ATTITUDE FORMATION AND

CHANGE AFFECTING CONSUMER

BEHAVIOR 12

In order to know whether a particular product positioning strategy

will really work, marketers need to know whether the product
attributes and images are linked to overall attitudes in the
consumer’s mind. The attitude concept we shall discuss in this unit
is one of the most important ideas in marketing management.
Consumers’ purchases are governed by their attitudes toward
product alternatives and marketers can do something to affect
consumers’ attitudes.
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Lesson - 1: Attitude - Definition, Aspects & Models

Objectives of this lesson

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
 Understand the background of attitude study
 Define attitude
 Identify and explain some of the important aspects of an attitude
 Know and explain different models of attitude describing how
attitude is organized.
Introduction
Attitude is considered to be the most important determinant of buying
behavior. Marketers therefore, pay close attention to consumers’
attitudes. It is very important for a marketer to know the important
aspects of consumer attitude. Equally important for a marketer is to
understand how attitude is organized.

Background of the Attitude Study

From the earlier unit you came to know that consumers’ motives
determine or activate behavior resulting in purchases. You also came to
know that consumer behavior cannot be predicted in a simple way from
motivations. There are other intervening individual factors that come into
play. These factors tend to influence the consumer’s perception of
various products and brands of products that may be utilized to satisfy
his/her needs. Some of the important individual intervening variables are
consumer’s attitudes, self-image, and habits. You know that purchase
decision process starts with the identification of a need that is unmet.
Once the desire for a need satisfaction arises, the next step that the
consumer passes in the purchase decision making process is the Attitudes play a
evaluation of different products or services as ways of satisfying the direct and influential
unmet need. Evaluation helps the consumer to decide the brand to be role in consumer
purchased or the seller to select in satisfying his need. His attitudes play behavior.
an important role in the process of evaluation of alternatives as well as
selection of a particular brand of a product or so that the consumer can
satisfies his need. Attitudes thus play a direct and influential role in
consumer behavior. By this time it should be clear to you that attitudes of
consumers toward a company’s products significantly influence the
success or failure of its marketing strategy. Attitude study is important
for the marketers in the sense that, it affects consumers’ selective
processes, learning, and ultimately the buying decision making. As
consumers’ attitudes influence their intention to buy, knowledge on
different aspects of consumer attitudes may help marketers to make a
sales forecast of their products. Measuring consumer attitudes may help a
marketing executive get a better picture on both present and potential
markets. As attitudes often affect the consumer’s decision making
process, marketers must understand attitude formation and change if they

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expect to direct marketing activities to influence consumers. “Awareness

of consumer attitudes is such a central concern of both product and
service marketers that it is difficult to imagine any consumer research
project that does not include the measurement of some aspect of
consumer attitudes. An outgrowth of this widespread interest in
consumer attitudes is a consistent stream of attitude research reported in
the consumer behavior literature.”1 It is well understood that attitude has
been one of the most important topics of study in consumer behavior
field. Attitude study may contribute in decisions regarding new product
development, repositioning of existing products, creating advertising
campaigns, as well as in understanding general pattern of consumer
purchase behavior. Thus, an understanding of what an attitude is, how it
is organized, what functions it performs, how it can be measured, and
how a marketer can change an existing attitude is very important for a
marketer to successfully combat competition. Following few important
and generally accepted findings on consumer attitudes further justify the
importance of attitude study for a marketer taken from the studies of
Alvin Achenbaum; Henry Assael and George S. Day; Frederick W.
Winter; and, Steward W. Bither, Ira J. Dolich and Elaine B. Nell.

Finding  1: Product usage tends to increase, as consumers’ attitudes

toward a product become more favorable. Usage tends to decline, as
attitudes grow less favorable.

Finding  2: The reason for different market shares occupied by

different sellers in a product category is the differences in consumers’
attitudes toward different brands.

Finding  3: Marketers may try to change consumers’ attitudes toward

their products aiming at an increase in sales through persuasive
communications. But, they should bear in mind that the effectiveness of
such communications is determined by a number of other variables.

Finding  4: It is likely that consumers may change their attitudes

toward the existing products if they are exposed to the new ones. It is,
therefore important for the marketers to even reinforce existing positive
attitudes.
Attitude Defined and Explained
Everyone adopts conscious and unconscious attitudes toward ideas,
people, and things, of which they are aware. Allport defined an attitude
as a mental state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a
directive influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and
situations with which it is related. It extends to beliefs and knowledge of
products as well as to people and events. It also covers feelings, such as

1
Schiffman L. G. and Kanuk L. L., Consumer Behavior, Prentice-Hall of
India Private Limited, 1998, p., 234.

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likes and dislikes created, and also a disposition to act or not to act
because of such feelings and beliefs. You should keep in mind that there
is nothing necessarily right, wrong, or rational about attitudes. You
should also note that consumers do not have to have direct experience of
products and services in order to form an attitude toward the product or
service in question.

Berkman and Gilson, citing Daryl J. Bem, described attitudes as our likes
and dislikes, affinities for and aversions to situations, objects, persons,
groups, or any other identifiable aspects surrounding us, including
abstract ideas and social policies. Attitude, like so many concepts in the
behavioral sciences, though is a word, used in everyday life and
conversation, has a more precise meaning within the context of
psychology. It refers to the positive or negative feelings directed at some
object, issue, or behavior. It is a learned predisposition to respond in a
consistently favorable or unfavorable way with respect to a given object.

Attitude can also be defined as a predisposition toward some aspect of Attitude can also be
the world that is positive or negative. You should note that, this defined as a predis-
predisposition cann’t be neutral. That is, a neutral attitude is virtually no position toward some
attitude. Marketers and psychologists know that consumers’ attitudes are aspect of the world
mixtures of beliefs, feelings, and tendencies to behave in particular ways. that is positive or
That is the reason why marketers try to establish favorable beliefs about negative.
their offers. The beliefs, feelings, and tendencies lead to favorable
responses resulting in purchase. An individual’s attitudes constitute his
mental set that affects how he will view something, such as a window
provides a framework for our view into or out of a house. In the words of
John W. Newstrom and Keith Davis, “the window allows us to see some
things, but the size and shape of the frame prevents us from observing
other elements. In addition, the color of the glass may affect the accuracy
of our perception, just as the ‘color’ of our attitudes has an impact on
how we view and judge our surroundings.”2 Thus, it is an individual’s
point of view toward something, which may be a product, an
advertisement, a salesperson, a company, an idea, a place or anything
else. Let us now give some accepted definitions of attitude and then try
to find out the important aspects of attitude from these definition and the
ones given above.

Attitudes are an ‘individual’s enduring favorable or unfavorable

evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies toward some
object or idea.’ ---- David Krech, Richard S. Crutchfield, and Egerton L.
Ballackey.

