Plain & Reinforced

Concrete-II
CE-413

Repair/Strengthening of Structures
Ref. Concrete Structures Part – II, 2nd Edition
Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi
(Chapter 23)
Terminology
Evaluation of an existing concrete building means that the
building is studied for its future performance and expected
future life by qualified engineers and staff and a
comprehensive report is issued about the present safety
status of the building.

Condition assessment is also a term related with evaluation

of structure which perhaps is more commonly used when
visual observations are prominent compared with the actual
testing and structural analysis of the structure.
A strength evaluation may be required in the cases when the
materials are considered to be deficient in quality based on
visual observations, some evidence is present indicating
2
faulty construction, the signs of deterioration are noticed,
Terminology
the function of the building is modified, or there is a doubt
that the structure does not satisfy some requirements of the
design code.
In cases when the strength deficiency is well known and the
data about the dimensions and material properties required
for analysis is available and is reliable, analytical
evaluations of strength are considered sufficient.

Rating of the building means the safe external load carrying

capacity of a particular building at a particular age.
Serviceability refers to the capability of a structure to fulfill
the functions of a structure desired by the owner, public,
architects, municipal laws, specifications and codes.
3
Terminology

Durability is related with the life of the structure during

which it is serviceable and repair / maintenance cost is
within acceptable limits.

Repair is a general term related with removing a defect

from within the structure, any improvement compared with
the original design or a minor extension to the existing
structure. According to ACI report, repair means to replace
or correct deteriorated, damaged, or faulty materials,
components, or elements of a concrete structure.

4
 Terminology

Rehabilitation (retrofitting) deals with the process of

sufficient repairs and subsequent structural evaluation such
that the structural serviceability, safety and rating come
close to the status at the time of construction. However, the
future age may or may not be equal to the originally
designed life of the structure

Strengthening means major repair of a freshly constructed

or an old structure such that the strength, life or
serviceability becomes more than the original design.

5
Terminology
The process of restoration of historic structures is a
different field in which rehabilitation or strengthening is
carried out by the same materials used in the past
maintaining the outer surface finishes. Whatever exists at a
particular point in time must not be modified or damaged
during restoration.
Protection is the process of maintaining a concrete structure
in its present or restored condition by reducing the chances
of future damage.
Pot life is the time in which a hardening paste or epoxy
remains workable and can easily be applied on a prepared
surface.
6
23.4 STRUCTURAL EVALUATION PROCESS
This procedure is applicable for conventionally reinforced
cast-in-place concrete, precast-prestressed concrete, and
post-tensioned cast-in-place concrete. The evaluation of an
existing concrete building is usually performed for stability,
strength, safety and future expected life. Evaluation of a
structure may be required in the following situations:
• Structures are subjected to excess or improper loading,
vibrations, fire, etc.
• Structures having visible signs of distress / deterioration
such as excessive cracking or spalling of the concrete,
reinforcing bar corrosion, member deflection or rotation,
etc.
7
 23.4 STRUCTURAL EVALUATION PROCESS
• Structures with doubt about design, detail, material, or
construction.
• Doubts exist about safety against future loading and the original
design criteria.
• After a change in use or occupancy.
• After repair or strengthening.
Evaluation of a structure can be performed at various levels as under:
• Stability of the entire structure and the stability of individual
components of the structure.
• Strength and safety of individual structural elements.
• Stiffness of the entire structure and the stiffness of individual
structural elements.
8
23.4 STRUCTURAL EVALUATION PROCESS
• Susceptibility of individual structural elements to excess long-
term deformation.
• Dynamic response of individual structural elements.
• Durability of the structure.
• Fire resistance of the structure
• Serviceability of the structure
Most common steps for structural evaluation are as follows:
• Defining the existing condition of the building, including:
a) Reviewing available information on the building.
b) Conducting a condition survey of the building.
c) Determining the cause and rate of progression of existing distress.
d) Determining the degree of repair required.
9
23.4 STRUCTURAL EVALUATION PROCESS
• Selecting the structural elements which require detailed
evaluation.
• Assessing past, present, and future loading conditions to which
the structure has and will be exposed under the anticipated use.
• Conducting the evaluation.
• Evaluating the results
The results may be reported in one of the following forms:
a) The structure is adequate for normal use over its expected life if
maintained properly
b) The structure, although adequate for present loading and existing
conditions, may not remain so in the future
c) The structure is inadequate for its current or intended use, but may be
adequate for alternative use.
10
23.4 STRUCTURAL EVALUATION PROCESS
d) The structure is inadequate or unsafe, and needs remedial work
e) The structure is unsafe and beyond repair
f) The information or data are not sufficient to reach a definitive
conclusion
The evaluation report must cover the following topics:
• Preliminary investigation
• Methods for material evaluation
• Assessment of loading
• Selection of evaluation method
• The evaluation

