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UNITY PUBLIC SCHOOL

CLASS XII PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL
ACCORDING TO CBSE SYLLABUS

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Page 1 of 29
 SECTION - B

1. CONCAVE MIRROR
RAY DIAGRAM:

U – V GRAPH

From u-v graph,

OB =….....….cm
OC = ...……..cm

Page 2 of 29
 1. CONCAVE MIRROR
AIM:

To determine the focal length of a concave mirror by U – V method and Verify the
result by drawing (i) U – V graph and (ii) 1/U and 1/V graph.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Concave mirror, Stand, Screen, Illuminated wire gauze, metre scale

FORMULA:
The focal length of the mirror

Where,
U is the object distance and V is the image distance

PROCEDURE:

BY DISTANT OBJECT METHOD:

1. Fix the given concave mirror on the stand and place it on a table, facing towards a
distant object.
2. Arrange the screen on the table so that the image of the distant object is obtained on it.
3. Measure the distance between mirror and screen using a metre scale. It can be taken as
the focal length (f) of the mirror. Repeat the experiment three times and find the mean
value.

BY U-V METHOD:
1. Using the focal length obtained by distant object method set the values of u(distance
between mirror and object) ranging from 2f-4 to 2f +4.
2. Place the mirror in front of illuminated wire gauze. It acts as the object.
3. Now, fix the mirror at the distance u (which is obtained as 2f-4) from the wire gauze.
4. Place the screen on the table facing the mirror in such a way that the reflected image lies
on the screen.
5. Adjust the position of the screen to get the clear image of the wire gauze.
6. Keeping the distance between object and mirror fixed, adjust the position of screen
in order to get the clear image of the object.
7. Measure the distance between mirror and wire gauze, as well as mirror and
screen. Take these values as u and v respectively.
8. Record the values of u and v in a tabular column.
9. Repeat the experiment for different values of u (up to 2f+4) and in each time,
measure v and record it in the tabular column
10. Calculate the focal length of the given concave mirror by using the relation,

11.Calculate the mean of all focal lengths to get the correct focal length of the given
concave mirror.
12.The focal length of the mirror can also be measured graphically by plotting graphs
between u & v, and 1/u & 1/v.
34

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13.Plot a graph with u along X axis and v along Y axis by taking same scale for drawing the
X and Y axis. Draw the bisector OA and join OC and OB. Thus, OC=OB= 2f.
Calculate the focal length from this.
14. Plot a graph with 1/u along X axis and 1/v along Y axis by taking same scale for drawing
the X and Y axes. The graph is a straight line intercepting the axes at A and B.
Then OA=OB= 1/f. Calculate the focal length from this.

CALCULATIONS:

Page 4 of 29
U – V METHOD

TRIAL U V U+V
NO cm cm cm

cm
1 2f-4

2 2f-2

3 2f

4 2f+2

5 2f+4

Mean, f = ………. Cm

CALCULATIONS:

RESULT:
The focal length of the given concave mirror, f

1. By u-v method = ……..×10-2 m

2. From u-v graph =……...×10-2 m
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Concave mirror should be fixed vertically on the lens stand.
2. Measurements should be made without parallax error.
3. Clear image should be obtained before taking measurements.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Concave mirror may not be fixed vertically.
2. Parallax errors are possible in the measurements.
3. Lack of clarity in the image may lead to error in the measurement of u and v.

Page 5 of 29
 2. CONVEX LENS
RAY DIAGRAM:

U – V GRAPH

39

Page 6 of 29
U – V METHOD:

TRIAL U V U+V
NO cm cm cm
cm
1 2f-4

2 2f-2

3 2f

4 2f+2

5 2f+4

Mean, f = ………. cm
CALCULATION:

Page 7 of 29
 2. CONVEX LENS
AIM:
To determine the focal length of a convex lens by U – V method and Verify the result
by drawing (i) U – V graph and (ii) 1/U and 1/V graph.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Convex lens, Stand, Screen, Illuminated wire gauze, Metre scale

FORMULA:
The focal length of the convex lens

Where,
U is the object distance and V is the image distance

From u-v graph,

OB =….....….cm
OC = ...……..cm

= ........... cm
PROCEDURE:

BY DISTANT OBJECT METHOD:

1. Fix the given convex lens on the stand and place it on a table, facing towards a distant
object.
2. Arrange the screen on the table so that the image of the distant object is obtained on it.
3. Measure the distance between lens and screen using a metre scale
It can be taken as the focal length (f) of the convex lens. Repeat the experiment
three Times and find the mean value.

