CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH & BASIC STATISTICS INTRODUCTION

Research is a key to progress. There can be no progress without research in this world.
People believe and also rely on the research made by somebody else. Most especially if it is
proven to be effective and factual. In Government, in education, in trade and commerce, and
in all types and kinds of industries, research is vital and essential. Therefore, the methods
and techniques must be taught and learned in all educational institution for purposes of
knowing and advancement.

Dean J. Champion, on his book Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology.
Criminology and Criminal Justice research involves a great deal of writing. Professors expect
students to write term papers, case study, policy related, action-based, thesis, and undertake
other projects to explore the different ways in which criminological research will be carried
out. This is very important in compliance with the requirements of Bachelor of Science in
Criminology. These project will result in requiring the students become involved in more
elaborate research projects. Several types of writing will be examined to, includes term
papers. literature reviews, position papers, thesis and dissertations.

According to Dean J. Champion. What are the major reasons for conducting criminological
research?

1. Acquiring knowledge for the sake of knowledge;

2. Determining answers to practical questions:
3. Adding to the growing body of knowledge in the profession; and A4. Acquiring useful
knowledge and skills to transmit this information to others and
to direct their investigation.

a. It is a basis why people behave and react to the situation b. It is the basis why parents
had been sending their children to school, to learn, to advance

and to discover many things that they want in life.

Good research will examine the whole spectrum of criminology,from religion to politics, from
perversion to morality, from social reality to social pathology, and from ethics to evil. It will
examine the causes, the spread, the meaning, and the impact of crime, and the changes in
society caused by crime. It will observe and question treatment, modification, rehabilitation,
reparation, and medical programs. It will investigate police, legal, probation, and parole
administration. Research will inquire into:

a. The etiology of crime (the causes of criminal pathology)

b. The epidemiology of crime (the control of the spread of criminal Social dysfunction)

c. The administration of the criminal Justice system, including the courts, the police and
corrections.

d. Therapy, behavior-modification, and reparation programs

e. Political and governmental systems f. The social and cultural environment

g. Social change, trends, and progress in all these areas.

Criminology and criminal justice are social sciences. Criminology is the study of crime, the
science of crime and criminal behavior, the forms of criminal behavior, the causes of crime,
the definition of criminality and the societal reaction to crime. It is an empirical
social-behavioral
science which investigates crime and criminals. In 1890's, American Sociological association
w founded. Prior to such formal organization, independent researchers, both sociologists
and criminologist, worked to explain various forms of criminality and deviance. August
Comte (France), Herbert Spencer (England), Cesare Lombroso (Italy), Cesare Beccaria
(Italy). Emile Durkheim (France), and many of their contemporaries were prolific writers and
analysts during in 1800's. Their writings formed the foundations of social science and
criminology today.

Sutherland and Cressey have defined Crizinology as the body of knowledge regarding
delinquency and crime as a social phenomenon. It includes within its scope the process of
making laws, of breaking laws, and the reaction towards the breaking of laws.

Research is the basis why people improved in their way of living. The way they talk, walk
and eat. It is a basis why people behave and react the situation. It is the basis why parents
had been sending their children to school, to learn, to advance and to discover many things
that they want in life. "Research is a key to progress. There can be no progress without
research in this world. People believe and also rely on the research made by somebody
else. Most especially if it is proven to be effective and factual. In Government, in education,
in trade and commerce, and in all types and kinds of industries, research is vital and
essential. Therefore, the methods and techniques must be taught and learned in all
educational institution for purposes of knowing and advancement."

How do you define Research?

Research (Good, p 464) defines as a careful, critical disciplined inquiry, varying in

techniques and methods according to the nature and conditions of the problem identified,
directed toward the clarification or resolution (or both) of a problem.

Research (Aquino, p 1) defined as a simply, the systematic search for pertinent information
on a specific topic or problem. Research (Manuel and Medel p. 5) defined as the process of
gathering data or information to solve a particular problem in a scientific manner. Research
(Panel) defined as a systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of
answering questions posed by the researcher.

Research (Treece and Treece) defined that research in its broadest sense is an attempt to
gain solutions to problems.

Why is research important to human kind?