11
23.4 STRUCTURAL EVALUATION PROCESS
The strength of existing concrete buildings may be
evaluated analytically or by load tests.
The observations such as type and extent of cracking,
excessive deflections, deterioration of concrete, history of
loading, construction record, design record, and results of
evaluation are used to precisely determine why the structure
has undergone distress.
The reasons and mechanisms that caused the problem may
be single or multiple.
The cause, effect, and degree of influence of problems on
serviceability and safety of the structure must be studied.
The repair system must be as cost-effective as possible.
12
23.4 STRUCTURAL EVALUATION PROCESS
Before starting a repair work, the cost of repair and the
expected life of the structure after repair must be compared
with the cost of fresh construction and a logical conclusion
as to whether repair is the solution must be made.

13
23.9 CAUSES OF CRACKS AND EXTENT OF CRACKING
Before discussing the repair of cracks, it is important to
mention that some cracks are unavoidable in concrete
structures.
They may affect appearance only, or they may indicate
significant structural distress or a lack of durability. The
extent of cracking may represent the total damage or it may
be indication of more future damage or even collapse of the
structure.
Repair should only be planned for the dangerous cracks or
cracks with unacceptable opening. For water-retaining
structures, it is to be decided that how much leakage
prevention is needed for a particular structure.
14
23.9 CAUSES OF CRACKS AND EXTENT OF CRACKING
Other point that must be considered is that majority of the
cracks are actually active in the sense that if the load is
increased they open.
However, for repair purposes, crack openings are observed
for certain fixed time (6 months or one year) with normal
loading conditions to classify them as active or dormant.
Successful long-term repair procedures must try to
eliminate the causes of the cracks as well as the cracks
themselves.

15
23.9 CAUSES OF CRACKS AND EXTENT OF CRACKING
The first step to start with repair of cracks is to see that
whether cracks are active or dormant. Fig. 23.3 describes
various methods to observe behavior of cracks with time.

Mark at end Pin inserted

of crack in the crack

a) Mark at end of crack b) Pin inserted near end of crack

Tape pasted Gauge points

across the crack

c) Tape Pasted across crack d) Measurement along gauge points

Fig. 23.3. Crack Measurement by Telltales.
16
The first method to accomplish this is to mark the end of the
crack by ink marker. The extension of crack with time can
be observed. However, this method does not provide
quantitative data of the movement and the information about
closing of the crack.
Another simple technique is to tightly insert a pin near the
end of the crack. Any loosening or falling of this pin
indicates opening of the crack.
Sometimes strip of notched tape of paper, cellophane or
cloth is glued to concrete surfaces on both sides of the
crack. Rectangular glass strip of less thickness may also be
used. Any tearing of this strip indicates opening, while some
indication of closing can also be observed. Presence of
humidity can disturb the observations.
17
Feeler gauges can be used to measure the crack opening but
successive readings may change due to a small shift in the
position of the reading or due to accumulation of dirt with
time.
The best method out of this category of method of telltales is
to fix gauge points on both sides of the crack and then make
measurements by using demec gage, vernier calipers or
extensometer. The gauge points must be firmly fixed to the
concrete after grinding and proper surface preparation.

