I3511IM Slides Lecture Notes

Dr. Albert Shikongo

University of Namibia
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
Department of Mechanical & Metallurgical Engineering
Email: [email protected]
Phone: +264652324238

March 14, 2023

Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 1 / 43

Overview
Solve basic mathematics and engineering problems using vectors and
matrices.
Calculate eigenvalues and eigenvectors and relate them to engineering
solutions.
Perform functions transformations (cartesian/polar), sketch and name
some polar graphs.
Use various mathematical functions and apply them to engineering.
Apply trigonometry in solving mathematical and engineering
problems.
Apply the principle of differentiation/integration to solve basic
mathematical and engineering problems.
Manipulate sequence and series of numbers.
Define, interpret complex numbers and to perform elementary
complex numbers algebra.
Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 2 / 43
CHAPTER I

Vector equation of a line.

Intersection of lines.

Cartesian and parametric equation of a plane.

Intersection of planes.

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Vector equation of a line
Introduction: A vector equation of a line of the form = 0 + t, where,
0 denotes a position vector of a particular point on the line.
t denotes a scalar parameter.
is a vector that describes the direction of the line and the position vector
of the point on the line corresponding to the value of t.
In other words, to find the position vector, r, for any point along a line, one
adds the position vector of a point on the line which one already knows
and adds to that a vector, v, that lies on the line as shown in Figure 1.

Figure: Vector equation of a line.

Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 4 / 43

Vector equation of a line

In Figure 1, R is denoting the position vector for a point between P and

Q. Therefore, R = p + q. This implies that all other points on this line
can be reached by traveling along the line from point P. Hence, the
position vector for any point on the line is given by

r = p + tv, where t denotes a parameter in R. (1)

Equation (1) implies the following.

If one knows the locations of two points on a line, one can determine
the vector equation of the line.
If one knows the position vectors for two points on the line, then one
can use the method of vector subtraction to determine the equation
of the vector, that is v = p − q.

Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 5 / 43

Vector equation of a line through a point
Line through a point, parallel to a vector: Let P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) denotes
a point in R3 , v = ⟨a, b, c⟩ denotes a nonzero vector, such that L denotes
the line through the point P parallel to v, see Figure 2.

Figure: Line through a point, parallel to a vector.

Setting r = ⟨x0 , y0 , z0 ⟩ to denotes the vector pointing from the origin to

the point P, and since multiplying the vector v by a scalar t lengthens or
shrinks v, while preserving its direction if t > 0 and reversing its direction
Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 6 / 43
Vector equation of a line through a point
if t < 0, then Figure 2 presents that every point on the line L can be
obtained by adding the vector tv to the vector r for some scalar t. This
implies that as t varies over all real numbers, the vector r + tv points to
every point on L. Hence the following definition.
Definition (Vector representation of L)
Let a point P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and nonzero vector v ∈ R3 . Then a line L
through P parallel to v is

p + tv where t denotes a parameter in R,

where p = ⟨x0 , y0 , z0 ⟩ is pointing to a point P.

Definition (Parametric representation of L)

For a point P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and nonzero vector v ∈ R3 , the line L through
a point P parallel to v consists of all points
x = x0 + at, y = y0 + bt, z = z0 + ct, t ∈ (−∞, ∞).
Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 7 / 43
Vector equation of a line

Definition (Symmetric representation of L)

For a point P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and vector v ∈ R3 with a, b, c all nonzero, the
line L through P parallel to v consists of all points (x, y , z) defines by
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = .
a b c

Example (Vector equation of a line)

Deduce the following.
(a) Express the y = − 53 x + 5 as a vector equation.
(b) Express (a) as a parametric representation of the given line.
(c) Express (b) as a symmetric representation of the given line.

Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 8 / 43

Vector equation of a line
Answer:
(a) Since ⟨3, 0⟩ , & ⟨6, −5⟩ are points on the given line, then
p = ⟨3, 0⟩ , & q = ⟨6, −5⟩ . ⇒ p − q = ⟨3, 0⟩ − ⟨6, −5⟩ = ⟨−3, 5⟩ . ∴
r = ⟨3, 0⟩ + t ⟨−3, 5⟩.
(b) Then, x = 3 − 3t, & y = −3t.
x−3 y
(c) Hence, −3 = −3 .