Formulated in a more comprehensive for, research maybe defined as a purposive,
systematic and scientific process of gathering analyzing, classifying, organizing, presenting
and interpreting data for the solution of the problem, for prediction, for intervention, for the
discovery of truth, or for the expansion of verification of existing knowledge, all for the
preservation and improvement of the quality of human life.

Characteristics of Research

1. Research is systematic 2. Research is controlled

3. Research is empirical

4. Research is analytical

5. Research is objective, unbiased and logical 6. Research is employs hypothesis the

magnificance difference between male & female

7. Research is employs quantitative or statistical methods

8. Research is original work 9. Research is done by an expert

10. Research is accurate investigation, observation and description

11. Research is patient and unhurried activity is requires an effort-making capacity

12. Research 13. Research is requires courage

Definition of Criminological Research

Criminological research is defined as a careful, systematic study of knowledge in the field of

criminology or criminal justice, undertaken to discover or establish facts of the crimes or
causations of crime. It is also defined as a systematic process of collecting and analyzing
data to find an answer to a problem, and to validate or test an existing criminological and
victimization theories. General Categories of Research

Research can be divided into three general categories, as follows:

Descriptive Research The descriptive type of study finds answer to the questions who, what,
when, where and how. This type of research describes a situation or a given state of affairs
in terms of special aspects or factors. What may be described are characteristics of
individuals or groups, i.e., offenders, victims. etc. or physical environments, ie, rural, urban,
squatter, etc. or conditions. i.e., performances.

effectiveness, etc.

2 Correlation Research
The correlation type of study goes beyond description of the problem or situation. It attempts
to explain the possible factors related to a problem which has been observed in a descriptive
study. This type of study answers the questions why and how? The factors related to the
problem, however, need not viewed as real a "causes" of the problem.

3. Intervention Research
The intervention type of study evaluates the effect or outcome of a particular intervention. It
studies the "cause and effect of the relationship between certain factors on certain
phenomenon under controlled conditions. The subjects of the study are randomly assigned
to the experimental group and to the control group and both group are exposed to similar
conditions except for the intervention.

Other Classifications of Research

There are other classifications of research:

Pure Basic vs. Applied Research

Pure basic research is concerned with the acquisition of new knowledge for the sake of

"myths of crime," are addressed, there still exists a roader issue.

science or the development of the field, whereas applied research is a practical research
concerned with solving immediate policy problems. Although the issues of common sense
briefly by means or In quantitative research concepts are assigned numerical value, whereas
in qualitative research concepts are viewed as sensitizing ideas or terms that enhance
understanding. Research

2. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

methods in the social sciences, of which criminal justice is heir, have followed these two
basic

philosophical traditions.

Exploratory vs. Explanatory Research

3. Exploratory research is a loosely structured but valuable methodological strategy. When

scientist are interested in some phenomenon, but feel they need to know a great deal more
about it before they can put together a well-organized and thorough study on it, they often
engage in explanatory research.

Language of Criminological Research

The language of research is almost like being exposed to a foreign language, as follows:
Concepts: These are abstract tags that are put on reality and are the beginning point in all
scientific endeavors. It is symbolic creations or constructs that attempts capture the essence
of reality.

Operationalization. It defines concepts by describing how they will be measured. Working

definitions or operational definition are other terms used to refer to this process.

Variables. These are concepts that have been operationalized or "concepts that can vary" or
take on different values of a quantitative nature. They are the mortar and brick of scientific
investigation.

Dependent and Independent Variables. The dependent or outcome variable is the variable
one is attempting to predict and by convention is denoted by the letter Y. The independent
variable which is denoted by X is the behavior or attitude that is the subject of one's study.

Theories and Hypotheses. Theories were described previously as attempts to develop

plausible explanations of reality. While hypotheses are usually general or broad statements
regarding the relationship between, usually two, variables and are derived from more
general theories.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Every study design can be classified each one of these perspectives. These perspectives
are arbitrary bases of classifications, hence, the terminology used to describe them is not
universal, but the names of the designs within each classification-base are universally used.
If a particular study is cross-sectional in nature it cannot be at the same time a
before-and-after or a longitudinal study, but it can be experimental or non-experimental, as
well as a retrospective or a prospective study.

Definition of Research Design

A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain
answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or program of
the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from the writing the
hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data.

