CHAPTER # 11

HEAT
Q1: Define Heat. [1993]
HEAT
“When two bodies of different temperature are combined together, a certain kind of energy
flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. This energy in transit is known as
heat”.
Symbol:
Its symbol is ∆Q.
Unit:
Its SI unit is joule “J”. Other units are Calorie, B.t.u, erg, KWh and eV.
1 Cal=4.2 J
1 B.t.u=1055 J
1 erg=𝟏𝟎−𝟕 J
1KWh =𝟑. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 J
1eV=𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 J

Q2: Define Internal Energy.

INTERNAL ENERGY
“Sum of kinetic, potential and other microscopic energy of all molecules is referred as
internal Energy”.
Symbol:
Its symbol is U.
Unit:
Same as energy (Heat)

Q3: Define Temperature. [1993]

TEMPERATURE
“The measure of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature”.
OR
“Average translational kinetic energy of molecules of a body is referred as temperature”.
Symbol:
Its symbol is “T” when measured in Kelvin and “t” when measured in℃ or℉.
Unit:
Its unit is K (Kelvin).Other units are ℃ and℉.
Relations between units:
℉ − 𝟑𝟐 ℃
→ =
𝟗 𝟓
→ 𝑲 = ℃ + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale coincide at -40o.
Celsius scale and Kelvin scale can never be coinciding.
Kelvin scale and Fahrenheit scale coincide at 574.25

Q4: Define thermal expansion and its types. [2003 PM, 2005]
THERMAL EXPANSION
“Our common observation is that material changes their sizes on heating, this is called
thermal Expansion”.
Thermal Expansion usually found in all types of matter (solid, liquid, gas).But here we
discuss thermal expansion in solids.
Explanation:
When we provide heat to the solids the temperature of solids increases. As we know that
the kinetic energy of molecules is directly proportional to the temperature, therefore the
amplitude of vibration of molecules increases too. As a result the size of solid become
increase.
Types:
1: Linear expansion
2: Superficial expansion (Not in syllabus)
3: Volumetric expansion

1. LINEAR EXPANSION: [2003 PM, 2005, 2008]

“Linear” word came from another word “line”. If the expansion is along a line then that type
of expansion is known as “Linear Expansion”. This is one dimensional expansion. It can be
defined as
“When some amount of heat energy is provided to a rod, its length increases, this change in
length is called linear expansion”.
In order to explain the linear expansion, consider a
rod of certain metal whose initial length is “L” at
initial temperature “T”. Let suppose we increase its
temperature from “T” to T’ then its length will also
increase from “L” to L’ (say).So, that the linear
expansion may be obtain as
∆𝑳 = 𝑳′ − 𝑳
From experiment we know that
Linear expansion is directly proportional to the initial length of the rod.
∆𝑳 ∝ 𝑳 − − − − − (𝟏)
Linear expansion is directly proportional to the change in temperature.
∆𝑳 ∝ ∆𝑻 − − − − − (𝟐)
By combining (1) and (2)
∆𝑳 ∝ 𝑳∆𝑻
∆𝑳 = 𝜶𝑳∆𝑻 − − − − − (𝟑)
Here “α” is the constant of proportionality which is known as coefficient of linear
expansion and can be defined as;
“Change in length per unit length per Kelvin rise in temperature”.
Mathematically:
∆𝑳
𝜶=
𝑳∆𝑻
Unit:
Its unit is 𝑲−𝟏 .
Final length:
Equation (3) =>
∆𝑳 = 𝜶𝑳∆𝑻
𝑳′ − 𝑳 = 𝜶𝑳∆𝑻
𝑳′ = 𝑳 + 𝜶𝑳∆𝑻
𝑳′ = 𝑳(𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)

2. VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION:
This is a three dimensional expansion and can be defined as
“When we provide some amount of heat to a body that contains some volume, then its
volume changes or increases, this change in volume is called volumetric expansion”.
In order to explain the volumetric expansion, consider a cubical whose initial volume is V at
initial temperature T.
If we increase its temperature from T to T’ then its volume
will also increase from V to V’. So that the volumetric
expansion may be obtain as
∆𝑽 = 𝑽′ − 𝑽
From experiment we know that
Volumetric expansion is directly proportional to the initial volume.
∆𝑽 ∝ 𝑽 − − − − − (𝟏)
Volumetric expansion is directly proportional to the change in temperature.
∆𝑽 ∝ ∆𝑻 − − − − − (𝟐)
By combining (1) and (2)
∆𝑽 ∝ 𝑽∆𝑻
∆𝑽 = 𝜷𝑽∆𝑻 − − − − − (𝟑)
Here “β” is the constant of proportionality which is known as coefficient of volumetric or
cubical expansion and can be defined as;
“Change in volume per unit volume per Kelvin rise in temperature”.
Mathematically:
∆𝑽
𝜷=
𝑽∆𝑻
Unit:
Its unit is 𝑲−𝟏 .
Final volume:
Equation (3) =>
∆𝑽 = 𝜷𝑽∆𝑻
𝑽′ − 𝑽 = 𝜷𝑽∆𝑻
𝑽′ = 𝑽 + 𝜷𝑽∆𝑻
𝑽′ = 𝑽(𝟏 + 𝜷∆𝑻)

Q5: Define coefficient of linear expansion and coefficient of volumetric expansion. Also
derive the relation between them. OR Define α and β also show that β=3α.
[1995, 1997, 2001, 02 PM, 2003 PE, 2004, 2005, 2013, 2016, 2019]
Ans.
Coefficient of linear expansion:
“Change in length per unit length per Kelvin rise in temperature”.
Coefficient of volumetric expansion:
“Change in volume per unit volume per Kelvin rise in temperature”.
Proof:
0Consider a cubical of initial length “L”, width “W” and height “H” at initial temperature T.
So, that its initial volume is “V” may be written as.
𝑽 = 𝑳 𝑯 𝑾 − − − − − (𝟏)
Suppose we increase the temperature of cubical up to T’
then its length, width and height will also increase up to
L’, W’ and H’. So, that its final volume is V’ may be
written as.
𝑽′ = 𝑳′𝑯′𝑾′ − − − − − (𝟐)
According to volumetric expansion
𝑽′ = 𝑽(𝟏 + 𝜷∆𝑻) − − − − − (𝟑)
By comparing (2) and (3)
𝑽(𝟏 + 𝜷∆𝑻) = 𝑳′𝑯′𝑾′
𝑳 𝑯 𝑾(𝟏 + 𝜷∆𝑻)= [L(𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)][𝑯(𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)][𝑾(𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)]
𝑳 𝑯 𝑾(𝟏 + 𝜷∆𝑻) = 𝑳 𝑯 𝑾(𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)𝟑
(𝟏 + 𝜷∆𝑻) = (𝟏)𝟑 + 𝟑(𝟏)𝟐 (𝜶∆𝑻) + 𝟑(𝟏)(𝜶∆𝑻)𝟐 + (𝜶∆𝑻)𝟑
Since “α” is very small quantity then neglect the
term involving square and cube of “α”
𝟏 + 𝜷∆𝑻 = 𝟏 + 𝟑𝜶∆𝑻
𝜷∆𝑻 = 𝟑𝜶∆𝑻
𝜷 = 𝟑𝜶
Hence proved, the coefficient of volumetric
expansion is three times the coefficient of linear expansion.
𝟏
𝛂= 𝛃
𝟑
Q6: Briefly explain the construction and working of Bi-metallic thermostat.
[1997, 2002 PE, 2008]
BI-METALLIC THERMOSTAT
“A device that is used to maintain the temperature of heating or cooling devices like iron
and refrigerator is known as Bi- metallic thermostat”.
Principle:
Bi-metallic thermostat works on the principle of thermal expansion (linear expansion).
Construction:
It consists of two strips of different metals and a circuit.
Working:
The bimetallic strip works as an electric
contact breaker in an electrical heating
circuit. The circuit is broken when the
desired temperature of path is reached.
Due to the difference in the coefficients of
linear expansion of the two metals, the
metallic strip bends in the form of a curve
and the circuit is broken. In figure “A” the metallic strip is in contact with the screw “S” and
in the figure “B” the strip curves downwards as it becomes hot and contact at “P” is broken.
Thus the current stops flowing through the heating coil. When the temperature falls, the
strip contacts and the contact at “P” is restored. The two metal strips are very well joined.