18
23.9 CAUSES OF CRACKS AND EXTENT OF CRACKING
The repair method is selected based on activeness or
inactiveness of cracks, pattern, type, shape and size of the
cracks and magnitude and direction of expected future
movements.
Primary purpose of repair depends on architectural aspects,
leakage prevention or strength restoration.
If pattern cracks are active and strengthening is not
required, extensible overlay can be solution. If active
cracks are isolated and strengthening is required, providing
expansion joints, stitching and external stressing are
possible solutions.

19
However, in case where strengthening is not required for
isolated active cracks, blanketing can be used.
For repair of dormant pattern cracks not requiring
strengthening, overlay is suggested for severe water
condition; rout and seal, overlay, autogenous healing or no
action is recommended for minor water condition; and no
action, rout and seal, autogenous healing and overlay is
used for no critical water condition.
For isolated dormant cracks for which strengthening is
required, external stressing plus epoxy may be used for
severe water exposure; external stressing plus epoxy,
autogenous healing may be used for minor water exposure;
and epoxy, stitching, autogenous healing and external
stressing may be used for no water exposure.
20
For isolated dormant cracks not requiring strengthening,
blanketing may be used for severe water exposure; epoxy,
rout and seal, gout, blanketing, no action and autogenous
healing may be used for minor water exposure; and epoxy,
rout and seal, gout, autogenous healing, no action and
blanketing may be used for no water exposure.

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23.9.1 Cracking Of Plastic Concrete
Plastic shrinkage cracking: The plastic shrinkage
cracking produces a randomly spread hair-line or slightly
wider smaller length cracks, as shown in Fig. 23.4.

Fig. 23.4. Typical Plastic Shrinkage Cracking.

22
23.9.1 Cracking Of Plastic Concrete
This is caused by a very rapid loss of moisture due to high
rates of surface evaporation and because some water is also
consumed in the initial hydration of the cement.
The factors affecting the amount of plastic shrinkage
cracking are
• Air and concrete temperatures
• Relative humidity
• Wind velocity at the surface of the concrete.
When moisture evaporates from the surface of freshly
placed concrete faster than it is replaced by bleed water, the
surface concrete shrinks.

23
23.9.1 Cracking Of Plastic Concrete
Due to the restraint provided by the concrete below the
drying surface layer, tensile stresses develop in the weak
outer concrete, resulting in shallow cracks of varying depth.
They range from 25 millimeters to more than meter in
length and are spaced from 25 millimeters to as much as 3
m apart. Plastic shrinkage cracks begin as shallow cracks
but can become full-depth cracks with time.
The use of fog nozzles to saturate the air above the surface
and the use of plastic sheeting to cover the surface during
construction prevent a rapid loss of moisture due to hot and
dry wind. Windbreaks and sunshades are also used to
reduce the drying shrinkage.
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23.9.1 Cracking Of Plastic Concrete
The calcium hydroxide in hydrated cement paste will
combine with carbon dioxide in the air to form calcium
carbonate.
Since calcium carbonate has a smaller volume than the
calcium hydroxide, shrinkage will occur (commonly known
as carbonation shrinkage).
This situation may result in significant surface crazing and
may especially become serious on freshly placed surfaces
during the first 24 hours when improperly vented.
Combustion heaters are used to keep concrete warm during
the winter months.