Example (Vector equation of a line)

Let a line be parallel to the vector v = ⟨4, −1, 6⟩ such that the line pass
through the point P(2, 3, 4). Then find the the following.
(a) The vector equation of a line.
(b) The parametric equation of the line.
(c) The symmetric equation of the line.
(d) Two distinct points on the line.

Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 9 / 43

Vector equation of a line
Answer:
(a) Since p = ⟨2, 3, 4⟩, then, the vector equation of a line is
r(t) = ⟨2, 3, 4⟩ + t⟨4, −1, 6⟩.
(b) It follows from (a) that ⟨x, y , z⟩ = ⟨2, 3, 4⟩ + t⟨4, −1, 6⟩. Then, the
parametric equation of the line x = 2 + 4t, y = 3 − t, & z = 4 + 6t.
(c) From (b), one clearly see that the symmetric equation of the line is
y −3
t = x−24 = −1 = 6 .
z−4

(d) Set t1 = 21 , & t2 = 14 . Then the two distinct points on the line are
P1 = ⟨2, 3, 4⟩ + 12 ⟨4, −1, 6⟩, & P2 = ⟨2, 3, 4⟩ + 41 ⟨4, −1, 6⟩.

Example (Vector equation of a line)

Deduce the (a) vector, (b) parametric & (c) symmetric equation of the
line defined by the points ⟨2, 3, 4⟩ , & ⟨−5, 2, −1⟩.

Answer: (a) ⟨2, 3, 4⟩ − ⟨−5, 2, −1⟩ = ⟨7, 1, 5⟩ . ∴ v = ⟨2, 3, 4⟩ + t ⟨7, 1, 5⟩.

(b) x = 2 + 7t, y = 3 + t, z = 4 + 5t.
y −3
(c) x−2
7 = 1 = 5 .
z−4

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Vector equation of a line
Example (Vector equation of a line)
An object has a position of si = ⟨3, 3, 6⟩ at t = 0 and a velocity of
v = ⟨10, 7, 3⟩ Then, by means of the vector equation s = si + tv, establish
the distance traveled( in meters) by the object between t = 3s, & t = 5s.

Answer: Since the s = si + tv = ⟨3 + 10t, 3 + 7t, 6 + 3t⟩, then at t = 3s,

one obtains s3 = ⟨33, 24, 15⟩. Similarly, s5 = ⟨53, 38, 21⟩. Therefor
s3 − s5 = ⟨20, 14, 6⟩, which implies that the distance traveled between
these two points is 25.1m.
Example (Vector equation of a line)
Suppose that an air traffic control is tracking two planes in the vicinity of
their airport, where, one plane is at a location 45 km east and 120 km
north of the airport at an altitude of 7.5 km and the second plane is
located 63 km east and 96 km south of the airport at an altitude of 6.0
km. If the first plane is flying directly toward the airport while the second
plane is continuing at a constant altitude with a heading defined by the
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Vector equation of a line
Example (Vector equation of a line)
vector h2 = ⟨3, 4, 0⟩ to land eventually at another airport to the northwest
of our air traffic controllers, the establish whether the paths of these two
aircraft cross or not.
Answer: Let the airport denote the origin 0,
x̂ := east, ŷ := north, & z := upward, P position of plane one and Q
position of plane two. This implies that
P = ⟨45, 120, 7.5⟩ , & Q = ⟨63, −96, 6⟩ .
Then for plane one:
v = 0 − p = ⟨−45, −120, −7.5⟩ ,
⇒ r1 (t) = ⟨45, 120, 7.5⟩ + t1 ⟨−45, −120, −7.5⟩
Similarly for plane two:
r2 (t) = ⟨63, −96, 6⟩ + t2 ⟨3, 4, 0⟩ .
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Distance between a point and a line
For the two aircrafts to cross then
45 − 45t1 = 63 + 3t2 , 120 − 120t1 = −96 + 4t2 , & 7.5 − 7.5t1 = 6.
1
⇒ t1 = , t2 = 0, & t2 = 33.
5
Hence, the two planes will not cross as t2 = 0 ̸= t2 = 33 simultaneously.
The perpendicular distance between points and straight lines in
space: Imagine given a point P and a line AB⃗ as presented in Figure 3.