Q7: Briefly explain Boyle’s Law. [2000, 2006]

BOYLE’S LAW
Robert Boyle investigated the relation between pressure and volume of a gas in 1660 and
purposed a law, which is known as Boyle’s Law.
Statement:
“For a fixed mass of a gas at constant temperature, the Volume of gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure”.
Mathematically:
𝟏
𝑽∝ (𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑻)
𝑷
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑽=
𝑷
𝑷𝑽 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
OR
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏= 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Another Statement:
“For a given mass of a gas and at constant temperature, the product of pressure and volume
of a gas always remains constant”.
Q8: Briefly describe Charles’s law. [2000, 2006]
CHARLES’S LAW
Graham Charles investigated in 1823 a relation between volume and temperature of an
Ideal gas and in the light of his observation he proposed a law, which is known as Charles’s
Law.
Statement:
“For a fixed mass of a gas and at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature”.
𝑽∝𝑻 (𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑷)
𝑽 = (𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕) 𝑻
𝑽
= 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑻
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
Another Statement:
“For a fixed mass of a gas and at constant pressure, the division (quotient) of volume and
absolute temperature of a gas always remains constant”.
Graph:
When we plot volume against temperature
accordingly to Charles’s law, then we obtain a
straight line as.
He suggested that at −273℃ or at 0 Kelvin ,the
volume of an ideal gas will be vanished.
This temperature is known as absolute zero.

Q9: Derive General Gas Equation (𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇) . [1993, 2001, 2006]
GENERAL GAS EQUATION
In order to derive the general gas equation consider “n” moles of an ideal gas, such that the
Initial pressure, temperature and volume are found to be "𝑷𝟏 ", "𝑽𝟏 " 𝑎𝑛𝑑 "𝑻𝟏 " respectively.
Application of Boyle’s law:
Now apply the Boyle’s law and keep the temperature constant 𝑇1 as shown in the diagram.
If"𝑷𝟐 " 𝑎𝑛𝑑 "𝑽” are the pressure and volume of ideal gas after application of Boyle’s law
then.
𝑷 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷 𝟐 𝑽
𝑷 𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑽= − − − − − (𝟏)
𝑷𝟐
Application of Charles’s law:
Now consider the ideal gas at the
condition where its pressure “𝑷𝟐 "
volume “V” and temperature “𝑻𝟏 ".
Now apply Charles’s law and keep the pressure 𝑷𝟐 constant. lf the new temperature and
volume is "𝑻𝟐 " 𝑎𝑛𝑑 "𝑽𝟐 " then.
𝑽 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝑽𝟐 𝑻𝟏
𝑽= − − − − − (𝟐)
𝑻𝟐
By Comparing (1) and (2)
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑻𝟏
=
𝑷𝟐 𝑻𝟐
𝑷 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷 𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
From above equation we can conclude that
𝑷𝑽
= 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 − − − − − (𝟑)
𝑻
During the application of Boyle’s and Charles’s law we observed that the number of mole of
gas remains constant so that in equation (3) constant would be “nR”. Here “R” is called
𝑱
“Universal Gas Constant” whose value is [𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 ].
𝒎𝒐𝒍 .𝑲
Equation (3) may be written as:
𝑷𝑽
= 𝒏𝑹
𝑻
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻

Q10: Derive General gas equation at constant temperature. (OPTIONAL)

Ans. Consider an ideal gas whose temperature kept constant T1. Suppose initial volume,
pressure and numbers of mole are respectively “𝑷𝟏 ", "𝑽𝟏 " 𝑎𝑛𝑑 "𝒏𝟏 " . The equation of state
may be written as:
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝑻𝟏 − − − − − (𝟏)
Suppose its pressure, volume and number of moles is being changed to 𝑷𝟐 ", "𝑽𝟐 " 𝑎𝑛𝑑 "𝒏𝟐 "
at constant temperature than according to general gas equation.
𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 = 𝒏𝟐 𝑹𝑻𝟏 − − − − − (𝟐)
Equation (1) ÷ by (2)
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝑻𝟏
=
𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝑹𝑻𝟏
𝑷 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷 𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
𝑷 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷 𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝒎
𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 {∵ 𝒏 = }
𝑴
𝑴 𝑴
Hence
𝑷 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷 𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
Q11: Write down the postulates of kinetic molecular theory. [1996, 1998, 2003 PE, 2007]
POSTULATES OF KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
1. Molecules:
Every gas consists of tiny particles called molecules. A molecule consists of an atom or group
of atoms. All molecules of a gas are identical at normal conditions.
2. Number of Molecules:
Each finite volume of an ideal gas contains large number of molecules. At normal conditions
1𝑚3 of a gas contains 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 molecules.
3. Size of Molecules:
The size of molecule is very small as compared to the separation between them. If a
molecule is considered to be spherical in shape then its diameter is about 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 m.
4. Elastic collision of Molecules:
Molecules of an ideal gas exert no force to each other except during collision. The collision
of molecules is perfectly elastic.
5. Motion of Molecules:
Molecules always move in straight line between two collisions of molecules.
6. Newtonian Mechanics:
We can apply Newtonian mechanics on the motion of molecules.

𝟏 ̅̅̅𝟐
̅
Q12: Derive the pressure of an ideal gas. 𝑷 = 𝟑 𝝆𝑽
[1996, 2003 PM, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2017]
PRESSURE OF AN IDEAL GAS
Consider “N” molecules of an ideal gas which are enclosed in a cubical of length, width and
height all equal to “L” as shown in diagram.
Consider a molecule of mass “m” which moves along x-axis from face “A” to face “B” of
cubical with Speed 𝒗𝒙𝟏 .
Initial momentum of molecule is found to be
𝒑𝒊 = 𝒎𝒗𝒙𝟏
After collision of molecule with the face “B”
the molecule will return with same speed,
the new momentum would be
𝒑𝒇 = −𝒎𝒗𝒙𝟏
The change in momentum may be
completed as
𝒑𝒇 − 𝒑𝒊 = −𝒎𝒗𝒙𝟏 − 𝒎𝒗𝒙𝟏
∆𝒑 = −𝟐𝒎𝒗𝒙𝟏
Take magnitude only
∆𝒑 = 𝟐𝒎𝒗𝒙𝟏 − − − − − (𝟏)
Since molecules covers distance “2L” with the same speed "𝒗𝒙𝟏 " then the time interval can
be calculated by the equation of motion as
S=Vt
𝟐𝑳 = 𝒗𝒙𝟏 ∆𝒕
𝟐𝑳
∆𝒕 = − − − − − (𝟐)
𝒗𝒙𝟏
Equation (1) ÷ by equation (2)
∆𝒑 𝟐𝒎𝒗𝒙𝟏
= 𝟐𝑳
∆𝒕 ( ) 𝒗𝒙𝟏