Types of Research Design

1. Historical Research
Historical research or historical method of research is a process of selecting the area of topic
to write the history about, collecting data about events that occurred in the area or about the
topic, collating the data, shifting the authentic from non-authentic, and then making an
interpretive narrative about or critical inquiry into the whole truth of the events.

2. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research describes what is. It involves the description, recording, analysis, and
interpretation of the present nature, composition or processes of phenomena. The focus is
on prevailing conditions, or how a person, group, or thing behaves or functions in the
present. It is also known as statistical research, describes data and about the population or
phenomenon being studied.
3. Developmental Research
As opposed to simple instructional development, developmental research has been defined
as the systematic study of designing, developing, and evaluating instructional programs,
processes, and products that must meet criteria of internal consistency and effectiveness. A
fundamental distinction should be made between reports of actual developmental
research-practice, and descriptions of design and development procedural models-theory.

4. Case or Field Study

It is a research methodology common in social sciences. It is based on an in-depth
investigation of a single individual, group, or event to explore causation in order to find
underlying principles. It is also defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that
investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context.

5. Correlational Studies
A correlational study is a scientific study in which a researcher investigates associations
between variables. Correlational studies are frequently used in psychology research to look
for relationships between variables. While correlational studies can suggest that there is a
relationship between two variables-dependent and independent, finding a correlation does
not prove that one variable causes a change in another variable.

6. Causal-Comparative Designs
Causal-comparative research attempts to identify a causative relationship between an
independent variable and a dependent variable. However, this relationship is more
suggestive than proven as the researcher does not have complete control over the
independent variable. It is an ex post facto designs to look at existing outcome and after the
fact attempt to trace back and determine what may have predicted these outcomes.

7. True-Experimental Designs True-experimental design is defined as a method or

procedure involving the control or manipulation of conditions for the purpose of studying the
relative effects of various treatments applied to members of a sample, or of the same
treatment applied to members of different samples. A true-experimental research, therefore,
consist of manipulating an experimental variables under highly controlled conditions to
determine how and why a particular events occurs.

8. Quasi-Experimental Design
Are design that attempt to approximate the true experimental design but lack random
assignment to experimental and control group. Most field experiments in natural settings,
such a foot patrol investigation, are of this type. The term refers to a type of research design
that shares many similarities with the traditional experimental design or randomized
controlled trial, but specifically lacks the element of random assignment.

9.Inferential Study
Inferential study is used to make inferences about an unknown variable based on known
descriptions. This is also intended to generalize findings from a study group to a larger
population. This research design is concerned with making larger inferences about social
phenomena. This can include associations between variables, how well the sample
represents a larger population, and cause-and-effect relationships.
10. Action Research
Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals
working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they
address issues and solve problems. Action research can also be undertaken by larger
organizations or institutions, assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of
improving their strategies, practices, and knowledge of the environments within which they
practice.

Research Design Based on Number of Contacts

Based on the number of contacts with the study population, research design can be
classified into three groups, as follows:

1. Cross-Sectional Studies
Cross-sectional studies, also known as one-shot studies, are the most commonly used
design in social sciences. This design is being suited to studies aimed at finding out the
prevalence of a phenomena, situation, problem, attitude or issue, by taking a cross-section
of the population.

2. Before-and-After Studies
The main advantage of the before-and-after design, also known as the test and post-test
designs, is that it can measure change in a situation, phenomenon, issue, problem or
attitude. It is the most appropriate design for measuring the impact or effectiveness of a
program.

3. Longitudinal Studies
To determine the pattern of change in relation to time, longitudinal design is used, for
example, when studying the proportion of people adopting a program in relation to time.
Longitudinal studies are also useful when there is a need to collect factual information on a
continuing basis.

Research Design Reference Period

The reference period refers to the time-frame in which a study is exploring a phenomenon,
situation, event or problem, as categorized and enumerated:

1. Retrospective
Retrospective study design investigates a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue that has
happened in the past. They are usually conducted either on the basis of the data available
for that period or on the basis of respondents recall of the situation.

2.Prospective
Prospective study refers to the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem,
attitude or outcome in the future. Such studies attempt to establish the outcome of an event
or what is likely to happen. Experiments are usually classified at prospective studies.