2
Newstrom J. W. and Davis K., Organizational Behavior – Human Behavior
at Work, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, India, 1993, pp.,
194-195.

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‘Attitude can be described as a learned predisposition to respond in a

consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given
object.’ ---- Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen.

‘An attitude is a relatively enduring organization of beliefs around an

object or situation predisposing one to respond in some preferential
manner.’ ----- Milton Rokeach.

Analyzing the above definitions and the discussion made above, we can
identify following few aspects of an attitude:

Important Aspects of an Attitude

 Attitudes are Learned: Individuals do not born with attitudes, that
is, attitude are not programmed genetically. Individuals rather learn
attitudes through information received from the environment.
Information may be received by an individual both from his
commercial and social environments. Second, they learn attitudes
through direct experience with the attitude object. For example, one
may buy and use a particular brand of toothpaste and can develop a
positive or negative feeling toward the brand. Third, attitudes may be
learned through a combination of information received and
experience with the attitude object. For example, one may read an
advertisement (information) and buy and use the product. As
attitudes are learned, marketers may provide information to
customers through marketing communication tools as well as
distribute free samples for customers to have experience about the
product, thus helping them to form attitudes toward the product.

 Attitudes are Predispositions to Respond: Attitudes implie a

covert or hidden behavior, not overt or exposed, that is they
(attitudes) cannot be observed by others. One cannot see others’
attitudes or verify them; attitudes can be felt. They are the
predispositions of the individuals to evaluate some symbol or object
or aspect of his world in a favorable or unfavorable manner.
Attitudes may be expressed verbally through opinions, or non
verbally through behavior. It means that attitudes are hypothetical
make-ups or constructs. These hypothetical constructs lead to actual
overt behavior. For example, if an individual is favorably
predisposed toward a brand, he is likely to recommend others to buy
that brand or he may purchase the brand himself.

 Attitudes are Consistently Favorable or Unfavorable Responses:

Attitude toward an object leads to responses toward that object. If the
attitude of an individual is found favorable toward an object, he is
likely to make positive responses toward it, and this tendency is
likely to be fairly consistent. In case of a negative attitude, negative
responses are likely to happen, and happen consistently again.

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 Attitude Objects: It was mentioned earlier that, attitudes are

directed toward some object. Object in this case may include a
product, company, person, place, service, idea, store, issues,
behavior and so on.

 Attitudes Have Degree and Intensity: Attitudes can be measured or

quantified, that is, they have degrees. For example, one may develop
a highly positive attitude toward a particular brand, and another may
develop a moderately positive attitude toward the same brand. By
this you understand that, attitudes have degrees. Moreover, they have
intensity, that is, the level of certainty or confidence of expression
about the attitude object. For example, one individual may be highly
confident about his belief or feeling, whereas, another individual
may not be equally sure of his feeling or belief.

Attitude Organization (Models Explaining How Attitudes are

Organized or Formed)
In discussing the aspects of attitudes, we have mentioned that, attitudes Attitudes have
have structures or make-ups. Understanding the structure of attitude is structures or make-
important in the sense that it helps us to know how attitude works. There ups.
are quite a few schools of thought on attitude organization. Each of these
thoughts represents a model of attitudes. Out of these few orientations,
two are noteworthy. They are: The tripartite view or three component
attitude model; and, The multiattribute model develpoed by Martin A.
Fishbein. Though these two models are considered as competing
viewpoints, they are not actually inconsistent with one another. We shall
now discuss them in turn.

The Tripartite View or Three Component Attitude Model

Advocates of the three component model or tripartite view believe that
attitude consists of three components. They are cognitive (awareness,
comprehension, knowledge), affective (evaluation, liking, preference),
and conation or action tendency component (intention, trial, or purchase).
These three components are shown in the following figure:

Figure  12.1: Showing the Three Components of an Attitude

Attitude
Cognition Feelings Overt behavior
(Cognitive (Affective (Conation or
component) component) action tendency
component)

The Cognitive Component

Cognition refers to all beliefs that an individual holds with respect to the
attitude object. Let us say, we are talking about an individual’s attitude
toward a particular brand of toothpaste. His cognitive component of

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attitude toward the said brand, say, ‘Pepsodent’, may be expressed as,
“Pepsodent whitens teeth”. How he says that this particular brand of
toothpaste whitens teeth? This is based on his cognition or knowledge
about the brand. His cognition may be developed through reading,
listening to others, or through the actual experience. This aspect of
attitude tells us how he evaluates the attitude object. The evaluation is
usually based on his knowledge about different aspects of the attitude
object as well as his beliefs on these aspects. His evaluation based on the
knowledge or cognition tells him whether to see the attitude aspect
favorably or unfavorably, and also the action he should take in case of
unfavorable attitude developed toward the object. For example, if an
individual holds negative attitude toward cigarette advertisements, he
may not buy magazines putting on cigarette advertisements, or even
destroy the magazines publishing cigarette advertisements.

The Affective Component

Feeling or affect component of an attitude relates to positive or negative
emotional reactions to the attitude object. For example, if an individual
believes that ‘Pepsodent’ toothpaste whitens teeth (cognition), the
affective component of his attitude toward ‘Pepsodent’ may be expressed
as: “I like Pepsodent”.

The Action Tendency or Conative Component

The third component of an attitude, the conation or action tendency
component encompasses intended and actual or overt behavior with
respect to the attitude object. So, this is a predisposition to behave in a
particular way toward the attitude object. For example, if an individual’s
attitude toward ‘Pepsodent’ is positive, he may be intending to buy or
actually buy ‘Pepsodent’ toothpaste. This component of his attitude
toward ‘Pepsodent’ may be expressed as: “I like to buy Pepsodent” or “I
regularly use Pepsodent”.

The advocates of the three component model of attitude believe that,

these three components are the integral part of an attitude, that is, they
work together. In other words, in every attitude, these three components
work together; may be their degrees vary. It is also argued that, there are
consistencies among the components. If one connotes positive meaning,
the other two will also connote the same. For example, if an individual
believes that a particular brand is good (cognition), he is likely to favor
that brand (feeling or affect), and will buy the same once he requires the
product (action or overt behavior). But, the problem with this model is
that, it is not yet substantiated by a significant number of empirical
investigations. Moreover, it is very difficult to measure each of these
components of a given attitude, and, as a result, this model has a very
limited real-life use in measuring attitudes of consumers.