𝒎 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟏 ∆𝑃
𝑭𝟏 = − − − − − (𝟑) (∵ 𝐹 = )
𝑳 ∆𝑡
The pressure exerted by the molecule on the face “B” may be obtained as
𝑭𝟏
𝑷𝟏 =
𝑨
𝒎 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟏
( )
𝑳
𝑷𝟏 =
𝑳𝟐
𝒎 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟏
𝑷𝟏 =
𝑳𝟑
Similarly we can estimate the pressure due to other molecules as,
(𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟐 ) (𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟑 ) (𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒙𝑵 )
𝑷𝟐 = , 𝑷 𝟑 = , ⋯ ⋯ , 𝑷 𝑵 =
𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟑
In this situation mass of each molecule is identical and equal to “m” and all molecules are
considered to move along X-axis with different speed.
Total pressure of gas may be obtain by adding all the individual pressure of molecules as
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + 𝑷 𝟒 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑷𝑵
(𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟏 ) (𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟐 ) (𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟑 ) (𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒙𝑵 )
𝑷= + + + ⋯ ⋯ +
𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟑
𝒎
𝑷 = 𝟑 (𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟑 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝑵 )
𝑳
𝑵𝒎 (𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟑 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝑵 )
𝑷= 𝟑 [ ]
𝑳 𝑵
𝑵𝒎 𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟏 + 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟑 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝒗𝟐𝒙𝑵
𝑷 = ( 𝟑 ) ̅̅̅
𝒗𝒙 − − − − − (𝟒) ̅̅̅
𝟐
∵ { 𝒗𝒙 = }
𝑳 𝑵
According to definition of density:
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝝆=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
Since mass of one molecule is “m” and there are “N” molecules, therefore,
Mass of gas = Nm
Volume of gas = 𝑳𝟑
𝑵𝒎
𝝆= 𝟑
𝑳
Equation (4) =>
 ̅̅̅𝟐 − − − − − (𝟓)
𝑷 = 𝝆𝒗 𝒙

Magnitude of average velocity is:

̅̅̅𝟐𝒙 + ̅̅̅
̅ = √𝒗
𝒗 𝒗𝟐𝒚 + ̅̅̅
𝒗𝟐𝒛
Since,
̅̅̅
𝒗𝒙 = ̅̅̅
𝒗𝒚 = ̅̅̅
𝒗𝒛

̅=√̅̅̅
𝒗 𝒗𝟐𝒙 + ̅̅̅
𝒗𝟐𝒙 + ̅̅̅
𝒗𝟐𝒙

̅̅̅𝟐𝒙
̅ = √𝟑𝒗
𝒗
̅𝟐 = 𝟑𝒗
𝒗 ̅̅̅𝟐𝒙
𝟏 𝟐 ̅̅̅𝟐
̅ = 𝒗𝒙
𝒗
𝟑
̅̅̅ 𝟏 𝟐
𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝒗 ̅
𝟑
Put above value in equation (5)
𝟏 𝟐
𝑷 = 𝝆( 𝒗 ̅ )
𝟑
𝟏
𝑷 = 𝝆𝒗 ̅𝟐
𝟑

Q13: Derive the expression for average kinetic energy of molecules.

OR
Show that the average translational kinetic energy of molecules is directly proportional to
the absolute temperature. [1998, 2002 PM, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2015]
AVERAGE KINETIC ENERGY OF MOLECULES
𝟏
𝑷= ̅𝟐
𝝆𝒗
𝟑
𝟏 𝑵𝒎 𝟐
𝑷= ( )𝒗̅
𝟑 𝑽
𝟏
𝑷𝑽 = 𝑵𝒎 𝒗 ̅𝟐 − − − − − (𝟏)
𝟑
According to general gas equation
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏 𝑹 𝑻 − − − − − (𝟐)
𝟏
𝑵𝒎 𝒗 ̅𝟐 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝟑
𝟑𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝒎𝒗 ̅𝟐 =
𝑵
1
“×” by 2 on both sides
𝟏 𝟑 𝒏
̅𝟐 = ( ) 𝑹𝑻
𝒎𝒗
𝟐 𝟐 𝑵
 𝟑 𝟏 𝑵 𝟏
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑲. 𝑬= ( ) 𝑹𝑻 {∵ 𝑵𝑨 = , 𝑲. ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑬= 𝒎𝒗̅𝟐 }
𝟐 𝑵𝑨 𝒏 𝟐
𝟑 𝑹
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑲. 𝑬 = ( )𝑻
𝟐 𝑵𝑨
Here,
𝑹
=𝑲 𝑩𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝑱/𝑲
𝑵𝑨
𝟑
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑲. 𝑬= 𝑲𝑻
𝟐
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑲. 𝑬∝𝑻
“Hence proved, average kinetic energy of molecules is directly proportional to absolute
temperature”.
Kinetic energy per mole:
As we’ve derived the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
𝟑
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑲. 𝑬= 𝑲𝑻
𝟐
𝟑 𝑹 𝑹
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑲. 𝑬 = ( )𝑻 {∵ 𝑲 = }
𝟐 𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑨
𝟑
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑲. 𝑬 × 𝑵𝑨 = 𝑹 𝑻
𝟐
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑲. 𝑬 𝟑
= 𝑹𝑻
𝒏 𝟐

Q14: Derive the expression for Root Mean Square Speed.

𝟏𝑺𝑻 FORMULA:
As we’ve derived,
𝟏
𝑷= 𝝆𝒗 ̅𝟐
𝟑
𝟑𝑷
=𝒗̅𝟐
𝝆
Taking root on both sides
𝟑𝑷
√ = √𝒗
̅𝟐
𝝆

𝟑𝑷
𝒗𝑹𝑴𝑺 = √
𝝆

𝟐𝑵𝑫 FORMULA:
Since,
𝟑
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝑲𝑻
𝟐
𝟏 𝟑
𝒎𝒗 ̅𝟐 = 𝑲 𝑻
𝟐 𝟐
 𝟑𝑲𝑻
̅𝟐 =
𝒗
𝒎
Taking root on both sides,

𝟑𝑲𝑻
̅𝟐 = √
√𝒗
𝒎

𝟑𝑲𝑻
𝒗𝑹𝑴𝑺 = √
𝒎
𝟑𝑹𝑫 FORMULA:
As we have already derived

𝟑𝑲𝑻
𝒗𝑹𝑴𝑺 = √
𝒎

𝑹 𝑻
𝒗𝑹𝑴𝑺 = √𝟑 ( )
𝑵𝑨 𝒎

𝟑𝑹𝑻
𝒗𝑹𝑴𝑺 = √ {∵ 𝑴 = 𝑵𝑨 𝒎}
𝑴

Q15: Verify the gas laws on the basis of kinetic molecular theory.
[2000, 2002 PE, 2007, 2008]

