structured Cabling

Telecommunications Room/Closet
stanza dei dispositivi
stanza / armadio
Equipment Room/Closet di permutazione di piano

canalizzazione orizzontale o di piano

Horizontal Pathway
Entrance Room / Closet Main Terminal Space
(Entrance Facility)

stanza / armadio d’accesso principale

(interconnessione interbuilding-intrabuilding)
 Subsystems of
Structured Cabling

Tie Pathway
canala passacavi

Backbone Pathway
Backbone Pathways
canalizzazione di dorsale o canalizzazione
verticale o canalizzazione di edificio
 Subsystems of Antenna Entrance
Structured Cabling ingresso d’antenna
 Subsystems of Structured Cabling
other diagram example
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 Subsystems of Structured Cabling
Building A
a larger example
Building C
Horizontal Cabling
Telecommunication
Outlet
Floor Distributor /
Building B
Telecommunication
Closet

Building Distributor / Building

Telecommunication Backbone
Closet Campus Campus Distributor /
campus Backbone Telecommunication
comprensorio Closet