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The Multiattribute Model of Attitude

There are quite a few models of attitude showing the connection between
perception and preference or attributes and attitudes. These models are
often referred to as evaluative belief models of cognitive structure to
emphasize that attitudes are the product of both evaluations of the
attributes and beliefs about how much of attributes are possessed by the
attitude object. One of such models has been developed by Martin A.
Fishbein which is widely used. According to this model, attitudes are
viewed as having two basic components. One is the beliefs about the
specific attributes of an object (product, here in consumer behavior). The
attributes could be the product’s price, quality, size, shape, design,
distinctiveness, durability, availability, packaging and so on. The other
component is the evaluative aspects of consumer’s beliefs on different
aspects of the attitude object. It implies how an individual evaluates the
importance of each attribute of the object (product) in satisfying his/her
need. The Fishbein’s model may be formulated as below:

n
b =  Wi / Ii – Xib/
i=1

Where,
b = The individual’s attitude toward a particular brand ‘b’.
Wi = The importance the individual attaches to attribute ‘i’.
Ii = The individual’s ideal performance on attribute ‘i’.
Xib = The individual’s belief about brand b’s performance on
attribute ‘i’.
n = The number of attributes considered.
The attitude of the individual toward a particular brand is thus based on
the sum of how much the brand’s performance on each attribute differs
from the individual’s ideal performance on that attribute weighted by the
importance of that attribute to the individual. Let us try to make you
understand this model through an example. Let us assume that a segment
of cola drinkers perceive “Y” brand of cola to have the following levels
of performance on four attributes such as price, taste, status, and calories
(see the figure given below) :
Figure 12.2: Explaining the Multiattribute Model of Attitude
Low price I X High price
-- -- -- -- -- -- --
Mild taste I X Bitter taste
-- -- -- -- -- -- --
High I X Low status
status -- -- -- -- -- -- --
Low I X High calories
calories -- -- -- -- -- -- --
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

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From the above figure, it is seen that this segment of consumers believes
(i.e., the X’s) that brand “Y’ of cola drink is extremely high priced, very
bitter in taste, very high in status, and very high in calories. The above
figure shows that consumers’ ideal brand of cola drink (i.e., the I’s)
should be medium priced, slightly mild in taste, extremely high in status,
and extremely low in calories. It is assumed that these attributes are not
equally important to consumers. We can assign hypothetical weights to
these attributes as follows based on their relative importance to
consumers:

Attribute Importance

Price 10
Taste 20
Status 40
Calories 30
-------------
Total weight = 100 points

From the above distribution of weights on each of the four attributes

consumers consider in case of buying cola drink, and the figure on the
previous page, we can measure attitudes of a segment of consumers
toward the cola brand “Y” as follows:

A”Y” = (10) (4 -7)+ (20) (3 - 6) + (40) (1 – 2) + (30) (1 - 6)
= (10)(3) + (20) (3) + (40) (1) + (30) (5)
= 30 + 60 + 40 + 150
= 280

Here we can find that the computed attitude index toward the cola brand
“Y” is 280. Now question comes is : “Is it good or bad?” It is very
Attitude index is a difficult to give a straight answer to the above question on one’s attitude
relative measure. toward a particular object because the attitude index is a relative
measure. In order to conclude on a particular attitude index, it must be
compared with the attitude index of competing objects, here in this case
products or brands.

Activity:
Prepare a report for your supervisor (assuming you as an assistant
marketing manager of an ice cream manufacturing company)
discussing how you could use the multiattribute attitude model to
segment the market of your product.

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Self Evaluation
Objective Questions
1. Attitudes play an important role –
a. In the process of evaluation of alternatives
b. In the process selection of a particular brand of a product
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

2. Attitude study is important for the marketers in the sense that –

a. It affects consumers’ selective processes
b. It affects consumers’ learning
c. It affects consumers’ buying decision making
d. All of the above.

3. Attitude study may contribute in decisions regarding –

a. New product development
b. Repositioning of existing products
c. Creating advertising campaigns
d. All of the above.

4. Product usage tends to increase –

a. As consumers’ attitudes toward a product become more
favorable
b. As consumers’ attitudes toward a product grow less favorable
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

5. It is likely that consumers may change their attitudes toward the

existing products –
a. If they are not exposed to the new ones
b. If they are exposed to the new ones
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.
6. Attitude covers –
a. Feelings, such as likes and dislikes
b. Disposition to act or not to act because of such feelings and
beliefs
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.
7. Consumers’ attitudes are mixtures of –
a. Beliefs and feelings to behave in particular ways
b. Beliefs, feelings, and tendencies to behave in particular ways
c. Feelings and tendencies to behave in particular ways
d. None of the above.

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8. Which of the following is an important aspect of an attitude?

a. Attitudes are learned
b. Attitudes are predispositions to respond
c. Attitudes have degree and intensity
d. All of the above.

9. The evaluative aspect of an individual’s attitude is usually based on-

a. His knowledge about different aspects of the attitude object
b. His beliefs on these aspects
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

10. Feeling or affect component of an attitude relates to -

a. Positive emotional reactions to the attitude object
b. Negative emotional reactions to the attitude object
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

Answers:

1. c, 2. d, 3. d, 4. a, 5. b, 6. c, 7. b, 8. d, 9. c, 10. c.

Descriptive Questions

1. Discuss the background of attitude study and define attitude.

2. Identify and explain some of the important aspects of an attitude.

3. Mention the names of the two widely used models of attitude

organization. Explain the models with examples taken from real-life.

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Lesson–2: Functions of Attitude & Attitude

Measurement

Objectives of this lesson

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

 Know the functions performed by an attitude
 Identify and explain some of the techniques used in measuring
attitudes
 Understand the importance of measuring consumers attitudes

Introduction
Attitudes perform mainly four functions for the individual, viz.
adjustment, value expression, ego defense, and knowledge. These
functions determine an individual’s response to a particular product or
service. Consumers’ attitudes may be measured using few techniques.
Marketers in gauging consumers’ attitudes may apply these techniques.
Measurement of consumers’ attitudes may help him deciding on his
course of action.

Functions Which Attitudes Perform for an Individual

Marketers are constantly trying to shape or reshape consumers’ attitudes
to make them purchase their products. An identification of the function There are four major
or functions being performed by an attitude is a prerequisite for functions that
attitudes serve for an
successful attitude modification. We have used the terms, ‘function’ and
individual.
‘functions’, because any given attitude may serve more than one function
simultaneously. There are four major functions that attitudes serve for an
individual. These functions are not seen as mutually exclusive. They are
complementary to each other, and at times, overlapping. Daniel Katz, in
his article titled “The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes”,
identified the following four functions that attitudes perform for an
individual:

Function–1: The Instrumental, Adjustive, or Utilitarian

Function
This function is a recognition of the fact that, people try to maximize the
rewards in their external environment and to minimize the negative
consequences. For example, a child develops positive attitudes toward
the objects in his world which are associated with the gratification of his
needs and desires and negative attitudes toward objects which punish
him or thwart him. Why the child does so? The answer is to help him
reaching the desired goals and avoiding the undesirable ones. An
individual favoring a political party with the hope that he will be
benefited if the party assumes power is an example of instrumental,
adjustive, or utilitarian attitude. The dynamics of attitude formation with
respect to the adjustment function are dependent upon present or past
perceptions of the utility of the attitudinal object for the person. Thus,

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adjustment function of an attitude leads to an action, and may be related

to the action tendency component of the tripartite or the three component
attitude model.