25
23.9.1 Cracking Of Plastic Concrete
Settlement cracking: After initial compaction, the concrete
may consolidate and settle relative to reinforcing steel
placed earlier or formwork. Hence, the voids and/or cracks
may be developed adjacent to the restraining elements.
The degree of settlement cracking may be increased by
insufficient vibration or by the use of leaking or highly
flexible forms.
Proper form design, selection of vibration and re-vibration
times, provision of suitable time interval between the
placement of different layers of concrete, use of the lowest
possible slump and larger concrete covers to steel bars are
helpful in reducing the settlement cracking.
26
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
Cracking of hardened concrete can take place due to the
following reasons:
Drying shrinkage: Crazing is the development of a series
of shallow, closely spaced, fine cracks in alligator pattern
on the surface of the concrete.
It usually occurs when the surface layer of concrete has
higher water content than the interior concrete. Drying
shrinking is caused by the loss of moisture from the cement
paste constituent, which can shrink by as much as 1 percent.
Fortunately, aggregate provides internal restraint that
reduces the magnitude of this volume change to about 0.06
percent.
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23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
On wetting, concrete tends to expand. Shrinkage of
members restrained at ends or of layers restrained by the
bottom layers produces tensile stresses. When the tensile
strength of concrete is exceeded, cracks will appear but will
continue to progress at much lower stresses than are
required to cause crack initiation.
In massive concrete elements, tensile stresses are caused by
differential shrinkage between the surface and the interior
concrete.
The magnitude of the tensile stresses depends on the
amount of shrinkage, the degree of restraint, the modulus of
elasticity, and the amount of creep.
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23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
The type of aggregate and the water content of the mix
usually control the amount of drying shrinkage. Larger
amount of aggregate, high stiffness of the aggregates and
lower water content reduce the amount of drying shrinkage.
Shrinkage cracking can be reduced by using contraction
joints, better steel detailing, using shrinkage-compensating
cement, and by reduction of sub-slab restraint.

29
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
Thermal stresses: The temperature differences, produced
either due to weather or internally by heat of hydration,
result in differential volume changes.
The concrete cracks when the tensile stresses due to the
differential volume changes exceed the tensile stress
capacity. The tensile stresses are proportional to;
• The temperature differential
• The coefficient of thermal expansion
• The effective modulus of elasticity
• The degree of restraint

30
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
The thermally-induced cracking may be reduced by
• Decreasing the maximum internal temperature
• Delaying the onset of cooling
• Controlling the rate at which the concrete cools
• Increasing the tensile strength of the concrete
Hardened concrete has a coefficient of thermal expansion
that ranges from 7×10−6 per °C to 11×10−6 per °C, with a
typical value of 10×10−6 per °C. Allowing for movement
by using properly designed contraction joints and correct
detailing reduce the amount of cracking due to the thermal
stresses.
31
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
Temperatures higher than about 60 °C can delay the
ettringite (calcium sulfoaluminate) formation. When this
compound is formed in the hardened concrete and it tries to
expand, the concrete can undergo deterioration.
Chemical reaction: Deleterious chemical reactions may
cause cracking of concrete. These reactions may be due to
materials used to make the concrete or materials that come
into contact with the concrete after it has hardened.
Concrete may crack with time as a result of slow expansive
reactions between aggregate containing active silica and
alkalies derived from cement hydration, admixtures, or
external sources (e.g., curing water, ground water, alkaline
solutions stored or used in the finished structure).
32
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
The alkali-silica reaction (ASR) results in the formation of
a swelling gel with local expansion and accompanying
tensile stresses. The end result can be full deterioration of
concrete.
This adverse reaction may be reduced by
• Proper selection of aggregates
• Use of low alkali cement
• Use of pozzolans, which themselves contain very fine,
highly active silicas.
• Certain carbonate rocks (argillaceous dolomitic
limestones) when react with alkalies produce expansion
and cracking. 33
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
A network pattern of cracks is produced without any
deposits at the cracks (as in alkali-silica reaction).
The problem may be reduced by
• Avoiding reactive aggregates
• Use of a smaller maximum size aggregate
• Use of low-alkali cement
Sulfate-bearing waters are a special durability problem for
concrete, causing what is commonly known as sulfate
attack. When sulfate penetrates hydrated cement paste, it
reacts with hydrated calcium aluminate (C3A) to form
calcium sulfo-aluminate.
34
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete

This material expands producing tensile stresses and

cracking.
ASTM C 150 Types II and V Portland cement (low in
tricalcium aluminate), some blended cements, and addition
of some pozzolans may be helpful in such cases.
Concrete subjected to water soluble salts must be
sufficiently air entrained, have adequate cover of the
reinforcing steel, and be made of high-quality, low
permeability concrete. The sulfate attack is reduced if the
cement content is more than 300 kg/m3.