3. Retrospective-Prospective
Retrospective-prospective studies focused on past trends in a phenomenon and study it into
the future. A study is classified under this category when researcher measures the impact of
an intervention without control group. Trend studies, which become the basis of projection,
fall into this category.

DATA GATHERING

Data gathering is an extremely important part of any research because the conclusions of
the study are based on what the data revealed. There are several ways of data gathering.
The choice of procedures usually depends on the objectives and design of the study and the
availability of time, money, and resources. Another consideration is the kind of data the
research wishes to generate.

Definition of Data
The term "data" refers to any kind of information researchers obtain on the subjects,
respondents or participants of a study. In research, data are collected and used to answer
the research question or objectives of the study. Data are the things the researcher's are
thinking with. They are the raw materials of reflection until by comparison, combination, and
evaluation they are stepped up to higher levels of generalization, where again they serve as
basic materials for higher thinking.

Tools in Gathering Primary Sources of Data

There are number of tools that are used for gathering primary sources of data in criminal
justice or criminological researches, as follows:

1. Observation
Observation is one way to gather primary data. Observation is a purposeful, systematic and
selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
There are many situations in which observation is the most appropriate method of data
gathering.

1) Participant Observation
Participant observation is when a researcher participates in the activities of the groups being
observed in the same manner as its members, with or without their knowing that they are
being observed. For example, to study the life of prisoners, pretend to be a prisoner to do
this.

2) Non-Participant Observation
Non-participant observation, on the other hand, is when the researcher does not get involved
in the activities of the group but remains a passive observer, watching and listening to its
activities and drawing conclusions from this.

2. Interviewing is commonly used method of data gathering from people. In many walks of
life information can be collected through different forms of interaction with others. Any
person-to person interaction between two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind
is called an interview.

Interview

1) Structured Interviews
Sometimes called closed interview, usually consist of check-off responses to questions that
are either factual or to which most responses easily fit an expectable pattern. The
interviewer should avoid soliciting additional comments but, when they occur, record them
verbatim.

2) Unstructured Interviews
It is type of interviews with many variations depending on the purpose. Sometimes referred
to as focused, clinical, or non directive interviews, they provide for open-ended responses to
questions.

3) In-Depth Interviews

It is a more intensive and detailed interview, usually of fewer subjects than is the case in a
standard survey, and is particularly useful to life histories or case studies. In a depth
interview, the researcher has a general list of topics to be explored, but exercises great
discretion and flexibility in the manner, timing, and direction of questioning.

3. Case Studies
It involves in-depth analysis of one or a few case. These data-gathering strategies also
represent a commitment to a qualitative or sensitizing strategy when approaching subject
matter. Although more quantitative approaches aim to provide a more macro-criminological
view or big picture of the subject matter, these methods provide micro-criminological or
in-depth close-up of only one or a few subjects.

4.Unobtrusive Measures
Refer to clandestine or non-reactive methods of data gathering. Although a variety of
methods, including physical traces, observation, analyses of existing data or archives may
be subsumed, the key distinction is that the subjects are not aware that they are being
studied. Unobtrusive methods provide an attractive and often inexpensive alternative to
many of the other strategies.

1) Physical Trace Analysis

It is the study if deposits, accretion of matter, and other indirect substances produced by
previous human interaction. The criminal justice researcher attempts to reconstruct, after the
fact, the substance of the phenomenon.

2) Archival Records
Are memoirs, diaries, and historical documents contains much of the information that can
provide a historical overview of criminological issues. It does not only comprise the analysis
of official statistics and records, but also as follows:

3) Simple Observation
It involves strategies in which the researcher's participation with the subjects is kept at a
minimum and the investigator carefully records the activities of the subjects.

4) Disguised Observation The researcher covertly studies groups or individuals by

temporarily misrepresenting
his or her role.

5)Simulation
It entails a variety of gaming strategies that attempt to imitate a more complex social
reality.

5. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answer to which is recorded by
respondents. In questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected
and then write down the answers. The only difference between an interview schedule and a
questionnaire is that, in the former it is the interviewer who ask the questions, and if
necessary, explain them, and record the respondent's replies on an interview schedule. This
distinction is important in accounting for the respective strengths and weaknesses of the two
methods.