⃗
Figure: Point P and line AB.
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Distance between a point and a line

⃗
Figure: Point P and line AB.

⃗ is
Then, in Figure 4 presents that the shortest line segment from P to AB
⃗ ⃗
PD. Any other line segment, such as PC , are longer.

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Distance between a point and a line
In Figure 4, let the angle PCD =: θ, PC ⃗ =: u, PD⃗ = d, & CD⃗ =: v.
d
Then, it follows from the definition of sin(θ) = ∥u∥ , ⇒ d = ∥u∥ sin(θ).

Theorem (Magnitude of cross the product)

Let u, & v denotes non-zero vectors, such that θ is an the angle between
them. Then, ∥u × v∥ = ∥u∥ · ∥v∥ sin(θ).

Proof.
Let u = ⟨u1 , u2 , u3 ⟩, & v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩ denotes two vectors such that θ
denotes the angle between them. Then

∥u × v∥2 = (u2 v3 –u3 v2 )2 + (u3 v1 –u1 v3 )2 + (u1 v2 –u2 v1 )2



= u22 v32 –2u2 u3 v2 v3 + u32 v22 + u32 v12 –2u1 u3 v1 v3 + u12 v32




2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

+u1 v2 –2u1 u2 v1 v2 + u2 v1 = u1 v1 + u1 v2 + u1 v3

+u22 v12 + u22 v22 + u22 v32 + u32 v12 + u32 v22 + u32 v32 

–(u12 v12 + u22 v22 + u32 v32 + 2u1 u2 v1 v2 + 2u1 u3 v1 v3 + 2u2 u3 v2 v3 ) 



= (u12 + u22 + u32 )(v12 + v22 + v32 )–(u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 )2

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Distance between a point and a line

Proof.

⇒ ∥u × v∥2 == ∥u∥2 ∥v∥2 –(uv)2



= ∥u∥2 ∥v∥2 –∥u∥2 ∥v∥2 cos2 (θ)


= ∥u∥2 ∥v∥2 (1– cos2 (θ)) 

= ∥u∥2 ∥v∥2 (sin2 (θ)).


Lemma
Let u, & v denotes two vectors, such that θ denotes the angle between
them. If d denotes the opposite side of θ, then, d = ∥u×v∥
∥v∥ .

Proof.
The prove follows is trivial to show.
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Distance between a point and a line

Example (Distance between a point and a line)

Deduce the distance d from the point (1, 1, 1) to the line
x = −3 + 7t, y = 1 + 3t, & z = −4 − 2t, ∀t ∈ R.

Answer: From the given parametric equation of a line, we have

r(t) = ⟨−3, 1, −4⟩ + t⟨7, 3, −2⟩ as a vector equation of a line. It follows
that u = PQ = ⟨4, 0, 5⟩. Hence,
 
 i j k  q
 
u × v =  4 0 5  = ⟨−15, 43, 12⟩ = (−15)2 + (43)2 + (12)2
 7 3 −2 
= 47.1.

But
∥u × v∥
q
∥v∥ = 72 + 32 + (−2)2 = 7.87. ∴ d = = 5.98.
∥v∥
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Distance between a point and a line

Example (Distance between a point and a line)

Deduce the distance from (−3, 5) to a line 4x − 3y − 26 = 0.

Answer: Since the given line is y = 4x−26 26

3
, then let 0, − 3 , & (2, −6)
are on the given line. Then
p =
0, − 26
3 , & q = (2, −6) so that
p − q = (2, −6) − 0, − 263 = 2, 8
3 =: v. Similarly,
u := (−3, 5) − (0, 1) = ⟨−3, 4⟩. Thus,
 
 i j k √

 
u × v =  −3 4 0  = ⟨0, 0, −16⟩, ∥u × v∥ = 256 = 16,

 2 8 0 
3
r
77 ∥u × v∥ 48
∥v∥ = . ∴d = =√ .
9 ∥v∥ 77

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Distance between a point and a line

Definition (Parallel lines)

Two lines are parallel if their direction vectors are parallel.