Ans. As we know that,

𝟏
𝑷= 𝝆𝒗 ̅𝟐
𝟑
𝟏 𝑵𝒎 𝟐
𝑷= ( )𝒗 ̅
𝟑 𝑽
𝟏
𝑷 𝑽 = 𝑵(𝒎 𝒗 ̅𝟐 )
𝟑
𝟐 𝟏
𝑷 𝑽 = 𝑵( 𝒎 𝒗 ̅𝟐 )
𝟑 𝟐
𝟐
𝑷 𝑽 = 𝑵 𝑲. ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑬
𝟑
𝟐 𝟑 𝟑
𝑷 𝑽 = 𝑵 ( 𝑲 𝑻) ̅̅̅̅̅̅
{∵ 𝑲. 𝑬= 𝑲 𝑻}
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐
𝑷𝑽=𝑵𝑲𝑻
𝑵𝑲𝑻
𝑽= − − − − − (𝟏)
𝑷
Verification of Boyle’s law:
Equation (1) =>
𝑵𝑲𝑻
𝑽=
𝑷
Here “N” and “K” are constant and for Boyle’s law we keep the temperature constant.
So that,
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑽= (𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑻)
𝑷
𝟏
𝑽∝ (𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑻)
𝑷
Hence verified
Verification of Charles’s law: [1998]
𝑷𝑽 = 𝑵 𝑲 𝑻
𝑵𝑲
𝑽=( )𝑻
𝑷
“N” and “K” are constant while “P” kept constant for Charles’s law.
𝑽 = (𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕)𝑻
𝑽∝𝑻 (𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑷)

Q16: Define heat capacity. [2005, 2007]

HEAT CAPACITY
“Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of any body through 1 Kelvin is called
heat Capacity”.
It is denoted by “C”.
Mathematically:
∆𝑸
𝑪=
∆𝑻
Unit:
Its unit is 𝐽/𝐾 .

Q17: Define Specific heat capacity. [2005, 2007]

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
“Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass body through 1 Kelvin is
called specific Heat Capacity”.
It is denoted by “c”.
Mathematically:
∆𝑸
𝒄=
𝒎 ∆𝑻
Unit:
Its unit is 𝑱⁄𝑲𝒈 . 𝑲 .
Examples:
Some important specific heat capacities are
 𝒄𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑱⁄𝑲𝒈 . 𝑲
 𝒄𝑰𝒄𝒆 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑱⁄𝑲𝒈 . 𝑲
 𝒄𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 = 𝟖𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑱⁄𝑲𝒈 . 𝑲
Q18: Define Molar Specific Heat and also derive the relation between Specific heat and
Molar specific heat. Also define the types of molar specific heat. [1999, 2004, 2005, 2007]
MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT
“Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a gas through 1 Kelvin, is
called “Molar Specific Heat”.
It is denoted by "𝒄𝒏 "
Mathematically:
∆𝑸
𝒄𝒏 =
𝒏 ∆𝑻
Unit:
Its SI unit is 𝑱⁄𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 . 𝑲 .
Relation between specific heat and molar specific heat: [2005, 2007]
From the definition of specific heat capacity
∆𝑸
𝒄=
𝒎 ∆𝑻
From the definition of mole
𝒎
𝒏=
𝑴
𝒎=𝒏𝑴
=>
∆𝑸
𝒄=
𝒏 𝑴∆𝑻
∆𝑸
𝒄𝑴 = → (𝟏)
𝒏 ∆𝑻
According to definition of molar specific heat;
∆𝑸
𝑪𝒏 = → (𝟐)
𝒏 ∆𝑻
By comparing (1) & (2)
𝒄𝒏 = 𝒄 𝑴
Hence proved,
The product of specific heat capacity and molar mass is equal to molar specific heat.
Types of molar specific heat:
There are two types of molar specific heat.
1. Molar specific heat at constant pressure
2. Molar specific heat at constant volume.

1. Molar specific heat at constant Pressure: [1994]

“Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of gas through one Kelvin at
constant pressure, is known as Molar specific heat at constant pressure”.
It is denoted 𝒄𝑷.
Mathematically:
∆𝑸𝑷
𝒄𝑷 =
𝒏 ∆𝑻
Unit:
Its SI unit is 𝑱⁄𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 . 𝑲 .
2. Molar specific heat at constant Volume: [1994]
“Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of gas through one Kelvin at
constant volume, is known as Molar specific heat at constant volume”.
It is denoted 𝒄𝑽.
Mathematically:
∆𝑸𝑽
𝒄𝑽 =
𝒏∆𝑻
Unit:
Its SI unit is 𝑱⁄𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 . 𝑲 .
Q19: Why does a gas has two molar specific heats? [1999, 2004]
Ans: In case of solids and liquids the change of volume and work done against external
pressure during a change in temperature is negligibly small. But for gases it is not valid. Gas
has different behavior at constant pressure and at constant volume; therefore, a gas has
two different molar specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume.
Q20: why 𝒄𝑷 is always greater than 𝒄𝑽 . [2008]
Ans: When a gas is heated at constant volume all the supplied heat goes in changing the
temperature because no work can be done by the system on surrounding due to constant
volume. While in case of constant pressure work is done by the system on the surrounding
with the same change in temperature. Hence for the same temperature change greater heat
is needed at constant pressure.

Q21: Define Latent Heat.

LATENT HEAT:
Amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass body without changing its
temperature, is known as “Latent Heat”.
It is also called “Heat of Transformation”.
It is denoted by “L” or “H”.
Mathematically:
∆𝑸
𝑳=
𝒎
Unit:
Its SI unit is 𝑱/𝑲𝒈
Types of latent heat:
There are two types of latent heat.
1. Latent heat of fusion
2. Latent heat of vaporization.
 1. Latent heat of Fusion:
“Amount of heat required to change the state (from solid to liquid) of unit mass body at
constant temperature”.
It is denoted by“𝑳𝒇 ”.
∆𝑸
𝑳𝒇 =
𝒎
Unit:
Its SI unit is 𝑱/𝑲𝒈 .
𝑱
Latent heat of ice at 𝟎℃ is 336000 𝒌𝒈
2. Latent heat of vaporization:
“Amount of heat required to change the state (from liquid to gas) of unit mass body at
constant temperature”.
It is denoted by“𝑳𝒗 ”.
∆𝑸
𝑳𝒗 =
𝒎
Unit:
Its SI unit is 𝑱/𝑲𝒈 .
𝑱
Latent heat of water at 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ is 2256000 𝒌𝒈

Q22: Define law of heat exchange.

LAW OF HEAT EXCHANGE:
“When two bodies of different temperatures are in thermal contact, then heat flows from
hot body to cold body until unless the temperatures of both bodies become same. During
this process heat released by the hot body is equal to heat absorbed by the cold body”.
Mathematically
Heat loss by hot body = Heat gain by cold body
∆𝑸𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = ∆𝑸𝑮𝒂𝒊𝒏

Q23: Define the following:

1- Thermodynamics
2- System
3- Surroundings
4- Boundary or layer
5- State
6- State variables
1. THERMODYNAMICS: [1998, 2000, 2002 PM]
“Study of inter conversion of heat and mechanical work is known as
Thermodynamics”.
2. SYSTEM:
“Every under observation object or set of objects called System”.
Types of system:
There are three types of system.
i. Open system
ii. Closed system
iii. Isolated system
i. OPEN SYSTEM:
“Such type of system in which the transfer of heat energy and matter both are possible
between system and surroundings is, known as “Open system”.
ii. CLOSED SYSTEM:
“Such type of system in which transfer of heat energy is possible between the system and
surrounding but not matter, is known as “Closed system”.
iii. ISOLATED SYSTEM:
“Such type of system in which transfer of heat energy and matter both are not possible
between system and surroundings, is known as “Isolated system”.