6.Psychological Test
A psychological test may be defined as an instrument designed to describe a sample of
certain aspects of human behavior. It yields adjective and standardized descriptions of
behavior, quantified by numerical scores. A psychological test may be used to compare the
behavior of two or more persons at different times. It is characterized by the use of samples
of behavior in order to assess psychological construct(s), such as cognitive and emotional
functioning.

7. Library Technique
The library technique is the gathering of data is another way which the researcher can
employ in order to realize the objectives of his research study. Various materials in the library
are used by investigator, including books, magazines, periodicals, or pamphlets. In his
search for data needed for his research project through the library method, the investigator
must know and apply one important element, i.e., the fundamentals in the use of library.

8. Social Survey

Social surveys are means of data gathering which involve asking a segment of population
their attitudes or reported behavior. Social surveys, although often associated with election
polls, opinion polls, and marketing surveys are also powerful tools for obtaining quantitative
data for both descriptive and inferential studies and for addre. :ing the issue of causality. The
approaches to gathering data are questionnaires, interviews, or telephone contact.

Categories of Secondary Sources of Data

This portion lists some of the many secondary sources that can be grouped into the following
categories that can be sued in criminological and criminal justice researches, as follows:

1. Public Records
There are many government and semi-government organizations that gather data on a
regular basis in a variety of areas and publish it for use by members of the public and
interest groups.
2. Earlier Research
For some topics, enormous members of research studies that have already been done by
others can provide the researcher with the required information.

3. Personal Records
Some people write historical and personal records that may provide the information needed
in the research.

4. Mass Media
Reports published in newspapers, magazines, etc. may another good source of data.

Data Gathering Procedures

Data gathering procedures are the means by which information regarding variables is
collected. Data gathering is the process by which information is gathered. Instrumentation is
that activity by which the variables are measured. After the data gathering has been
determined, the instrument to be used has to be constructed. These two activities in the
research process go together. These are categorized as research strategies.

These organization and presentation of data make it easier to analyze and interpret them.
The researcher should keep in mind in mind when selecting of designing the data gathering
procedures. Proper attention given to this matter early in the research process can save a
great deal of time at the data analysis phase. In addition, once the data have been gathered,
it is difficult if impossible to go back and get additional information.

QUESTIONNAIRE, INTERVIEW & OBSERVATION

In the daily attempts to understand the world, the researcher rely on three basic techniques
for gathering information, i.e., direct observation, communicate with others about what they
have observed, and to learn from recorded sources such as books, newspapers, films, and
television. This portion shall be concerned with information gathering through communication
with others, through survey.

Definition of Questionnaire

A questionnaire has been defined as a list of planned written questions related to a particular
topic, with space provided for indicating the response to each question, intended for
submission in a number of persons for reply, commonly used in normative survey studies
and in the measurements of attitudes and opinions.

Types of Questionnairep
Hereunder are the types of questionnaire checklist utilized by criminological and criminal
justice researchers:

1. Fixed-Alternative Questionnaire
This requires the respondents to choose an answer from a printed list of choices. Such
questionnaires may include a simple "yes or no" or "true or false" response, a
multiple-choice list, or a series of degrees of agreement or disagreement in relation to a
variety of assertions.
2. Open-Ended Questionnaire
It allows respondents to answer in the own words. This can mean greater detail and a
broader range of responses. However, it can also mean lower response rates because the
respondent must think and write more than would be a fixed alternative instrument.
Furthermore, the information obtained may be very difficult to analyze and summarize.

Guidelines in Asking Questions

Several guidelines can assist in asking questions that serve as excellent conceptualizations

and operationalization's of variables, as follows

1. Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questionnaire In administering questionnaire,

researchers have two options, and each can be accommodate certain variations. The first is
open-ended questions, in which the respondent is asked for provide his or her own answer.
For example, the respondents may be asked, "What is the most important crime problem in
your locality today?" and be provided with a space to write in the answer. The other option is
closed-ended questions - the respondent is asked to select an answer from among a list
provided by the researcher.