Example (Parallel lines)

r1 (t) = ⟨1, 1, 1⟩ + t⟨2, 3, 4⟩ is parallel to r2 (t) = ⟨1, 1, 1⟩ + t⟨4, 6, 8⟩.

Definition (Perpendicular lines)

Two lines intersect if v1 ⊥ v2 .

Example (Perpendicular lines)

Any vector equations such as
r1 (t) = ⟨0, 1, −2⟩ + t⟨10, 4, −1⟩, & r2 (t) = ⟨2, 1, 3⟩ + t⟨1, 1, 14⟩.

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Distance between a point and a line
Example (Intersection point of two lines)
Deduce the Cartesian form of the equation of the straight line passing
through the origin and the intersection point of the two straight lines
y −5 z −3
r1 (t) = (1, 1, −2) + t(1, 4, 3), & x = 3, , .
−4 −1
Answer: Then, we easily see that
x = 1 + t1 , y = 1 + 4t1 , & z = −2 + 3t1 ; x = 3, y = 5 − 4t2 , z = 3 − t2 .
For intersection to occur, then
1 + t1 ≡ 3, 1 + 4t1 ≡ 5 − 4t2 & − 2 + 3t1 ≡ 3 − t2 . ∴ t1 = 2, t2 = −1.
The two values yields the point (3, 9, 4) as point of intersection. Using the
origin as one finds the cartersion form as
x y z
= = .
3 9 4
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Distance between a point and a line

Example (Intersection point of two lines)

Show whether the
x +1 y −2 z −1 y −8 z +3
= = ⊥ x +3= = ,
3 2 −1 −3 2
or not.
Answer: Then,

−1 + 3t1 ≡ −3 + t2 , 2 + 2t1 ≡ 8 − 3t2 , & 1 − t1 ≡ −3 + 2t2 ,

⇒ t2 = 2 + 3t1 , ⇒ 2 + 2t1 = 8 − 3(2 + 3t1 ) = 2 − 9t1
⇒ 0 = −11t1 , ∴ t1 = 0, & t2 = 2.

it follows easily that the point of intersection of the given r1 & r2 is

P(−1, 2, 1).

Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 21 / 43

Equation of the plane
Introduction: It is a well known fact that the equation of a form
ax + by = c, a, b, c ∈ R denotes a line in two dimensions. However, in
three dimensions ax + by + cz = d, (a ̸= 0), b, c, d ∈ R is not a line in
three dimensional space. It turns out that
ax + by + cz = d, (a ̸= 0), b, c, d ∈ R is a plane.
Remark: It is possible to associate a plane with a direction in a very
useful way, however, there are exactly two directions perpendicular to a
plane. Any vector with one of these two directions is called normal to the
plane. So while there are many normal vectors to a given plane, they are
all parallel or anti-parallel to each other.
Derivation of the equation of the plane: Assume
(v1 , v2 , v3 ), & (w1 , w2 , w3 ) denote two points in a plane. Then the vector
(w1 –v1 , w2 –v2 , w3 –v3 > is parallel to the plane. In particular, if the tail of
(w1 –v1 , w2 –v2 , w3 –v3 > is at (v1 , v2 , v3 ), then its head must be at
(w1 , w2 , w3 ), and the vector (w1 –v1 , w2 –v2 , w3 –v3 > lies in the plane.
Consequently, any vector perpendicular to the plane is perpendicular to
(w1 –v1 , w2 –v2 , w3 –v3 >. In fact, it is easy to see that the plane consists of
Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 22 / 43
Equation of the plane
precisely those points (w1 , w2 , w3 ) for which (w1 –v1 , w2 –v2 , w3 –v3 > is
perpendicular to a normal to the plane, as presented Figure 5.

Figure: A plane defined via vectors perpendicular to a normal.

Theorem
Let ⟨a, b, c⟩ denotes normal to a plane containing the point (v1 , v2 , v3 ).
Then (x, y , z) lies in the plane if and only if ⟨a, b, c⟩ is perpendicular to
⟨x–v1 , y –v2 , z–v3 ⟩. This implies that ⟨a, b, c⟩ · ⟨x–v1 , y –v2 , z–v3 ⟩ = 0.
Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 23 / 43
Equation of the plane
Proof.
It follows easily that

⟨a, b, c⟩ · ⟨x − v1 , y − v2 , z − v3 ⟩ = 0
a(x − v1 ) + b(y − v2 ) + c(z − v3 ) = 0
ax + by + cz − av1 − bv2 − cv3 = 0
ax + by + cz = av1 + bv2 + cv3 .