Function – 2: The Ego-Defensive Function

Through ego-defensive function, an individual protects himself from
acknowledging the basic truths about himself or the harsh realities in his
external world. We know that, individuals not only seek to make the
most of their external world and what it offers, but they also expend lot
of energy on living with themselves. Ego-defense basically includes the
mechanisms of protecting one’s ego from one’s unacceptable impulses
and from the knowledge of threatening forces from within, as well as
reducing one’s anxieties created by such problems. Ego-defense may
also be termed as the devices by which a person avoids facing either the
inner reality of the kind of person he is, or the outer reality of the dangers
the world holds for him. These devices stem from the internal conflict
with its resulting insecurities. Defense mechanisms help the individual
removing the conflicts created within and save the person from complete
disaster. They may also handicap the individual in his social adjustments
and in obtaining the maximum satisfactions available to him from the
world in which he lives. For example, a worker, who regularly quarrels
with his supervisor and colleagues may do so to act out some of his own
internal conflicts. By doing so he may relieve himself of some of the
emotional tensions which he is having. Ego-defense is related to the
affective component of the three component attitude model discussed
earlier. Through the performance of this function of an attitude, a person
protects himself from others in the environment by concealing his most
basic feelings and desires, which are regarded as socially undesirable.
Ego-defense may lead to the projection of one’s own weaknesses onto
others or attribution of one’s shameful desires to others.

Function – 3: The Value Expression Function

Through the value expression function an individual derives satisfactions
from expressing attitudes appropriate to his personal values and to his
concept of himself. The value expression function is the central to the
doctrines of ego psychology which emphasize the importance of self-
expression, self-development, and self-realization. By this time you are
aware that many attitudes have the function of preventing the person
from revealing to himself and others his true nature. In addition, other
attitudes have the function of giving positive expression to the external
world his central values and the type of person he thinks himself. This is
served by the function of an attitude, which we term ‘value expression’
function. For example, if a person thinks himself of a nationalist, will
probably buy and use locally manufactured products to give others the
idea of his self-image. It is very important for the marketers to identify
the values their consumers hold to develop products and design
promotional campaigns that best suit the values of the market.

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Function – 4: The Knowledge Function

This function is based upon the person’s need to give adequate structure
to his universe. Other descriptions of this function could be, an
individual’s search for meaning, the need to understand, and, the trend
toward better organization of perceptions and beliefs to provide clarity
and consistency for him. People not only acquire knowledge in the
interests of satisfying specific needs or desires, but also to give meaning
to what would otherwise be an unorganized chaotic universe. To
understand their world, people need standards or frames of reference.
Their attitudes help them to provide such standards. They do want to
understand the events which impinge directly on their lives. Knowledge
function may be related to the cognitive component of the three
component attitude model. This function helps the individual in
evaluating the world around him. It helps him to develop positive or
negative attitude toward the attitude object.

Determinants of Attitude Formation and Arousal Conditions

in Relation to Type of Function
After you become aware of the functions that attitudes perform, you may
be interested to know the origin and dynamics as well as the arousal
conditions of attitudes. The general statement that one can make
concerning attitude arousal is that it is dependent upon the excitation of
some need in the individual, or some relevant cue in the environment.
For example, when a man becomes hungry, he talks of food items. He
may also express a favorable attitude toward a preferred food item if an
external stimulus cues or stimulates him. In the following table (see next
page), you are given an idea in summary form with regards to the
determinants of attitude formation and arousal in relation to type of
function.

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Table –12.1: Shows the Determinants of Attitude Formation

and Arousal in Relation to Type of Function

Function Origin and Dynamics Arousal Conditions

Adjustment Utility of attitudinal 1. Activation of needs
object in need 2. Salience of cues
satisfaction. Maxi-
mizing external rewards
associated with need and
minimizing punish-
satisfaction
Ego-defense Protecting against 1. Posing of threats
internal Conflicts and 2. Appeals to hatred
external Dangers and repressed
impulses
3. Rise in frustrations
4. Use of authoritarian
suggestion
Value expression Maintaining self 1. Salience of cues
identity; enhancing associated with
favorable self-image; values
self-expression and self- 2. Appeals to individ-
determination ual to reassert self-
image
3. Ambiguities which
threaten self-
concept
Knowledge Need for understanding, 1. Reinstatement of
for meaningful cognitive cues associated with
organization, for old problem or of
consistency and clarity old problem itself

Attitude Measurement Techniques

Marketers are interested in measuring consumers’ attitudes toward their
products. There is a wide variety of methods available for measuring
There is a wide consumers’ attitudes. Our attention here will be limited to some of the
variety of methods important methods of attitude measurement. One of the simplest ways of
available for measur-
ing consumers’ measuring attitudes is to ask questions directly. For example, an attitude
attitudes. researcher for a calculator manufacturer may ask respondents what they
think about the styling and design of the firm’s new digital solar
calculator. Marketers may also employ the projective techniques used in
motivation research to measure consumers’ attitudes. The better option
for a marketer is to use scaling techniques. An attitude scale involves a
series of phrases, adjectives, or sentences about the attitude object. The
researchers ask the subjects to indicate the intensity of their feelings
toward the attitude object by reacting to the phrases, adjectives, or
sentences about the attitude object in a particular way. If a marketer, for
example, is measuring people’s attitudes toward video compact disc
players, respondents may be asked to state the degree to which they

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agree or disagree with a number of statements such as “Video Compact

Discs Players are complicated to handle or operate”. Let us now look at
some length on two of the most widely used scaling techniques of
attitude measurement. They are: The Likert Scale; and, The Thurstone
Scale.

The Likert Scale of Attitude Measurement

One of the most popular technique of attitude measurement is the Likert
Scale. Using this scale, attitude researcher asks the consumer
respondents to indicate the degree of approval with a statement relating
to the attitude object. Respondents are given the choice of five responses
regarding the statement. They are: strongly agree; agree; uncertain;
disagree; and strongly disagree. Numerical values are assigned to each
response category. For example, strongly agree is given 5 points, agree 4,
uncertain 3, disagree 2, and strongly disagree 1 point. Respondents attach
themselves with the statements relating to the attitude object by selecting
one of the five responses for each of the statement. Respondents are
usually asked to circle the category of response best expressing their
feelings. The scores are summed, once respondents circle their preferred
responses to arrive at a conclusion on consumers’ attitudes. A higher
score indicates a positive attitude and a lower score denotes unfavorable
attitude toward the attitude object.