2. Questions and Statements

The term questionnaire suggests a collection of questions, but a typical questionnaire

probably has as many statements as questions. This is because researchers often are
interested in determining the extent to which respondents hold a particular attitude or
perspective. Researchers try to summarize the attitude in a fairly brief statement; then they
present that statement and ask respondents whether they agree or disagree with it. The
procedure has been formalized through the creation of the Likert scale.

3. Make-Items Clear It should go without saying that questionnaire items should be clear and
unambiguous, but the broad proliferation of unclear and ambiguous questions is survey
makes the point worth stressing here. Researchers commonly become so deeply involved in
the topic that opinions and perspectives that are clear to them will not be at all clear to
respondents, many of whom have given little or not thought to the topic. Or researchers may
have only a superficial understanding of the topic and so may fail to specify the intent of the
question sufficiently. Questionnaire items should be precise so that the respondents know
exactly what the researcher wants an answer to

Short-Items are Best

In the interest if being unambiguous and precise and pointing to the relevance of an issue,
researchers often create long, complicated items. That should be avoided. In the case of self
administered questionnaires, respondents are often willing to study an item in order to
understand it. The respondents should be able to read an item quickly, understand its intent,
and select of provide an answer without difficulty. In general, it's safe to assume that
respondents will read items quickly and give quick answers, therefore, short, clear items that
not be interpreted under those conditions are best. Questions read to respondents should be
similarly brief.

5. Avoid Negative Item

A negation in a questionnaire item paves the way for easy misinterpretation. Asked to agree
or disagree with the statement. "Drugs such as marijuana should be legalized," many
respondents will overlooked the word not and answer on that basis. Thus, some will agree
with the statement when they are in favor of legalizing marijuana, and other will agree when
they oppose it. The researcher will never know which is the answer?

6.Biased-Items and Terms

The meaning of a given response to a question depends in large part on the wording of the
question. That is true of every questions seem to encourage particular response more than
do other questions. Questions that encourage respondents to answer in particular way are
biased. Most researchers recognize the likely effect of a question such as "do you support
the police use of intensive interrogation to promote the safety and security of the
community?" and no reputable researcher would use such an item. The biasing effect of
items and terms is far subtler tam this example suggests, however.

7. Designing Self-Report Items

Social desirability is one of the problems that plaque self-report crime questions in general
population surveys. Adhering to the ethical principles of confidentiality and anonymity, as
well as convincing respondents that the researchers are doing so is one way of getting more
truthful responses to self-report crimes. Other techniques can help them avoid or reduce
problems with self report items.

Definition of Interview
The interview is one of the major techniques in gathering data of information. It is defined as
purposeful face-to-face relationship between two persons, one of whom called the
interviewer or researcher who asks questions to gather information, and the other called the
interviewee or respondent who supplies the information asked for.

Procedures in Interview
Some procedures apply to most interviewing situations, including sample survey and more
specialized interview, as follows:

1. Training and Orientation

or interview, an adequate amount of time must be spent on training and orientation. These
training and orientations sessions, which last from a day to a week depending on the
complexity of the study, should familiarize and acquaint the interviewers in carrying out the
survey, as well as the study's purposes. Details of the research should be made known to
make the interviewers feel that they are an important part of the study and to prepare them
to answer any questions regarding the intern of the survey.

2. Arranging the Interview

Interviewers conducting household survey should not arrive too early or too late. Surveyors
should be furnished, with, possess at all time, an' present identification to avoid being taken
for door-to-door salespersons. On arrival be sure that the proper to be interviewed within the
household is located. The interviewer should not ask if the respondent wishes to be
interviewed now, but rather matter-of-factly indicate that the respondent had received a letter
about the survey.

3. Appearance and Demeanor

As a general rule, the interviewer should dress in a fashion similar to that of the people he or
she will be interviewing. To the extent that the interviewer's dress and grooming differ from
that of the respondents, it should be in the direction of cleanliness, neatness, and modesty.
Although middle-class standards of dress and grooming are not accepted by all sectors of
society, they remain the norms and are likely to be acceptable to the largest number of
respondents.

4. Questionnaire Familiarity
The interviewer must be able to read the questionnaire items to respondents without
stumbling over words and phrases. A good model for interviewers is the actor reading line in
a play or film. The interviewer must read the questions as though they are part of a natural
conversation, but that "conversation" must precisely follow the language set down in the
question.