35
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
Thaumasite attack is a special type of sulfate attack in
which the cement, the lime and the sulfate react in an
unusual way to form a sulfate mineral called thaumasite.
This causes a serious damage and softening of the exposed
surfaces of concrete. Sulfate resisting cement can not stop
this reaction.
Weathering: The weathering processes produce concrete
disintegration on the surface which very slowly penetrates
inside. The major factors contributing weathering are
freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, heating and
cooling and other slow chemical processes. Damage from
freezing and thawing is the most common weather-related
physical deterioration.
36
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
A hydraulic pressure is generated by the growth of ice
crystals during freezing. Effect of freezing and thawing may
be reduced by the use of the lowest practical water-cement
ratio, least total water content, use of durable aggregate,
adequate curing and by adequate air entrainment.

Acid / other contaminants attack: In case acid, alkalies,

vegetable oils, milk, lime, sugar, etc are spilled over the
concrete surfaces many times, such as in factory
environments, the surface concrete is deteriorated.

37
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
Corrosion of reinforcement: Corrosion of a metal is an
electrochemical process that requires an oxidizing agent,
moisture, and electron flow within the metal.
The chemical reactions may be stopped by cutting the
supplies of oxygen or moisture or by supplying excess
electrons at the anodes to prevent the formation of the metal
ions (called cathodic protection).
If the alkalinity of the concrete is reduced through
carbonation or if the passivity of this steel is destroyed by
aggressive ions (usually chlorides), corrosion of the steel
may occur. This produces iron oxides and hydroxides,
which have a volume much greater than the volume of the
original metallic iron. 38
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
This increase in volume causes high radial bursting stresses
around reinforcing bars and results in local radial cracks.
If these cracks extend along the length, longitudinal
splitting cracks are produced. These cracks may cause
spalling of concrete or may form a general plane of
separation along a row of steel. The cover along with some
extra concrete is delaminated.
Cracks cause more ingress of oxygen, moisture, and
chlorides, and can accelerate corrosion and cracking.
Cracks transverse to reinforcement in dense concrete
usually do not cause continuing corrosion of the
reinforcement.
39
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
In the start, the exposed portion of a bar at a crack acts as
an anode but oxygen and moisture are not supplied to other
portions of the same bar or bars that are electrically
connected and the corrosion process stops.
Longitudinal cracks can disturb passivity of steel at many
locations, and oxygen and moisture are readily available
along the full length of the crack.
Longitudinal cracking, due to other reasons like high bond
stresses, transverse tension, shrinkage, and settlement, can
increase corrosion. Increased concrete cover over the
reinforcement is effective in delaying the corrosion process
and also in resisting the splitting and spalling caused by
corrosion or transverse tension. 40
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
In severe exposure conditions, additional protective
measures, such as coated reinforcement, sealers or overlays
on the concrete, corrosion-inhibiting admixtures, and
cathodic protection may be needed. Any procedure that
reverses the electron flow at the anode will protect the steel.
All concrete surface treatment must allow water to
evaporate from the concrete.
The carbonation induced corrosion affects large areas
surrounding the steel bars associated with a gradual loss of
section. The indication of this type of attack is spalling of
the concrete cover before such reduction in steel that
produces structural failure.
41
23.9.2 Cracking / Deterioration Of Hardened Concrete
The chloride attack affects localized portion but causes
significant loss of the cross-section without any indication
on the surface. Hence, structural failure may occur without
any warning.

42
23.9.3 Evaluation Of Cracking
During visual observations if it is found that the repair of
cracks is needed, the following information is to be
collected to proceed further:
a. Identify location and extent of cracking, as well as
information about condition of concrete in a structure,
can be determined by both direct and indirect
observations, nondestructive and destructive testing, and
tests of cores taken from the structure.
b. Whether the observed cracks are indicative of current or
future structural problems.
c. Consider the present and anticipated future loading
conditions.
43
23.9.3 Evaluation Of Cracking
d. The cause of the cracking should be established before
repairs are specified. A detailed evaluation of observed
cracking can determine which of those causes applies in
a particular situation.
e. Drawings, specifications, and construction and
maintenance records must be reviewed.
f. Field investigation and structural analysis must be
completed before proceeding with repairs.
g. Cracks need to be repaired if they reduce the strength,
stiffness, or durability of the structure to an
unacceptable level, or if the function of the structure is
seriously impaired.
44
23.9.3 Evaluation Of Cracking
h. Cracking in water-retaining structures may produce
leakage for which repairs are needed, even if strength,
stiffness, or appearance is satisfied.
i. Cracks in pavements and slabs-on-grade may require
repair to prevent edge spalls, migration of water to the
subgrade, or to transmit loads.
j. Sometimes, repair of cracks is required to improve the
appearance of the surface of a concrete structure.