The Thurstone Scale of Attitude Measurement

This method is also known as Thurstone’s Equal-Appearing Interval
scale. This scale involves having ‘judges’ scale attitude statements along
an attitude continuum. The pool of items collected by the researcher is
given to a panel of judges who are likely to be the representatives of the
subject whose attitudes will be measured. They are needed to show the
amount of favorableness or unfavorableness toward the attitude object.
That is, they sort each item into one of eleven categories that they are to
consider equal intervals along the evaluative dimension, which range
from ‘unfavorable’ through ‘neutral’ to ‘favorable’. Consumer
respondents are then presented with a list of statements which usually do
not have any numerical indication of their degree of favorableness or
unfavorableness toward the object under consideration. Subject
respondents indicate their agreements or non-agreements with each of
the statements. Researcher categorizes the extremely favorable
statements as eleven, and categorizes extremely unfavorable statements
as a one. Statements that the respondents consider falling in between
these two ranges express intermediate degrees of favorableness or
unfavorableness. After responses are received from the respondents, the
researcher assigns the previous given values by the judges to the
responses to determine the favorableness or unfavorableness of
respondents’ attitudes.

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Other Commonly Used Techniques of Attitude Measurement

In addition to the above techniques used in measuring consumers’
attitudes, there are quite a few other techniques that may also be used to
measure consumers’ attitudes. Some of these techniques are: (a)
Longitudinal Studies; (b) Observation of Overt Behavior Technique; (c)
Reactions to or Interpretation of Partially Structured Stimuli Technique;
(d) Performance on “Objective” Tasks Method; (e) Physiological
Reactions Method; and, (f) Osgood Semantic Differential Technique. Let
us now focus on these methods in brief:

(a) Longitudinal Studies: Here, researcher measures attitude changes

over a period of time. He conducts subsequent interviews with the
same subjects at various time on the same attitude object. He plots
the responses made by the subjects at different times toward the
attitude object along a consistent scale of ‘favorable’, ‘neutral’ and
‘unfavorable’ dimensions. This method is used to gauge the changes
in subjects’ attitudes over time toward a particular object.

(b) Observation of Overt Behavior Technique: By observing the

overt behaviors of subjects, their attitudes may be understood. For
example, consumers’ attitudes toward a particular store may be
measured by observing their purchases at the said store, frequency
of purchases, and the volume of purchases made from the shop.

(c) Reactions to or Interpretation of Partially Structured Stimuli

Technique: Here, subjects are presented a particular situation
through a picture and asked to interpret it (picture). The way
subjects interpret the picture tells the researcher the attitudes they
hold toward the object under consideration.

(d) Performance on “Objective” Tasks Method: Here, subjects are

asked to perform a certain task, or the researcher observes how
subjects perform a particular task. The ways they perform a task
give an indication on their attitudes. The researcher assumes that
one’s task performance is influenced by the attitude that he holds.

(e) Physiological Reactions Method: Attitudes may also be measured

by applying techniques used to measure involuntary physiological
reactions such as, galvanic skin response, pupil dilation, and voice
pitch.

(f) Osgood Semantic Differential Technique: In this test, pairs of

words or statements of opposite meaning that might describe an
object (product for example) are presented to the subject. The
subjects rate each of several objects on each dimension by placing a
check at the place on a line that indicates their feelings. Finally, the
average of the checks is plotted as a profile for each object, and
thus, attitudes of the subjects are ascertained.

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Importance of Measuring Consumers’ Attitudes

Attitude measurement may help marketers in a number of ways.
Attitudes consumers hold toward a particular firm and its products
greatly influence the success or failure of the firm’s marketing strategy.
If consumers hold negative attitudes about one or more aspects of a
firm’s marketing practices, they may not only stop buying the firm’s
products, but may also influence others not to buy the same. As
consumers’ attitudes play an important role in determining consumer
behavior, marketers should measure consumers’ attitudes. By measuring
consumers’ attitudes they can gather many types of information.
Measurement of consumers’ attitudes may help marketers to bring Results of attitude
appropriate changes in their products to make them more favorable to the measurement may
target consumers. Results of attitude measurement may also help also help marketers
marketers to segment markets more effectively. By identifying target to segment markets
consumers’ attitudes help marketers to develop most appropriate more effectively.
communication strategies, and to devise strategies to bring appropriate
changes in their attitudes.

Activity:
Construct a multiattribute attitude model to measure female students’
attitudes toward different modes of transportation. Using this model
measure the attitudes of ten female students in terms of their attitude
toward using air-conditioned buses, taxi cabs, and scooters.

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Self Evaluation

Objective Questions

1. The adjustive function of an attitude is a recognition of the fact that–

a. People try to maximize the rewards in their external environment
b. People try to minimize the negative consequences
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

2. An individual favoring a political party with the hope that he will be

benefited if the party assumes power is an example of –
a. Instrumental, adjustive, or utilitarian attitude
b. Ego-defensive attitude
c. Value expression attitude
d. All of the above.

3. Adjustment function of an attitude may be related to –

a. The affective component of the tripartite or the three component
attitude model
b. The action tendency component of the tripartite or the three
component attitude model
c. The cognitive component of the tripartite or the three component
attitude model
d. None of the above.

4. Through ego-defensive function, an individual protects himself –

a. From acknowledging the basic truths about himself
b. From the harsh realities in his external world
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

5. Ego-defense basically includes the mechanisms of protecting one’s

ego –
a. From one’s unacceptable impulses
b. From the knowledge of threatening forces from within
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

6. Ego-defense may lead –

a. To the projection of one’s own weaknesses onto others
b. To the attribution of one’s shameful desires to others
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

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7. The value expression function is the central to the doctrines of ego

psychology which emphasize the importance of –
a. Self-expression
b. Self-development
c. Self-realization
d. All of the above.

8. Knowledge function of an attitude helps the individual –

a. In evaluating the world around him
b. To develop positive or negative attitude toward the attitude
object
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

9. An attitude scale involves a series of –

a. Phrases about the attitude object
b. Adjectives about the attitude object
c. Sentences about the attitude object
d. All of the above.

10. Measurement of consumers’ attitudes may help marketers –

a. To bring appropriate changes in their products to make them
more favorable to the target consumers
b. To segment markets more effectively
c. To develop most appropriate communication strategies
d. All of the above.

Answers:

1. c, 2. a, 3. b, 4. c, 5. c, 6. c, 7. d, 8. c, 9. d, 10. d .

Descriptive Questions

1. What are the functions that an attitude performs? Describe the

functions. Are they mutually exclusive?

2. Name and explain some of the major techniques used in measuring

attitudes. Why attitude measurement is so important for a marketer?

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Lesson - 3: Attitude Change

Objectives of this lesson

After reading this lesson, you will be able to:

 Define an attitude change
 Explain the cognitive dissonance theory
 Understand why cognitive dissonance occurs and how it can be
reduced
 Know how a marketer can create cognitive dissonance in consumers
 Understand how dissonance may be reduced as described in the
functional theory
 Know the application of the multiattribute theory in dissonance
reduction.