BY U-V METHOD:
1. Using the focal length obtained by distant object method set the values of u
(distance between convex lens and object) ranging from 2f-4 to 2f +4.
2. Place the convex lens in front of illuminated wire gauze. The wire gauze acts as the object.
3. Now, fix the convex lens at the distance u (which is obtained as 2f-4) from the wire gauze.
4. Place the screen on the table on the other side of the lens in such a way that the
image lies on the screen.
5. Adjust the position of the screen to get the clear image of the wire gauze.
6. Keeping the distance between object and les fixed, adjust the position of screen in order
to get the clear image of the object.
7. Measure the distance between lens and screen. Take the value as v.
8. Record the values of u and v in a tabular column.

Page 8 of 29
9. Repeat the experiment for different values of u (up to 2f+4) and in each time, measure v
and record it in the tabular column
10. Calculate the focal length of the given convex lens by using the relation,

11. Calculate the mean of all focal lengths to get the correct focal length of the given
Convex lens.
12. The focal length of the lens can also be measured graphically by plotting graphs
between u & v, and 1/u & 1/v.
13.Plot a graph with u along X axis and v along Y axis by taking same scale for drawing the
X and Y axis. Draw the bisector OA and join OC and OB. Thus, OC=OB= 2f.
Calculate the focal length from this.

RESULT:
The focal length of the given convex lens f

1. By u-v method = ……..×10-2 m

2. From u-v graph = .……..×10-2 m
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Convex lens should be fixed vertically on the lens stand.
2. Measurements should be made without parallax error.
3. Clear image should be obtained before taking measurements.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Convex lens may not be fixed vertically.
2. Parallax errors are possible in the measurements.
3. Lack of clarity in the image may lead to error in the measurement of u and v.

Page 9 of 29
 3. CONCAVE LENS.
LENS IN CONTACT METHOD
RAY DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATION TABLE: for combined lens

TRIAL u v u+v
NO cm cm cm F = u v cm
u+v
1 2f-4

2 2f-2

3 2f

4 2f+2

5 2f+4

CALCULATION:

Page 10 of 29
 3. CONCAVE LENS.

AIM:
To determine the focal length of a concave lens by using a convex lens
By combination method
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Illuminated wire gauze, Lens stand, Screen, Metre scale, a convex lens of short focal
length, Concave lens

FORMULA:
The focal length of the combination of lens

The focal length of the given concave lens

LENS IN CONTACT METHOD

PROCEDURE:
1. Determine the focal length of the convex lens by distant object method.
Find the mean focal length as f 1
2. Keep the given convex lens of known focal length, f1, in contact with the concave
lens whose focal length to be determined. This forms the combination of lenses.
3. It is placed between the illuminated wire gauze and the screen at a fixed distance away
from the wire gauze. It is taken as u cm.
4. The position of the screen is adjusted to get a clear image of the wire gauze on the screen.
5. Measure the distance between the combination of lens and the screen. It is taken as v cm.
6. Repeat the experiment by placing the combination of lenses at different distances away
from the wire gauze.
7. Record the respective u and v values.
8. Calculate the focal length of the combination using the formula:

9. Then calculate the mean value of F.

10.Using the values of f1 and F, the focal length of the given concave lens can be calculated
using the formula:

44

Page 11 of 29
CALCULATION:

RESULT:
The focal length of the concave lens by in-contact method = ………….. cm
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Concave lens should be fixed vertically on the lens stand.
2. Measurements should be made without parallax error.
3. Clear image should be obtained before taking measurements.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Concave lens may not be fixed vertically.
2. Parallax errors are possible in the measurements.
3. Lack of clarity in the image may lead to error in the measurement of u and v.

Page 12 of 29
 5.REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A GLASS SLAB
USING A TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE
AIM:
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling
microscope.

Aim
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Apparatus
The glass slab, a travelling microscope, lycopodium powder. A slab is a
piece of transparent material with rectangular faces. All faces are
transparent and opposite faces are parallel. The dimension along with the
light travels inside the slab is called its thickness.

FORMULA:

A Short Description of a Travelling Microscope

It is a compound microscope fitted vertically on a vertical scale. It can be
moved up and down, carrying a Vernier scale moving along the main scale.
In any position, the reading is taken by combining main scale and vernier
scale reading.