But ax + by + cz = d, then

ax + by + cz − d = 0
a(x − d/a) + b(y − 0) + c(z − 0) = 0
⟨a, b, c⟩ · ⟨x − d/a, y , z⟩ = 0.

Thus,⟨a, b, c⟩ is perpendicular to the vector with tail at ( da , 0, 0) and head

at (x, y , z). This implies that the points (x, y , z) that satisfy the equation
ax + by + cz = d form a plane perpendicular to ⟨a, b, c⟩.
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Equation of the plane

Remark:
This doesn’t work if a = 0, but in that case
one uses b or c in the
role of a. That is, either a(x–0) + b y – db + c(z–0) = 0 or
a(x–0) + b(y –0) + c z– dc = 0]

Thus, given a vector ⟨a, b, c⟩, one knows that all planes perpendicular
to this vector have the form ax + by + cz = d, and any surface of this
form is a plane perpendicular to ⟨a, b, c⟩.

Example (Equation of the plane)

Establish an equation for the plane perpendicular to ⟨1, 2, 3⟩ such that the
plane contains the point (5, 0, 7).

Answer: Then, 1x + 2y + 3z = 1 · 5 + 2 · 0 + 3 · 7 = 26. Alternately,

x + 2y + 3z = d, ⇒ 5 + 2 · 0 + 3 · 7 = d = 26.

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Equation of the plane
Example (Equation of the plane)
Find a vector normal to the plane 2x–3y + z = 15.

Answer: Since the normal vector is n = ⟨2, –3, 1⟩, then any vector parallel
or anti-parallel for instance –2⟨2, –3, 1⟩ = ⟨–4, 6, –2⟩ is also normal to the
plane.
Example (Equation of the plane)
Determine the equation of the plane containing the point (2, 1, 3),
Q(1, −1, 2) and R(3, 2, 1).

Answer: Then PQ = (−1, −2, −1), & PR = (1, 1, −2). Since, The given
points are on the plane, then it follows easily, that
n = PQ × PR = (−1, −2, −1) × (1, 1, −2) = ⟨5, −3, 1⟩.
Thus, the equation of the plane is
⟨5, −3, 1⟩ · ⟨x − 2, y − 1, z − 3⟩ = 5x − 3y + z = 10.
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Distance between a point and plane
Theorem (Distance between a point and plane)
Let Q = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) denotes a point in R3 such that P lies in a plane with
normal form ax + by + cz + d = 0 that does not contain Q. Then the
distance D from Q to P is
|ax + by + cz + d|
D= √ .
a2 + b 2 + c 2

Proof.

Figure: Distance between a point and plane

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Equation of the plane

Proof.
n·r
Since cos(θ) = ∥n∥∥r∥ , then

|n · r| |n · r|
D = | cos(θ)| ∥r∥ = ∥r∥ =
∥n∥∥r∥ ∥n∥
|a(x0 − x) + b(y0 − y ) + c(z0 − z)|
= √ ,
a2 + b 2 + c 2
ax0 + by0 + cz0 − (ax + by + cz)
√
a2 + b 2 + c 2
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 − (−d)|
= √
a2 + b 2 + c 2
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d|
= √ .
a2 + b 2 + c 2

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Equation of the plane

Example (Distance between a point and plane)

Deduce the distance from the point (1, 2, 3) to the plane 2x–y + 3z = 5.

Answer: Then, one easily obtains

|2(1) − (2) + 3(3) − 5|
D= p =
22 + (−1)2 + 32

Example
Deduce the distance from the point (2, 4, −5) to the plane
5x–3y + z = 10.

Answer: Similarly, we easily have

|5(2) − 3(4) + 1(−5) − 10| | − 17| 17
D= p = √ = √ ≈ 2.87.
52 + (−3)2 + 12 35 35

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Distance between two planes

Distance between to planes: We consider two cases

Parallel planes: The distance between plane one and a point on plane
two, and vice versa.
intersecting planes.