Introduction
From the discussion of the first two lessons of this unit you came to
know that attitudes have an important influence on consumer purchase
decisions. Now the question arises as to how marketers can lead
prospective consumers to adopt more favorable attitudes toward their
products. Attitudes can be changed – but rarely easily. It is a time-
consuming and costly proposition to change consumers’ attitudes.
Marketers undertake lot of activities aimed at creating favorable attitudes
Attitudes can be toward a new product or changing negative attitudes toward an existing
changed – but rarely product. It is extremely difficult to change strongly held attitudes. But,
easily. when marketers are faced with negative attitudes, they try to change
those to be compatible with their offers. Marketers wishing to change
consumers’ attitudes toward their products should take into consideration
the factors that influence the formation of attitudes. Different studies
indicate that, some of the attitude forming factors cannot be changed by
marketers. This is particularly true in case of basic needs, personality
characteristics, and group affiliations. Marketers may however, change
consumers’ experiences with regards to their brands. If a marketer can
identify that a significant number of consumers have negative attitudes
toward an aspect of marketing mix, he may try to change consumers’
attitudes to make them more favorable. But, this task is generally long,
expensive, and difficult as well as requires heavy promotional budget.

It is found from different studies that attitude change may follow a

Attitude change may
change in behavior. It implies that the goal for marketing may be to
follow a change in
behavior. induce trial purchase of the brand rather than to improve attitudes toward
the brand. When attitudes toward a firm’s products are favorable,
information about the particular product is more likely to be received and
have positive impact on consumers. But, if consumer attitudes are
negative, the marketer’s tasks become more complex. It is easier to alter
product’s size, shape, color, package, ingredients, or some other

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characteristics to make the product better conform to the consumer’s

existing attitude. But, it is considerably more difficult and expensive to
change consumer’s existing attitudes. “Much evidence indicates that
attitude change strategies may be effective in persuading consumers to
try new products or reevaluate their attitudes toward existing ones.”3
Question now comes to our mind: “What is an attitude change?”
Berkman and Gilson defined attitude change in the context of consumer
behavior, as the modification of a consumer’s evaluative inclinations
toward or against any item in his or her market domain.

How Attitudes May be Changed?

How a marketer can modify consumers’ evaluative inclinations or
change their attitudes? There are a number of strategies that marketers
may adopt to change consumers’ attitudes. Different models also explain
techniques of attitude change that marketers may adopt. Here we shall
focus on some of the important techniques of attitude change as
described in few well-known models:

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Explaining Attitude Change

It is one of the best known and widely used theory of attitude change.
Leon Festinger, a famous psychologist, proposed this theory in 1957.
Dissonance basically denotes cognitive inconsistency. It is a situation in Dissonance basically
which two cognitions (knowledge or thoughts) are inconsistent with one denotes cognitive
inconsistency.
another. Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that, dissonance or want
of harmony or inconsistency occurs when an individual holds conflicting
thoughts about a belief or an attitude object. Once the dissonance occurs,
the individual will try to make a balance in his cognition, that is, he will
try to reduce dissonance. By changing his attitude he may bring cognitive
consistency. If an individual is exposed to dissonance creating
information, it will affect his held attitude(s), which will put the person
in an uncomfortable situation. He will try to make the situation
comfortable by revising or modifying old attitudes, or by adopting new
attitudes as well as changing the entire personal value system. An
individual may experience either the internal dissonance or the inter-
attitude dissonance. Internal dissonance or intra-attitude dissonance may
be created if there is a conflict takes place between the affective and
cognitive components of an attitude. Thus, marketers may bring change
in consumers’ attitudes by influencing their cognitions. It is done to
change consumers’ beliefs about some attitude object. This may be done
with the help of marketing promotional tools. For example, if a group of
consumers believes that a particular brand of a product is not good, the
marketer of the said brand may develop an informative and persuasive
advertisement or train his salespeople to present the brand to the
customers in a way that may bring changes in their attitudes. As
customers get new information, which were not known to them, they
3
Berkman H. W. and Gilson C. C., Consumer Behavior – Concepts and
Strategies’ Dickenson Publishing Company, Inc., USA, 1978, p. 332.

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may change their attitudes toward the brand. This may happen as
consumers’ cognitions change. Once consumers’ cognitive component of
an attitude changes it will bring change in their affective component. The
said marketer may also try to change the feelings or the affective
component of consumers’ attitudes. By presenting the brand in an
emotional context marketers may also bring changes in consumers’
attitudes. If a marketer can bring change in any one of the cognitive or
affective components of an attitude, the other component will be changed
by the consumers themselves, as they seek consistency in components of
their attitudes. Thus, marketers should always try to create dissonance in
consumers’ attitudes toward competing brands, if attitudes toward them
are positive.

By this time you are well aware that consumers seek consistency in the
components of a given attitude if there is dissonance or inconsistency.
They equally seek consistency between or among attitudes. For example,
an individual has bought a particular brand of television though liked two
other brands equally. After the purchase was made, he may repent for not
buying one of the two other brands that he liked. This situation will
create dissonance between attitudes (inter attitude dissonance). In such a
situation, the person may reduce the dissonance created between the
attitudes by gathering favorable information about the brand he bought as
well as attending the advertisements of the purchased brand and finding
out others who have bought the same brand. In this way he may seek
balance in his cognition and reduce his anxiety of having passed over the
other brands he liked.

Situations Creating Cognitive Dissonance

Now you may be interested to know what may create dissonance in
consumer’s cognition. Leon Festinger and Dana Bramel have identified a
number of situations that may create cognitive dissonance in consumers.
The situations are described below:

 Situation 1: If a consumer buys a particular brand of a product

though he liked few others equally, he may, after the purchase is
made, thing that he should buy one of those brands instead of the one
he bought, will experience dissonance. Let us say, he liked three
brands of television almost equally, but finally bought, say brand
“X” instead of brand “Y” and “Z”. His final purchase decision to buy
brand “X” may create a feeling in him that he should buy brand “Y”
or brand “Z” instead of brand “X” which will create cognitive
dissonance. He may resolve such a dissonance by collecting
favorable information on brand “X” and screening out information
about brand “Y” and brand “Z”.

 Situation 2: The second situation that may create cognitive

dissonance in an individual is his exposure to new information that is

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not consistent with his existing attitudes. For example, a consumer

regularly uses “Colgate” brand of toothpaste believing that it
prevents decay better than any other brand of toothpaste. Let us say
that, now he comes to know from an article published in a health
journal that “Crest” brand of toothpaste is more effective in decay
prevention. This new information to which he is exposed is not
consistent with his attitude toward “Colgate”. Such a situation may
also create cognitive dissonance in a consumer.