3. SURROUNDINGS:
“Space or area around the system is known as “Surroundings”.
4. BOUNDARY OR LAYER:
“A part of system that separates the system from its surroundings is called “Boundary or
layer”.
5. STATE:
“State of a system at certain temperature and pressure is referred as “State”.
6. STATE VARIABLES:
“Parameters like pressure and temperature that defines the state of a system called
“State variables”.

Q24: Define Pressure volume work. OR Derive Pressure work equation.

Ans. Consider a cylinder of cross sectional area “A”,
which is filled by an ideal gas and covered by a
moveable piston, at which the pressure “P” is constant.
Let suppose the initial height of the gas or piston is “y1”
than initial volume of gas "𝑽𝟏 " may be computed as
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑨𝒚𝟏 − − − − − (𝟏)
Our observation is that after providing heat energy to
the system, the piston is displaced through
"∆𝒚" as shown in the diagram. Now height of piston is
therefore "𝒚𝟐 ", so that its final volume "𝑽𝟐 " will be.
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑨𝒚𝟐 − − − − − (𝟐)
Eqn (2)-Eqn (1)
𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑨 𝒚 𝟐 − 𝑨 𝒚 𝟏
∆𝑽 = 𝑨( 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )
 ∆𝑽 = 𝑨 𝜟𝒚 − − − − − (𝟑)
From definition of work done
∆𝑾 = 𝑭∆𝒚 − − − − − (𝟒) {∵ ∆𝒚 = 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕}
Since,
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
𝑷 = 𝑭𝑨
Now Eqn (4) may be written as:
∆𝑾 = 𝑷 𝑨 ∆𝒚
By using equation (3)
∆𝑾 = 𝑷∆𝑽 {∵ 𝑨∆𝒚 = ∆𝑽 }

Q25: State and explain 1𝑠𝑡 law of thermodynamics also discuss its application. [1994]
𝟏𝒔𝒕 LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: [1996, 1998, 2000, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2015]
Helmholtz purposed 1st law of thermodynamics, according to which,
Statement:
“The change in internal energy of a system in any process is equal to net heat flow into the
system minus the total work done by the system”.
Mathematically
∆𝑼 = ∆𝑸 − ∆𝑾
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾

Sign of energies:
∆𝑄:
1- It is taken “+ve” if heat is supplied to the system.
2- It is taken “-ve” if heat is received from the system.
∆𝑈:
1- ∆𝑼 Is “+ve” if internal energy or temperature is increased.
2- ∆𝑼 Is “-ve” if internal energy or temperature is decreased.
∆𝑾:
1- ∆𝑾 Is “+ve” in case of work done by the system.
2- ∆𝑾 Is “-ve” in case of work done on the system.
.

Application of 1st law of Thermodynamics: [Any two 2005]

There are four applications.
1- Isobaric process
2- Isochoric process
3- Isothermal process
4- Adiabatic process
 1) ISOBARIC PROCESS: [1996, 2000, 2002 PM & PE, 2006, 2008, 2013, 2015]
“Such process in which the pressure of the system remains constant is called Isobaric
Process”.
Explanation:
In order to explain the isobaric process consider a system which consists of a cylinder, filled
by an ideal gas and covered by a moveable piston which is free to move to keep the
pressure constant.
If we provide ∆𝑸 amount of heat energy to the system then temperature of system
increases from "𝑻𝟏 " to "𝑻𝟐 " therefore internal energy also increases from "𝑼𝟏 "to"𝑼𝟐 ", so
that internal energy change is "∆𝑼".
Since kinetic energy is directly proportional to the temperature then speed of molecules
also increases due to increase in temperature and hence the molecules displace the piston
through some distance "∆𝒚". Hence work done by the gas is obtained.
Mathematically:
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑷∆𝑽
Graphical representation:
When we plot volume against pressure according to
“Isobaric process” then we obtain a straight line parallel to
the axis of volume which is known as “Isobar”.
*Area under the line in isobaric process represents the
work done during isobaric process.

2) ISOCHORIC PROCESS: [2004]

“Such process in which volume of the system remains constant is called “Isochoric process”.
Explanation:
Consider a system which consists of a cylinder filled by an Ideal gas and covered by a fixed
piston to keep the volume constant. In this process the change in volume will be zero i.e.
∆𝑽 = 𝟎
∆𝑾 = 𝟎
Mathematically:
According to first law of thermodynamics
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝟎
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼
“So we can say that all provided energy to the system is used to change the internal energy
only”.
Graphical representation:
When we plot volume against pressure then we obtain a
straight line parallel to the axis of pressure which shows that
the volume of system is constant.
Conclusion:
 In this process ∆𝑽 = 𝟎
 In this process ∆𝑾 = 𝟎
 All provided energy is used to change the internal energy of the system only.

3) ISOTHERMAL PROCESS: [1996, 1998, 2000, 2002 PM, 2008, 2015]