Diagram

Page 13 of 29
S.No Microscope Reading Real Apparent Refracti
Thickness thickness ve Index
Cross mark Cross mark Lycopodium (R3 - R1) cm (R3 - R2) cm (R3 - R1)
without slab with slab powder ----------------
R1 cm R2 cm R3 cm (R3 - R2)

Page 14 of 29
Procedure
Adjustment of travelling microscope

1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a window so that
sufficient light falls on it.
2. Adjust the levelling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes
horizontal.
3. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye piece so
that the cross wires are clearly visible.
4. Determine the vernier constant of the vertical scale of the microscope.
Other steps
5. Make a black-ink cross-mark on the base of the microscope. The mark
will serve as
point P. ,
6. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P, so that
there is no parallax between the cross-wires and the image of the
mark P.
7. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings (R1) on the vertical
scale.
8. Place the glass slab of least thickness over the mark P.
9. Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image P1 of the
cross-mark.
10. Note the reading (R2) on the vertical scale as before (Step 7).
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of
the slab.
12. Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the particle
near S.
13. Note the reading (R3) on the vertical scale again (Step 7).
14. Repeat above steps with other glass slab of more thicknesses.
15. Record observations in tabular form as given below.

Observations and calculations

Vernier constant (least count) for vertical scale of microscope =……cm.

Page 15 of 29
Result:

The refractive index of the glass slab =

Precautions

1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed.

2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid back
lash error.

Sources of error
The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.

Page 16 of 29
 6. P–N JUNCTION DIODE.

FORWARD V-I CHARACTERISTICS:

REVERSE V-I CHARACTERISTICS

GRAPH:

Page 17 of 29
 6. P–N JUNCTION DIODE.
AIM:
To draw the V – I characteristic curves of a p-n junction diode in Forward bias and in
reverse bias.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

A p-n junction diode apparatus.

PROCEDURE:
Forward V-I Characteristics:
1. Connections are made as per the connection diagram.
2. Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the rheostat (control knob) to minimum.
3. Now, gently rotate the control knob to provide a positive bias voltage.
4. Note the voltmeter and milli ammeter readings.
5. Repeat the process by increasing the forward current in equal steps by changing the
rheostat slider.
6. It can be noted that, initially the current increase very slowly. For a certain value of
voltage, it shows a sharp increase. The corresponding voltage represents the knee
voltage of that diode.
7. Plot a graph with forward voltage along X axis and forward current along Y axis.
The graph shows the forward V-I characteristics of the given p-n junction diode.

Reverse V-I Characteristics :

1. Make the circuit diagram as shown in the figure.
2. Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the rheostat (control knob) to maximum.
3. Move the sliding contact of the rheostat to provide a reverse bias voltage. Note the
voltmeter and micro ammeter readings.
4. Note the voltmeter and micro ammeter readings.
5. Repeat the process by changing the reverse voltage in equal steps.
6. The current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly when the reverse voltage
becomes a certain value. This voltage is known as the reverse breakdown voltage.
7. Plot a graph with reverse voltage along X axis and reverse current along Y axis.
The graph shows the reverse V-I characteristics of the given p-n junction diode.

Page 18 of 29
OBSERVATIONS
Forward V-I Characteristics:

Forward bias voltage, Forward current,

Sl. No.
Vf (V) If (m A)

1 0

2 0.2

3 0.4

4 0.6

5 0.8

6 1.0

7 1.2

8 1.4

9 1.6

10 1.8

11 2.0

12 2.2

13 2.4

14 2.6

15 2.8

Page 19 of 29
Reverse V-I Characteristics:

Reverse bias voltage, Reverse current,

Sl. No.
Vr (V) Ir (µA)

1 0

2 2

3 4

4 4.5

5 4.6

6 4.7

7 4.8

8 4.9

9 5.0

10 5.1

11 5.2

12 5.3

13 5.4

14 5.5

15 5.6

Calculations:
For the forward characteristics of the given p-n junction diode, a graph is plotted
with forward voltage along X axis and forward current along Y axis. The forward current
shows a sudden increase at certain forward voltage, which is known as the knee voltage.
For the reverse characteristics of the given p-n junction diode, a graph is plotted with
reverse voltage along X axis and reverse current along Y axis. I t is noted that at a certain
reverse voltage, the reverse current reaches its maximum level. Further increase in voltage
does not increase this current. It is the reverse saturation current. However, with further
increase in reverse voltage, the current shows a rapid rise at a certain value. It is known as
the reverse breakdown voltage.

Page 20 of 29
RESULT:
1. The forward and reverse characteristics of the given p-n junction diode is drawn.
2. The reverse breakdown voltage =
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown voltage should not be applied.
3. Reverse bias voltage beyond breakdown voltage should not be applied.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The p-n junction diode apparatus may be faulty.
2. The internal connections may be loose.

Page 21 of 29
 ACTIVITIES
SECTION - A

1. ASSEMBLING THE COMPONENTS OF THE GIVEN CIRCUIT.

AIM:
To assemble the components of the given electrical circuit to verify ohm’s law

APPARATUS:
Electrical components like resistor, battery, ammeter, voltmeter, plugkey, rheostat,
connecting wires.