 Situation 3: The other situation that may create cognitive

dissonance is a challenge to an individual’s attitude by opposing
attitudes held by people considered important to him. For example,
an individual buys “Milk Vita” pasteurized milk regularly as he
thinks this brand contains more fat than other brands of pasteurized
milk available in the market. Now, if one of his relatives, who is a
food and nutrition expert, says that “Aarong” brand of pasteurized
milk contains more fat than “Milk Vita”, he will experience
cognitive dissonance.

In addition to the above three situations, there could be some other

situations, which may create cognitive dissonance in an individual. Some
of these situations are described below for your reference.

We know that an individual usually buys one of the alternative brands in

a product category. After the purchase, if he finds that one or more of the
rejected alternatives would be better than one he has bought, will create
cognitive dissonance in the person. Another situation causing cognitive
dissonance is the negative factors in the purchased brand. An individual,
for example, has bought a particular brand of television after evaluating
different brands. After the purchase if he finds that it takes long time for
the picture to come on the TV screen of his purchased brand, may create
cognitive dissonance in the individual.

Techniques Used in Reducing Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance, you know, creates an uncomfortable situation in Cognitive dissonance
the individual. He may try to reduce such dissonances in three ways as creates an
suggested by Leon Festinger. Thus, he may reduce the tension created by uncomfortable
dissonance and bring harmony in his cognitions. You will now be given situation in the
an idea on these ways in the following paragraphs: individual.

You know that cognitive dissonance may be produced by conflicts

developed between certain factor or factors. An individual may change
such factor(s) to reduce dissonance. Let us say, an individual is
experiencing dissonance between one of his attitudes and behavior. He
may reduce such a dissonance either by changing his attitude or the
behavior. For example, Mr. Sheregul has taken a particular hair cut,
which his family does not like. He may now either think that it is not that

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important what others think, or may change his hair style from the next
time to make it consistent with his family liking.

An individual may also reduce his cognitive dissonance by seeking new

information that is either consistent with his existing attitudes or
behavior. For example, an individual having dissonance for buying
“Milk Vita” pasteurized milk instead of “Aarong” milk may collect
information supporting his decision to buy “Milk Vita”. He may collect
such information from those who use “Milk Vita”, or find articles in
newspapers or magazines advocating “Milk Vita” brand. He may also
talk to nutrition experts who speak in favor of “Milk Vita”.

In the extreme case, the individual having cognitive dissonance may

think that dissonance creating situation is not that important. The above
mentioned individual, for example, may think that it is all the same
whether some one consumes “Milk Vita” or “Aarong” from nutrition
point of view, and thus may reduce his cognitive dissonance.

How a Marketer can Create Cognitive Dissonance in

Consumers?
A creative marketer always tries to change consumers’ attitudes either
toward his brand (if existing attitudes are negative) or the competitors’
brands (if attitudes toward competitors’ brands are more favorable than
the firm’s brand). He can achieve this basically through persuasive
communication. A marketer may provide consumers with information
that are inconsistent with their held attitudes to create cognitive
dissonance. For example, if a group of consumers know that brand “A”
of toothpaste is more effective than brand “B”, they will hold positive
attitudes toward brand “A”. Marketer of brand “B” may now provide
information to consumers that may contradict with their held attitudes
that brand “A” is more effective. This will create cognitive dissonance in
them and they will try to bring dissonant elements into balance. Such
information may be given through the physical product, packaging,
advertising, sales promotional tools, and advocacy advertising. The
producer of brand “B” here may point in his advertisement the features
of his brand that the competing brands lack. While communicating with
the consumers with the aim of creating cognitive dissonance, a marketer
should keep in mind few important aspects with regards to the source it
uses to communicate. They are: (1) Credibility of the source; (2) Source
likeability; (3) Source similarity; (4) Celebrity sources; and (5) The
unexpected source. Let us now have a look at them in turn:

 Credibility of the Source: A marketer may easily influence

A source is
considered credible if consumers’ attitudes if the source carrying the firm’s message is
target consumers considered highly credible. A source is considered credible if target
trust the source. consumers trust the source. A source that is thought to provide a
complete, objective, and accurate information is considered credible

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by the target consumers. Friends, neighbors, and real people or

organizations (Bangladesh Dental Society, for example, in case of
toothpaste advertising) are considered more credible than salespeople
or advertisers. Marketers may make their communication more
trustworthy, if they can encourage more of “word-of-mouth”
communication, because people consider this more credible than
advertising communication. This is also considered more effective
because the communicator can get immediate feedback and clarify
any points that are considered ambiguous. Moreover, it is considered
more reliable, and consumers consider it as offering social support
and encouragement.

 Source Likeability: In selecting the source of communication,

marketers should emphasize on selecting likeable source of
communication. A likeable source is one that is thought of as
pleasant, honest, and physically attractive. Selection of attractive
source of communication can influence consumers’ attitudes better
than an unpleasant source.

 Source Similarity: If the target audience consider the source of

communication as similar to them in terms of physical appearance
and other personal characteristics, they (target audience) will be
convinced more by communication made by such source.

 Celebrity Sources: Celebrities or well known persons are considered

to be more effective source of communication in changing
consumers’ attitudes. If a renowned dentist, for example, advocates a
particular brand of toothpaste, it will have more impact on users of
toothpaste in changing their attitudes. Marketers should remember
that the celebrity they plan to use to advocate their products must
have resemblance with the product or service type. For example, a
well known cricketer will have resemblance with items used in
cricket game.

 The Unexpected Source: It is found that, unexpected communicators

sometimes are more effective in changing consumers’ attitudes than
expected sources. The reasons are that they are likely to be more
sincere and honest. If a well-known computer engineer, for example
advocates a particular brand of toothpaste, that is likely to have more
impact on consumers’ attitudes.

The Functional Theory of Attitude Change

From the earlier discussion you know that attitudes serve four functions
for an individual. If an attitude serving a particular function changes, the
individual’s attitude toward the object will also change. The functional
theory of attitude change mainly focuses on how attitudes are changed
with the change in functions serving attitudes. Let us now examine, how
attitudes serving each of the four functions may change or modify.

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Attitudes that serve an adjustment or utilitarian function may change if

one of the following two conditions prevails. First, if the attitude and
activities related to this function no longer provide the satisfactions they
once did. Second, if the level of aspiration of the individual changes. The
owner of a particular brand of a product who had positive attitudes
toward the brand may now want a more expensive brand commensurate
with his status.

The procedures for changing attitudes and behavior have little positive
effect upon attitudes geared into our ego defenses, because, many ego
defensive attitudes are not the projection of repressed aggression but are
expressions of apathy or withdrawal. Therefore, marketing effort to
change ego defensive attitudes may have a boomerang effect on
marketers. Consideration of three basic factors, however, can help
marketers change ego defensive attitudes. First, the removal of threat is
necessary through providing permissive and supportive atmosphere. An
objective or a humorous approach can serve to remove threat. Second,
ventilation of feelings can help to set the stage for attitude change.
Providing the opportunity to talk copiously may help the subject ventilate
his or her feelings. Third, ego defensive behavior can be changed as the
individual acquires insight into his own mechanisms of defense.
Procedures for arousing self-insight can be utilized to change behavior.