45
23.9.3 Evaluation Of Cracking
Direct and indirect observation: The locations and widths
of cracks are noted on a sketch of the structure with
accurately marked grid. Crack comparator is a small, hand-
held microscope with a scale on the lens that can be used to
measure crack widths to an accuracy of 0.025 mm.
A clear comparator card having lines at specified spacing
marked on the card (also called monitor) may also be used
to estimate the crack widths.
Observations must also be taken for spalling, exposed
reinforcement, surface deterioration, and rust staining.
Internal conditions at specific crack locations can be
observed with the use of flexible shaft fiberscopes or rigid
borescopes. 46
23.9.3 Evaluation Of Cracking
Crack movement can be observed with mechanical
movement indicators which give a direct reading of crack
displacement and rotation.
Some indicators amplify the crack movement readings for
more precision. A wide range of linear variable differential
transformers (or LVDT'S) and data acquisition systems are
available to automatically record readings as time histories.
Sketches can be supplemented by photographs.

47
23.9.3 Evaluation Of Cracking
Nondestructive testing: Nondestructive tests can be made
to determine the presence of internal cracks and voids and
the depth of penetration of cracks visible at the surface.
Tapping the surface with a hammer or using a chain drag
are simple techniques to identify laminar cracking near the
surface. A hollow sound indicates one or more cracks below
and parallel to the surface.
The presence of reinforcement can be determined using a
pachometer. Some pachometers may measure the depth,
spacing and size of the reinforcement.
Sometimes, it is necessary to remove the concrete cover by
drilling or chipping to identify the bar sizes.
48
23.9.3 Evaluation Of Cracking
The easiest way to investigate the presence and the extent
of corrosion is the removal of a portion of the concrete to
directly observe the steel. Corrosion potential can be
detected by electrical potential measurements using a
suitable reference half cell.
Ultrasonic nondestructive test equipment and radiography
can also be used to detect internal discontinuities. Both x-
ray and gamma-ray equipment can be used for detecting
crack planes parallel to the direction of radiation.
In case of the pulse-echo technique, a single transducer is
used to send and receive ultrasonic waves, but it is difficult
to develop a practical pulse-echo test for concrete.
49
23.9.3 Evaluation Of Cracking

Tests on concrete cores: Significant information can be

obtained from cores taken from selected locations within
the structure.
Petrographic examination and chemical tests:
Petrographic examinations of cracked surfaces can identify
alkali reactivity, cyclic freezing damage, "D" cracking,
expansive aggregate particles, fire-related damage,
shrinkage, corrosion, the water-to- cement ratio, relative
paste volume, distribution of concrete components, the
relative age of cracks and secondary deposits on fracture
surfaces.
50
23.9.3 Evaluation Of Cracking
D-region means disturbed region due to cracking.
Chemical tests for the presence of excessive chlorides
indicate the potential for corrosion of embedded
reinforcement.