DIAGRAM: Of Ohm’s law

PROCEDURE:
1. Draw the circuit diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make them shiny.
3. Make the connections as per circuit diagram. All connections must be neat and tight. Take
care to connect the ammeter and voltmeter with their correct polarity. (+ve to +ve
and -ve to -ve).

CONCLUSION:
Assembly of all components in all the electrical circuits are complete.

Precaution:
1. All components are connected in series with each other.
2. Ammeter is always in series and voltmeter is always connected in parallel.
3. Red terminals of ammeter and voltmeter, marked positive should be connected in
the circuit towards the positive terminal of the battery and their black terminals,
marked negative should be connected towards the negative terminal of the battery.

Page 22 of 29
 2. CORRECTION OF WRONG CIRCUIT
AIM:
To draw the correct diagram of the given open circuit. Mark the components that
are not connected in proper order, and draw the corrected circuit diagram.

APPARATUS:
Battery eliminator, ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, resistance box, one way key
and connecting wires.

DIAGRAM:
(Draw the wrong circuit diagram on the left side and the corrected circuit
diagram.)

PROCEDURE:
1. Draw given wrong circuit diagram comprising of various circuit components.
2. In the circuit encircle the components that are connected wrongly.
3. The correct circuit diagram is drawn.

Trial Faults in the circuits Corrections

No
1

CONCLUSION:

The faults in the given circuit were corrected and the correct circuit diagram was drawn.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Voltmeter and ammeter of suitable range should be chosen.

2. Ammeter should always be connected in series and voltmeter should always be connected
in parallel with proper polarities.
3. Rheostat should be connected carefully selecting the correct terminals only.

Page 23 of 29
 3. IDENTIFY THE GIVEN ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS.
AIM:
To identify a diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC (integrated circuit), a resistor and
a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS:
A mixed collection of such items as a diode, transistor, capacitor, resistor and IC.

THEORY:
1. Resistor, capacitor and diode are two terminal devices.
2. A transistor has three terminals.
3. An IC has a minimum of eightle gs. Most of the IC packages have flat back.
One can easily segregate an IC out of a mixture of the above mentioned components.
4. A transistor being a three terminal device can be identified by just looking at the various
components.
5. For identifying the two terminal devices, the following characteristics of the components
may be utilized.

RESISTOR: When connected in a dc circuit, it shows a constant current.

CAPACITOR: When connected in a dc circuit, a multimeter set at R shows initially a full
scale current which decays to zero very quickly.
DIODE: Only a diode shows unidirectional flow of current i.e., when connected such
that the terminal end marked P or + is at the higher potential i.e. the diode is
forward biased, it conducts. On reversing the directions, the diode becomes
reversed biased and it does not conduct.

OBSERVATION:

Trial No. Number of legs Device

(terminals)

1 More than three IC

2 Two Capacitor, diode or

resistor

3 Three Transistor

CONCLUSION:

The components were identified correctly from the given collection.

Page 24 of 29
 4.FORMATION OF IMAGES BY CONCAVE MIRROR
AIM:
To study the formation and characteristics of images formed by concave
mirror.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Concave mirror, lens stand, screen, metre scale, light source.
PROCEDURE:
1. The focal length of the concave mirror is determined using distant
object method.
2. The different object positions are marked.
3. The mirror is placed at the different object positions, then the nature
and position of the image is noted and the observations are entered in
the tabular column.
CONCLUSION:
The formation of images by concave mirror and the position of the
image and its characteristics are studied.

Page 25 of 29
Image formation by Concave Mirror

Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of the image

At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished Real and inverted

Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
At C At C Same size Real and inverted
Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between P and F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

Page 26 of 29
 4.FORMATION OF IMAGES BY CONVEX LENS
AIM:
To study the formation and characteristics of images formed by convex
lens.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Convex lens, lens stand, screen, metre scale, light source.
PROCEDURE:

1.The focal length of the convex lens is determined using distant object
method.
2.The different object positions are marked.
3.The convex lens is placed at the different object positions, then the
nature and position of the image is noted and the observations are
entered in the tabular column.
CONCLUSION:
The formation of images by convex lens and the position of the
image and its characteristics are studied.

Page 27 of 29
 Image formed by the Convex Lens for various positions of the object

Image formation by lenses

Nature, relative size, and position of the image formed by convex lens are given below in the form of table-

Position of the object Position of the image Relative size of the image Nature of the image

At infinity At focus F2 Highly diminished Real and inverted

Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Diminished Real and inverted

At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and inverted

Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and inverted

At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large Real and inverted

Between focus F1 and optical On the same side of the lens
Enlarged Virtual and erect
centre O as the object

Page 28 of 29
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