“Such process in which temperature of the system remains constant is called “Isothermal
process”.
Explanation:
In order to explain isothermal process consider a system which consists of a cylinder filled
by an ideal gas and covered by a piston.
When we provide some amount of heat energy to the system then to keep the temperature
constant we decrease the pressure slowly and allow the gas to expand. This is called
“Isothermal expansion”.
Similarly when we receive some amount of heat energy from the system then to keep
temperature of the system constant we increase the external pressure on the piston. This is
called “Isothermal Compression”,
During both above process no change in temperature will be observed. i.e.
∆𝑻 = 𝟎
Since internal energy depends upon temperature then the change in internal energy will be
zero too i.e.
∆𝑼 = 𝟎
Mathematically:
According to 1st law of thermodynamics:
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
∆𝑸 = 𝟎 + ∆𝑾
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑾
“So we can say that all provided energy to the system is used in work done only.”
Graphical representation:
When we plot volume against pressure according to “Isothermal process” then we obtain a
hyperbolic curve which is known as “Isotherm”.
Conclusion:
 In this process ∆𝑻 = 𝟎
 In this process ∆𝑼 = 𝟎
 All provided energy is used in work done only.
 This process is similar to the Boyle’s law in which,
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 4) ADIABATIC PROCESS: [1998, 2002 PE, 2006]
“Such process in which transfer of heat energy is not possible is known as Adiabatic
Process”.
Explanation:
Adiabatic expansion:
In order to explain “Adiabatic Process” considers a cylinder with insolated walls, which is
filled by an ideal gas and covered by an insulated piston.
Since in this process we cannot provide the heat energy to the system, therefore to get
work done we rapidly decrease the external pressure and allow the gas to expand. Due to
this the temperature of the system falls and the gas becomes cool.
During this process work done by the system is obtained and the internal energy is used in
it. This kind of adiabatic process is called adiabatic expansion.
Mathematically:
∆𝑸 = 𝟎
According to 1st law of thermodynamics:
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
𝟎 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
∆𝑾 = −∆𝑼
Adiabatic compression:
Another adiabatic process is also possible in which we increase the external pressure of the
system and allow the gas to compress. As the result the temperature of the system
increases. This process is called “adiabatic Compression”. In adiabatic compression work is
done on the system and change in internal energy is positive.
Mathematically:
∆𝑼 = −∆𝑾
Graphical representation:
When we plot volume against pressure then we obtain a
hyperbolic curve which is known as adiabate. Graph (curve)
in adiabatic process is steeper than the curve in isothermal
process. In both process volume is found to be inversely
proportional to the pressure but in isothermal process it is
at constant temperature while in adiabatic process temperature isn’t constant.
Conclusion:
 In this process
∆𝑸 = 𝟎
 In this process
∆𝑾 = −∆𝑼 𝑶𝑹 ∆𝑼 = −∆𝑾
 During adiabatic process
𝑷𝑽𝜸 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕, 𝑻 𝑽𝜸−𝟏 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕, 𝑷𝟏−𝜸 𝑻𝜸 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Here "𝜸" is a ratio of two molar specific heats of s gas, used as working substance in
adiabatic process.
Q26: Show that the difference of two molar specific heats is equal to universal gas constant.
𝒄𝑷 − 𝒄𝑽 = 𝑹. [1994, 1999, 2000, 2003 PM & PE, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2018]
In order to derive the relation between 𝑐𝑃 and 𝑐𝑉 , consider “n” moles of an ideal gas
enclosed a container in such a way that the initial pressure is “P”, initial volume is “V” and
its initial temperature is “T”. This point “A” is shown in the PV diagram as follows.
ISOCHORIC PROCESS 𝐴→𝐶:
Now consider isochoric process 𝑨 → 𝑪 in which heat energy is supplied to the gas at
constant volume to increase the temperature of gas from “T” to"𝑻 + ∆𝑻".
From definition of𝒄𝑽
∆𝑸𝑽
𝒄𝑽 =
𝒏 ∆𝑻
∆𝑸𝑽 = 𝒄𝑽 𝒏 ∆𝑻
Since, process is isochoric so that
∆𝑸𝑽 = ∆𝑼
𝒄𝑽 𝒏 ∆𝑻 = ∆𝑼
Hence,
∆𝑼 = 𝒄𝑽 𝒏 ∆𝑻 − − − − − (𝟏)

ISOBARIC PROCESS 𝐴→𝐵:

Now consider an isobaric process 𝑨 → 𝑩 in which we provide ∆𝑸𝑷 amount of heat
energy to the gas at constant pressure to increase the temperature of gas from “T”
to"𝑻 + ∆𝑻".
From definition of𝒄𝑷
∆𝑸𝑷
𝒄𝑷 =
𝒏 ∆𝑻
∆𝑸𝑷 = 𝒄𝑷 𝒏 ∆𝑻
Since, process is isobaric so that
∆𝑸𝑷 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
𝒄𝑷 𝒏 ∆𝑻 = 𝒄𝑽 𝒏 ∆𝑻 + 𝑷∆𝑽
𝒄𝑷 𝒏 ∆𝑻 − 𝒄𝑽 𝒏 ∆𝑻 = 𝑷∆𝑽
(𝒄𝑷 − 𝒄𝑽 ) 𝒏 ∆𝑻 = 𝑷∆𝑽 − − − − − (𝟐)
According to PV diagram, the general gas equation at point “A” and “B” may be written
as respectively.
At point A:
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 − − − − − (𝑨)
At point B:
𝑷(𝑽 + ∆𝑽) = 𝒏𝑹(𝑻 + ∆𝑻) − − − − − (𝑩)
Eqn (B) - Eqn (A)
𝑷(𝑽 + ∆𝑽) − 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹(𝑻 + ∆𝑻) − 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑷𝑽 + 𝑷∆𝑽 − 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 + 𝒏𝑹∆𝑻 − 𝒏𝑹𝑻
 𝑷∆𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹∆𝑻
Put above value in equation (2)
(𝒄𝑷 − 𝒄𝑽 )𝒏∆𝑻 = 𝒏𝑹∆𝑻
Hence proved
𝒄𝑷 − 𝒄𝑽 = 𝑹
OR
𝒄𝑷 = 𝒄𝑽 + 𝑹

Q27: Define heat engine. Write down its construction and briefly explain its working. Also
derive the expression for the efficiency of heat engine.
HEAT ENGINE: [2005]
“An instrument that converts heat energy into mechanical work is known as “Heat Engine”.
Construction:
I. HTR:
HTR stands for higher temperature reservoir it is also
known as furnace or hot body or source.
II. LTR:
LTR stands for lower temperature Reservoir it is also
known as condenser, cold body or sink.
III. Working substance:
A working substance is used in a heat engine which is
also known as fuel.
Working:
A Heat engine absorbs some amount of heat energy
𝑸𝟏 from the source in each cycle and rejects some part of this energy 𝑸𝟐 towards sink.
The difference of these two energies is converted into useful mechanical work.
Efficiency:
According to definition of efficiency
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝜼% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑾
𝜼% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑸𝟏
𝑸𝟏 − 𝑸𝟐
𝜼% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑸𝟏
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝜼% = ( − ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟏
𝑸𝟐
𝜼% = (𝟏 − ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑸𝟏
Q28: Define 2nd law of thermodynamics.
[1995, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2002 PM, 2006, 2010, 2013, 2018]
2nd LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
There are two statements of 2nd law of thermodynamics.
1- Kelvin’s statement
2- Clausius’ statement

1- KELVIN’S STATEMENT:
“No process is possible in which a heat engine absorbs heat energy from a single
temperature reservoir and completely converts into work”.

2- CLAUSIUS’ STATEMENT:
“It is impossible to cause heat to flow from a cold body to a hot body without the
expenditure of extra energy or external energy”.

Q29: Prove that the Kelvin’s and Clausius statements are identical or equivalent.
[2003 PM, 2010, 2018]
Ans. To prove Kelvin and Clausius statements are identical, suppose that Kelvin’s statement
is false and yet we can make such an engine that converts all the heat energy completely
into work. As shown in the figure given below.
If we connect this engine with a refrigerator (Clausius engine) then we can see that work
done of 1st engine is used to operate the
Clausius engine as shown in the figure
given below.
Now we can see that the 2nd engine
absorbs heat from cold body and transfer
it into hot body without expenditure of
external energy or work. That is against of
the Clausius statement. It means that if
Kelvin’s statement is supposed to be
wrong or incorrect then Clausius
statement also become invalid. Hence
proved Kelvin’s and Clausius statements
are identical.