Attitudes that serve value expression function may also be changed. If a

consumer experiences dissatisfaction with his self-concept, his value
expressive attitude will change. Two conditions are relevant in changing
the value expressive attitudes. First, creating dissatisfaction in the
individual with respect to his self-concept can bring change in his held
attitudes. Second, dissatisfaction with old attitudes as inappropriate to
one’s values can also lead to attitude change.

Attitudes serving knowledge function for the consumers may also be

changed. If an individual finds his old attitudes in conflict with new
experience, he will proceed to modify his beliefs. Thus, by providing
information to consumers that are inconsistent with their held attitudes
may bring change in the cognitive component of their attitudes.

Thus, any situation, which is ambiguous for the individual is likely to

Any situation, which
is ambiguous for the produce attitude change. One’s need for cognitive structure is such that
individual is likely to he will either modify his beliefs to impose structure or accept some new
produce attitude mechanisms to make a balance in his cognition whenever there is an
change. inconsistency.

Multiattribute Theory of Attitude Change

You were given an idea on the multiattribute theory of attitude formation
in lesson 1 of this unit developed by Martin Fishbein. The same theory
may also be applied in changing consumers’ attitudes. Fishbein later on

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modified his model and termed it as an Extended Behavioral Intentions

model. According to the said model, a consumer’s intention to perform a
specific purchasing activity is a function of the person’s beliefs and
evaluation of the consequences of the buying activity. Fishbein expressed
it as:
Aact = ni = 1 Biai
Where, Aact = The attitude toward performance of a specific act, here
in this case, a purchase activity
Bi = Beliefs about the results of a specific act
ai = The evaluative aspects of the beliefs about the results
of a specific act
n = The number of relevant result or consequences

Using the elements of this model, a marketer may pursue a number of

strategies to bring changes in consumers’ attitudes toward his products.
The possible strategies are:

 Change the beliefs (Bi element) about the attributes of the brand.
 Change the relative importance of consumer’s beliefs
 Add new beliefs
 Change the beliefs about the attributes of the ideal brand.

Let us now discuss, how these strategies may be applied by a marketer:

If a marketer intends to change consumers’ beliefs about the attributes of

the brand, he may try to shift beliefs about the performance of the brand
on one or more attributes. He may take attempts to change consumers’
perceptions of the brand on one or more aspects.

While deciding to buy a particular brand of a product, consumers may

consider some beliefs more important than others. Thus, marketers may
try to change attitudes by shifting the relative importance away from
poorly evaluated attributes to positively evaluated attributes. If, for
example, consumers believe that power consumption rate is more
important in selecting a brand of television, and if the advertiser’s brand
consumes more power, he can try to change consumers’ perception by
focusing on the other attribute(s) that his brand possess. For example, he
may advertise through testimonials received from the experts that the life
of the picture tube is more important attribute buyers should consider
while selecting a brand of television. He should make sure that his brand
is better in this attribute.

The other attitude change strategy involves adding new beliefs to the
consumers’ existing belief structures. Through marketing
communications, marketers may introduce a new attribute into cognitive

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structure. By doing so they can increase the overall attractiveness of their

brands. For example, producer of a particular brand of mosquito coil may
announce that his brand works for 14 hours, instead of 10 hours, that all
other brands work.

The other attitude change strategy is changing the beliefs about the
attributes of the ideal brand. It involves altering the perceptions of the
ideal brand. A toothpaste manufacturer, for example, may attempt to
convince toothpaste users that bad taste is good in case of toothpaste (if
his brand taste bad).

In conclusion, we can say that, it is possible for a marketer to change the

beliefs about the attributes of a brand to change consumers’ attitudes. He
may also try to change the relative importance that consumers place on
these beliefs, thus can change their attitudes. He may also try to add new
beliefs to the existing attitude structure of consumers. A marketer may
also try to change the beliefs about the attributes of the brand considered
ideal to them. Any one of the above four strategies may bring desired
result for a marketer if the strategy is successfully applied.

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Self Evaluation

Objective Questions
1. Different studies indicate that, some of the attitude forming factors
cannot be changed by marketers. This is particularly true in case of –
a. Basic needs
b. Personality characteristics
c. Group affiliations
d. All of the above.
2. Attitude change task is generally –
a. Long and expensive
b. Difficult
c. Requires heavy promotional budget
d. All of the above.
3. Attitude change strategies may be effective in –
a. Persuading consumers to try new products
b. Reevaluating consumer’ attitudes toward existing products
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.
4. Attitude change in the context of consumer behavior is the
modification of a consumer’s evaluative inclinations –
a. Toward any item in his or her market domain
b. Against any item in his or her market domain
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.
5. A consumer may reduce cognitive dissonance –
a. By revising or modifying old attitudes
b. By adopting new attitudes
c. By changing the entire personal value system
d. All of the above.
6. Inter attitude dissonance may be reduced –
a. By gathering favorable information about the attitude object
b. By attending the advertisements relating to the attitude object
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.
7. Cognitive dissonance may be created in an individual –
a. Exposed to new information that is not consistent with his
existing attitudes
b. If his attitude is challenged by others considered significant to
him
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

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School of Business

8. An individual may reduce his cognitive dissonance by –

a. Seeking new information that is consistent with his existing
attitudes
b. Seeking new information that is consistent with his behavior
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.
9. A communication source is considered credible –
a. If target consumers trust the source
b. If the source provides a complete, objective, and accurate
information
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.
10. A likeable communication source is one that is thought of –
a. As pleasant
b. As honest
c. As physically attractive
d. All of the above.
11. Which of the following factor should be considered in changing the
ego defensive attitudes?
a. Removal of threat
b. Ventilation of feelings
c. Arousing self-insight
d. All of the above.
12. Which of the following condition is considered by a marketer in
attempting to change the value expression function of an attitude?
a. Creating dissatisfaction in the individual with respect to his self-
concept
b. Dissatisfaction with old attitudes as inappropriate to one’s values
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above.

Answers:
1. d, 2. d, 3. c, 4. c, 5. d, 6. c, 7. c, 8. c, 9. c, 10. d, 11. d, 12. c.

Descriptive Questions
1. Define attitude change. Summarize the cognitive dissonance theory
of attitude change.
2. Explain the reasons that create cognitive dissonance. Discuss with
example how cognitive dissonance may be reduced.
3. Discuss with examples how a marketer can create cognitive
dissonance in consumers. Discuss how dissonance may be reduced
as described in the functional theory.

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