51
23.10 PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
Protective systems consist of materials and methods that
provide the following protective qualities:
a) Reduction in chances of corrosion of steel
reinforcement.
b) Less deterioration of the concrete.
c) Less penetration of moisture, chloride ions, and other
contaminants into the concrete. This can be achieved
by providing surface treatments, applying electro-
chemical equipment, or by modifying the PCC overlay.
d) More abrasion or impact resistance.
e) More resistance to other deleterious attacks.
52
23.10 PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
The objective of providing a protection system is to extend
the life of the structure and to reduce the number of future
repairs and the rate of deterioration of the concrete
structures. The following factors are considered while
suggesting a protective system:
1. Life-cycle costs are compared for the various protection
systems applicable for a particular situation. The
protection system with the lowest initial cost may
actually be the most expensive when the costs of future
repairs are added over the projected life of the structure.
2. In case the protection system has a previous
performance record, the confidence in its use increases.
53
23.10 PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
3. Appearance can sometimes be an important factor in
determining the selection of a system.
4. Thorough supervision, testing and visual observations
must be made during the installation of the protection
system.
5. The noise and dust levels, handling, use, and disposal of
hazardous chemicals and escape of vapors into air must
be considered while deciding the protective system.
Further, local environmental laws must be observed.
6. The bond of the new protective system applied on
existing structure or earlier repair material must be
studied.
54
23.10 PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
7. The expected life of a system against the exposure to
prevailing atmospheric conditions must be considered.
8. There must not be any serious medical problems for the
working people and chances of failure during repair
work.
23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
The factors affecting the performance of the completed
repairs and the protection system must be evaluated. The
following are some of the more common factors that must
be considered in a repair and protection project.

55
23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
a) Poor-quality concrete or inadequate cover:
Deteriorated concrete having excessive internal
cracking, internal voids, lack of consolidation,
inadequate entrained air-void system, or otherwise
substandard conditions, may cause corrosion of the
reinforcing steel and degradation of the structure. The
deficient part of concrete is removed during a repair. A
properly selected protection system can improve the
long-term durability of poor-quality concrete, enhance
the performance of good concrete, and extend the life of
any repair.

56
23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
b) Misplaced reinforcing steel: During repair /
installation of protective system, extra material or
coatings are provided on misplaced steel at ends,
corners and hooks and bars having less concrete cover.
Cathodic protection, chloride extraction, and corrosion-
inhibitor additives in repair materials can also be useful
to prevent or delay future corrosion.
c) Water penetration: Water may penetrate into concrete
by hydrostatic pressure, moisture vapor pressure,
capillary action, and rain. Movement of water within
concrete may occur due to cracks, porous concrete, lack
of entrained air, structural defects, or improperly
designed or functioning joints.
57
23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
c) This moisture causes corrosion of reinforcement,
freezing-and-thawing damage, leakage into the interior
of the structure, and possible structural damage. It is
tried while designing the protection system that the
water movement is reduced and rusting of steel is
directly controlled.
d) Carbonation: Carbonation is the reduction of the
protective alkalinity of concrete, caused by the
absorption of carbon dioxide and moisture. In normal
concrete, the reinforcing steel is protected by the
naturally high alkalinity (pH above 12) of the concrete
around the reinforcement.

58
23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
d) A protective oxide layer is formed around the
reinforcing steel that helps to prevent the reinforcing
steel from corroding in the presence of high alkalinity.
The absorption of carbon dioxide and water within the
concrete cause reduction of the useful alkalinity of
concrete by a process called carbonation. The chances
of corrosion are significantly increased when pH falls
below 10.
The bars close to the exterior surface are subject to the
effects of carbonation and are not protected against
corrosion.

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23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
d) Barrier coatings may provide protection against future
carbonation where concrete cover is insufficient.
Otherwise, cathodic protection system or re-alkalization
of concrete may be used to protect steel against future
corrosion.
e) Anodic ring (halo effect): This effect is produced
when existing reinforcement extends from the parent
concrete into a repair mortar or new concrete. This
results in an increase of the differences in electrical
potential at the bond line between the new and the
parent concrete.

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23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
e) An anodic ring or halo effect is failure that occurs due
to accelerated corrosion of the reinforcement in the
parent concrete, just beyond the edge of the repair.
Corrosion occurs at the anode, usually in the parent
concrete, as electrons are attracted to the cathodic
portion of the reinforcement in the uncontaminated
repair material.
The build-up of rust produces large internal pressures at
the surface of reinforcement which results in spalling of
concrete. The presence of chlorides accelerates this
process.