Q30: What is Carnot engine? Write down its construction; explain its working. Drive an
expression for efficiency of a Carnot engine.
[1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2002 PE, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014, 2016, 2019]
CARNOT ENGINE:
A French engineer Sadi Carnot designed an ideal engine in which heat loss is not possible.
This imaginary engine is known as “Carnot engine”.
Construction:
It consists of a cylinder with highly insulated walls, filled by an ideal gas and covered by
highly insulated piston which can move freely. Ideal gas behaves like working substance or
fuel. Carnot engine consists of heat conducting base.
Working: (Carnot cycle)
Carnot cycle consists of four steps which are as follows:
1- Isothermal expansion
2- Adiabatic expansion
3- Isothermal compression
4- Adiabatic compression
1- Isothermal Expansion:
In this step, the Carnot engine is placed on a hot body at a temperature "𝑻𝟏 "and the gas is
allowed to expand by decreasing the load on the piston. During this process 𝑸𝟏 heat energy
is absorbed by the gas due to conduction through the base. In this process gas changes its
state from A (𝑷𝟏 , 𝑽𝟏 , 𝑻𝟏 ) to B(𝑷𝟐 , 𝑽𝟐 , 𝑻𝟏 ).
2- Adiabatic Expansion:
In second step, the cylinder is placed on an insulating pad and the gas is again allowed to
expand. As no heat can enter or leave the system therefore temperature of system falls
from "𝑻𝟏 "to "𝑻𝟐 " adiabatically and the state changes from B(𝑷𝟐 , 𝑽𝟐 , 𝑻𝟏 ) to C(𝑷𝟑 , 𝑽𝟑 , 𝑻𝟐 ).
3- Isothermal Compression:
In third step, the engine is placed on a cold body at temperature"𝑻𝟐 " and the gas is
compressed by increasing the load on piston slowly. During this compression heat energy
"𝑸𝟐 " is transferred from gas to the cold body by the conduction through the base of the
cylinder. This compression is isothermal and some work is done on the gas. In this process
gas changes its state from C(𝑷𝟑 , 𝑽𝟑 , 𝑻𝟐 ) to D(𝑷𝟒 , 𝑽𝟒 , 𝑻𝟐 ).
4- Adiabatic Compression:
In fourth step, the cylinder is once again placed on the insulating pad and the gas is allowed
to compress to bring the system to its initial original state. This compression is completely
adiabatic because no heat can leave or enter the system. During this compression some
work is done on the system. This process changes the state of gas from D(𝑷𝟒 , 𝑽𝟒 , 𝑻𝟐 ) to
A (𝑷𝟏 , 𝑽𝟏 , 𝑻𝟏 ).Carnot cycle can understand by the following schematic diagram as:
Graphical Representation:
Area enclosed by the Carnot cycle represents the work done in each cycle.
Efficiency:
According to efficiency of Carnot engine:
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝜼% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑾
𝜼% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑸𝟏
𝑸𝟏 − 𝑸𝟐
𝜼% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑸𝟏
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝜼% = ( − ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟏
𝑸𝟐
𝜼% = (𝟏 − ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑸𝟏
According to Carnot theorem
𝑸𝟐 𝑻𝟐
=
𝑸𝟏 𝑻𝟏
Therefore efficiency may be written as
𝑻𝟐
𝜼% = (𝟏 − ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝟏
Hence expression shows that, to get 100% efficiency of a Carnot engine the temperature of
the cold body should be zero Kelvin, which is practically not possible. So, we can conclude
that the efficiency of a Carnot engine can never be 100%.

Q31: What is entropy? Explain and also give the statement of second law of
thermodynamics for entropy. [2003, 2009]
ENTROPY:
“Unavailability of the Heat energy in the system is called entropy”.
OR
“The measure of disorder in the system is referred as entropy”.
Explanation:
In order to explain entropy, consider a box containing equal number of red and white balls.
Red balls are arranged on one side and white balls on the other side of the box. There is an
arrangement or order in the box.
If we shake the box, the order of the balls is disturbed. If we continue the process of
shaking, the disorder will keep on increasing. The initial arrangements can never be restored
by repeating the process. Hence entropy will also go on increasing with this disorder.
Second law of Thermodynamics for Entropy:
“When an isolated system undergoes a change, the entropy of the system either remains
constant or it increases”.
Formula:
Change of entropy can be calculated by the following formula as:
∆𝑸
∆𝑺 =
𝑻
Unit:
SI unit of entropy is J/K.
Q32: It is observed that when a mercury bulb of a glass thermometer is put in a flame, the
column of mercury first descends and then rises. Explain it. [2012]
Ans. Since glass bulb is in direct contact with the flame therefore it expands first and the
column of mercury descends. But as soon as the heat reaches the liquid mercury, it expands
and rises the column. This is because expansion of liquid mercury is greater than the glass
bulb.
Q33: What happen to the temperature of a room in which an air conditioner is left running
on a table in the middle of the room? [2014]
Ans. Since both the evaporator and condenser are within the room, the temperature will
increase. This is because whatever heat is sucked by the evaporator from the room, more
heat will be released by the condenser in the room after doing work on it in order to
maintain the temperature than the surroundings.

PROF .TAHA ABBAS

(M.Sc APPLIED PHYSICS)
[email protected]
Facebook ID: Taha Abbas
0334-2747346

YOU CAN WATCH & LEARN PHYSICS FROM PROF. TAHA ABBAS ON YOU TUBE
 PAST PAPER NUMERICAL
[1994, 2003 PE]
1. 1200 J of heat is supplied to the system at constant pressure. The internal energy of
the system is increased by 750 J and the volume by 4.5 m3. Find the work done
against piston and the pressure on the piston.
[Ans. ΔW= 450 J, P=100 N/m2]

[1995]
2. A meter bar of steel is correct at 0oC and another is at -2.5oC. What will be the
difference between their lengths at 30 oC? (α=12 x 10-6 K-1)
[Ans. 0.00003 m]

[1995, 2007]
3. A heat engine performs work at the rate of 50 KW. The efficiency of the engine is
30%. Calculate the loss of heat per hour.
[Ans. 420 MJ]

[1996]
4. In an isobaric process when 2000 J of heat energy is supplied to a gas in a cylinder,
the piston moves through 0.1 m under a constant pressure of 2 x 1.01 x 10 5 N/m2. If
the area of the piston is 5 x 10-2 m2. Calculate the work done and the increase in
internal energy of the system.
[Ans. ΔW= 1010 J, ΔU=990 J]

[1996]
5. Find the rms speed of nitrogen molecule at 27 oC. Given the mass of nitrogen
molecule to be 4.67 x 10-26 Kg. (K=1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
[Ans. vrms = 515.70 m/s]

[1997]
6. A glass flask is filled to the mark with 60 cm3 of mercury at 20 oC. If the flask and its
contents are heated to 40 oC, how much mercury will be above the mark?
(αglass= 9 x 10-6 K-1, βmercury=182 x 10-6 K-1)
[Ans. 0.186 cm3]

[1997, 2012]
7. A Carnot engine whose low temperature is at 200 K has an efficiency of 50%. It is
desired to increase this to 75%. By how much degrees must the temperature
decreased of cold body? If higher temperature of the reservoir remains constant.
[Ans. ΔT2 =100 K]
[1998]
8. Find the rms speed of hydrogen molecule at 7 oC. Given the mass of hydrogen
molecule to be 3.32 x 10-27 Kg. (K=1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
[Ans. vrms = 1868.6 m/s]

[1998]
9. 540 calories of heat is required to vaporize 1 gm of water at 100 oC. Determine the
entropy change involved in vaporizing 5 gm of water.
[Ans. ΔS=30.4 J/K]

[1999]
10. Find the efficiency of a Carnot engine working between 100 oC and 50 oC.
[Ans. 13.5%]

[2000]
11. Calculate the volume occupied by a gram mole of a gas at 10 oC and pressure of
1 atm.
[Ans. 0.0233 m3]