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23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
e) Barrier coatings on the reinforcing steel include
epoxies, latex slurries, or zinc-rich coatings that can
partially help to control corrosion activity; but there are
field-application problems. Cathodic protection,
chloride extraction and galvanic anodes can also be
used to protect steel against corrosion. However,
economics of these solutions are to be considered.
f) Cracks: Repair of cracks is usually the first step in any
repair or protection job. Water present in cracks can
result in corrosion and freezing-and-thawing problems
in cold climates. The reason for the appearance of a
crack must be investigated before the repair work.

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23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
f) The structural cracks must be repaired in such a way
that the load transfer can take place through the crack.
Epoxy injection is used to ensure sealing of the crack.
Active cracks, especially those due to thermal changes
on exterior exposures, must be repaired to allow for
future movements.
The cracks active for thermal movement may be
repaired by providing properly designed expansion /
contraction joints.
The use of caulking, chemical grouts, elastomeric
coatings, and high elongation epoxies can repair moving
cracks.
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23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
f) The repair of active cracks on exterior exposures can be
difficult. Most of the materials used for crack repair are
temperature-sensitive and cannot be installed much
below 4 °C.
It is also desirable to conduct repairs when the crack is
near its maximum width, because most flexible
materials used in repair of active cracks perform better
in compression than in tension.
g) Chloride/chemical attack: Penetration of chemical or
salt solutions through concrete contributes to the
corrosion of the embedded steel. The chemical attack of
acids, alkalis, and sulfates, may also have a detrimental
effect on the concrete. 64
23.10.1 Factors Determining Need Of Protective System
g) Barrier protection systems are commonly used to
minimize the intrusion of chemicals into concrete.
h) Surface erosion: Erosion of concrete at the surface is a
major concern on dams, spillways, and other waterfront
structures, as well as on bridge decks, ramps, parking
decks, industrial floors, and other traffic-bearing
structures.
Usually to a lesser extent, it can also be a concern on
buildings exposed to acid rain and severe weather
conditions. Concrete overlays, surface hardeners,
sealers, or other treatments are often used to increase
the resistance of surfaces against erosion.
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23.10.2 Performance Characteristics Of Protective Systems

Although several of the available systems might provide

adequate protection to the concrete and embedded
reinforcing steel, there might be certain parameters for a
given project that make one system more attractive than
another.
A suitable protective system is selected in a particular
situation that satisfies the project requirements. Following
are the important parameters to be considered:
a) Water permeability: Water permeability is a
measurement of the quantity of water that can pass
through a surface treatment over a period of time.

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23.10.2 Performance Characteristics Of Protective Systems

b) Vapor permeability: Moisture vapor transmission is the

quantity of water vapor that can pass through a
protective system over a period of time. This quality is
required for the underlying concrete and other materials
to dry.
c) Resistance to reinforcement corrosion: Penetration of
chemicals through concrete is likely to cause corrosion
of reinforcing steel. One of the main functions of
surface treatments is to increase the resistance to
corrosion of steel reinforcement by providing a less-
corrosive environment.

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23.10.2 Performance Characteristics Of Protective Systems

d) Crack bridging: The surface-treatment products are

available with varying crack bridging ability. Some
products have the ability to fill small dormant cracks but
are not suitable to bridge moving cracks. Certain
products are formulated to bridge small, moving cracks
if detailed properly. Less movement of water through
the cracks reduces the chances of corrosion.
e) Elongation characteristics: The capability of a
material to elongate and bridge small cracks even
during opening of the cracks is a useful characteristic.

68
f) Skid and slip resistance: Skid resistance is required if
the traffic has to move over the repaired surface.
Surface sealers and high build coatings may make the
surface less skid resistant. The membrane systems
containing aggregates and overlays provide more skid
resistance.
g) Appearance: Most surface treatments alter the
appearance of the concrete.
h) Carbonation resistance: Carbonated concrete loses its
ability to protect the embedded reinforcement from
corrosion.
i) Environmental regulations: The state regulations must
be satisfied during and after the repair and protective
works.
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70
Autogenous healing

Autogenous healing is the natural process of crack repair

that can occur in concrete in the presence of moisture, and
the absence of tensile stress. The repair is by a combination
of mechanical blocking by particles carried into the crack
with the water and the deposition of calcium carbonate
from the cementitious material.

71