[2000, 2002 PM]

12. In an isobaric process when 2000 J of heat energy is supplied to a gas in a cylinder,
the piston moves through 0.5 m under a constant pressure of 1.01 x 105 N/m2. If the
area of the piston is 2 x 10-2 m2. Calculate the work done and the increase in internal
energy of the system.
[Ans. ΔW= 1010 J, ΔU=990 J]

[2001]
13. If one mole of a mono atomic gas is heated at constant pressure from -30 oC to 20 oC,
find the change in internal energy and the work done during the process.
(cP=20.8 J/mol.K, cV=12.5 J /mol.K)
[Ans. ΔW= 415 J, ΔU=625 J]

[2001]
14. An ideal heat engine operates in Carnot cycle between temperature between 227 oC
and 127 oC and it absorbs 600 J of heat energy; find the
(i). Work done per cycle (ii) Efficiency of the engine
[Ans. W= 120 J, 20%]

[2002 PM]
15. Find the rms speed of hydrogen molecule at 100 oC. Given the mass of hydrogen
molecule to be 3.32 x 10-27 Kg. (K=1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
[Ans. vrms = 2156.7 m/s]
[2002 PE]
16. A heat engine performs 1,000 J of work and at the same time rejects 4,000 J of heat
energy to the cold reservoir. What is the efficiency of the heat engine? If the
difference of temperature between the sink and the source of this engine is 75 Co,
find the temperature of its source.
[Ans. 20%, T1=375 K]

[2002 PE]
17. A cylinder of diameter 1.00 cm at 30oC is to be slide in to a hole in a steel plate. The
hole has a diameter of 0.99970 cm at 30oC. To what temperature must the plate be
heated? (α=1.1 x 10-5 K-1)
[Ans. T1’=330.27 K]

[2003 PM & PE]

18. The low temperature reservoir of a Carnot engine is at 5 oC and has an efficiency of
40%. It is desired to increase this to 50%. By what degrees should the temperature of
hot reservoir be increased?
[Ans. ΔT1 =92.7 K]

[2003 PM]
19. An air storage tank whose volume is 110 liters contains 2 Kg of air at a pressure of 15
atmospheres. How much air would have to be forced in to the tank to increase the
pressure to 18 atmospheres, assuming no change in temperature?
[Ans. Δm =0.4 Kg]

[2004, 2007]
20. Calculate the density of hydrogen gas, considering it to be an ideal gas, when the
root mean square velocity of hydrogen molecules is 1850 m/s at 0oC and
1 atmospheric pressure. (1 atm = 1.01 x 105 N/m2)
[Ans. ρ = 0.08853 Kg/m3]

[2004]
21. The low temperature reservoir of a Carnot engine is at -3 oC and has an efficiency of
40%. It is desired to increase this to 50%. By what degrees should the temperature of
hot reservoir be increased?
[Ans. ΔT1 =90 K]

[2005]
22. A brass ring of 20 cm diameter is to be mounted on a metal rod of 20.02 cm
diameter at 20 oC . To what temperature should the ring be heated?(α=1.9 x 10-5 K-1)
[Ans. T1’=345.63 K]
[2005]
23. A 100 gm copper block is heated in boiling water for 10 minutes and then it is
dropped in to 150 gm of water at 30 oC in a 200 gm calorimeter. If the temperature
of water is raised to 33.6 oC, determine the specific heat of the material of the
calorimeter.(ccopper = 386 J/Kg. K)
[Ans. c= 409.8 J/Kg. K]

[2006]
24. Find the change in volume of a brass sphere of 0.6 m diameter when it is heated
from 30 oC to 100 oC. (α=19 x 10-6 K-1)
[Ans. 4.51 x 10-4 m3]

[2006]
25. A Celsius thermometer in a laboratory reads the surrounding temperature as 30 oC;
what is the temperature in the Fahrenheit scale and in absolute scale?
[Ans. 86 oF, 303 K ]

[2008]
26. A steel bar is 10 m in length at -2.5 oC. What will be the change in its length when it is
heated to 25 oC. (βsteel=3.3 x 10-5 K-1)
[Ans. 3.025 x 10-5 m ]

[2008]
27. A Carnot engine performs 2,000 J of work and at the same time rejects 4,000 J of
heat energy to the sink. If the difference of temperature between the sink and the
source of this engine is 85 Co, find the temperature of its source and sink.
[Ans. T1=257.57 K, 172.57 K]

[2009]
28. A scientist stores 22 gm of a gas at 1200 atm. Overnight the tank develops slight
leakage and the pressure drops to 950 atm. Calculate the mass of the gas escaped.
[Ans. Δm = 4.6 gm]

[2009]
29. In an isobaric process when 2000 J of heat energy is supplied to a gas in a cylinder,
the piston moves through 0.4 m under a constant pressure of 1.01 x 105 N/m2. If the
area of the piston is 2 x 10-2 m2. Calculate the increase in internal energy of the
system.
[Ans. ΔU=1192 J]

[2010]
30. A heat engine performing 400 J of work in each cycle has an efficiency of 25%. How
much heat is absorbed and rejected in each cycle.
[Ans. Q1=1600 J, Q2=1200 J]
[2011]
31. A 200 gm piece of metal is heated to 150 oC and then dropped in to an aluminum
calorimeter of mass 500 gm, containing 500 gm of water initially at 25 oC. Find the
final equilibrium temperature of the system.
(cmetal= 128.100 J/Kg. K, ccalorimeter= 903 J/Kg. K, cwater= 4200 J/Kg. K )
[Ans. 299.24 K]

[2013]
32. The difference of temperature between a hot and a cold body is 120 Co. If the heat
engine is 30% efficient, find the temperature of the hot and cold body.
[Ans. T1=400 K, T2=280 K]

[2014]
33. Calculate the rms speed of Oxygen molecule at 800 K. Its molar mass is 32 gm and
universal gas constant R= 8.314 J/mol.K.
[Ans. vrms = 789.5 m/s]

[2015]
34. A heat engine performs 200 J of work in each cycle and has efficiency 30%. For each
cycle of operation (a) how much heat is absorbed? (b) How much heat is expelled?
[Ans. Q1=666.6 J, Q2=466.6 J]

[2016]
35. The high temperature reservoir of a Carnot engine is at 200 oC and has an efficiency
of 35%. It is desired to increase this to 45%. By what degrees should the temperature
of cold reservoir be decreased? If the temperature of hot body remains constant.
[Ans. ΔT2 =47.3 K]

[2017]
36. Calculate the temperature at which the root mean square speed of hydrogen
molecules is 3300 m/s. Give your answer in degree Celsius.
(Mass of hydrogen molecule= 3.32 x 10-27 Kg)
[Ans. T= 599 oC]

[2018]
37. A system absorbs 1147 joules of heat, losses 233 joules of heat by conduction to the
surroundings and delivers 614 joules of work. Calculate the change in internal energy
in the system.
[Ans. ΔU=300 J]

[2019]
38. Find the change in volume of an aluminum sphere of 0.4 m radius when it is heated
from 0 oC to 100 oC. (α=24 x 10-6 K-1)
[Ans. 1.9 x 10-3 m3]

YOU CAN WATCH & LEARN PHYSICS FROM PROF. TAHA ABBAS ON YOU TUBE