Example (Distance between to planes)

Let 2x − 3y + 4z + 10 = 0 and 4x − 6y + 8z − 12 = 0 denotes two planes.
Then determine the distance between them.
Answer: Let the point (3, 0, 0) be a point on the first plane. Then, the
distance from the first plane to the second plane is

|2(3) − 3(0) + 4(0) + 10|

D= p = 2.97.
22 + (−3)2 + 42

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Line of intersection of two planes

Definition (Intersection of two planes)

Figure: Line of intersection of two planes

Assume that two planes π1 , & p2 with normal vectors n1 , & n2 ,

respectively, intersect in a line L. Since n1 × n2 ⊥ n1 , then n1 × n2 is
parallel to the plane π1 . Similarly, n1 × n2 ⊥ n2 implies that n1 × n2 is
parallel to π2 . Hence, n1 × n2 is parallel to π1 ∩ π2 to imply that n1 × n2
is parallel to L. Thus, have

L : r + t(n1 × n2 ), for − ∞ < t < ∞.

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Equation of the plane

Example (Intersection of two planes)

Fint the equation of the the intersecting line of the planes defines as

3y + z − 10 = 0 and 4y − z + 3 = 0.

Answer: From the second equation gives one easily finds z = 4y + 3.

Substituting that into the first equation yields y = 7 so that z = 31. This
genaretes the point (0, 7, 31) on line L. But n1 × n2 = ⟨−1, 7, 26⟩, then
the equation for L is

r + t(n1 × n2 ) = ⟨0, 7, 31⟩ + t⟨−1, 7, 26⟩,

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Equation of the plane

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END OF CHAPTER I

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CHAPTER II
Matrix algebra.
Row reduced echelon form.
Determinant.
Adjoint.
Singular and non-singular matrices.
Inverse of a matrix.
Matrices and systems of linear equations.
Solution by Cramer’s rule.
Eigenvalue-eigenvector problems.
Hermitian and unitary matrices.
Quadratic forms.
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Introduction to a Matrix

Introduction to a matrix: Any arrangement of items in which one

identifies row(s) and column(s) is referred to as a matrix. For instance, see
the two examples presented in Figure 8 and Figure 9.
Example

Figure: Arrangement of weight and height of four learners.

Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 36 / 43

Introduction to a Matrix
Example

Figure: Parallel RGB display interface.

Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 37 / 43
Introduction to a Matrix

Example

Figure: Arrangement of different types of matrices.

Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 38 / 43

Introduction to a Matrix
Remark:
The arrangement of items into rows and columns generates a
rectangular array of items.
If the items are numbers then the arrangement becomes a rectangular
array of numbers.

Definition (Matrix)
Let n, m, ∈ Z+ . A matrix A is a rectangular array of numbers with m
number of rows and n number of columns, denoted as A = [aij ], for
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , m and j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.

Example
 
a11 a12
, for m = 2, & n = 2.
a21 a22

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Introduction to a Matrix

Example

 
a11 a12 a13
 a21 a22 a23  , for m = 3, & n = 3.
a31 a32 a33

 
a11
 a21  , for m = 3, & n = 1.
a31

 
a11 a12 a13 , for m = 1, & n = 3.

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Introduction to a Matrix
Example
In general, the matrix
 
a11 a12 ... a1n
 a21 a22 ... a2n 
[aij ] =  .
 
.. .. .. ..
 . . . . 
am1 am2 . . . amn

Remark: If m ≡ n, then the [aij ] is known as a square matrix, otherwise is

not a square matrix. Henceforth denoted as An×n and aij denotes an entry
or element of a matrix, for each i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , m, & j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.
Definition (Equality of matrices)
Let A, & B denotes two matrices. Then A = B if the following hold.
1 the number of rows and columns of A are the same number of rows
and columns of B.
Dr. Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3511IM1 March 14, 2023 41 / 43
Matrix algebra

Definition (Equality of matrices)

Let A, & B denotes two matrices. Then A = B if the following hold.
1 [aij ] = [bij ] for each i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , m, & j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n.

Example
(a) Find the value(s) for p, q, & r if,
 2
−31 − q 3
  
p −1 0 1 0 −4
 7 r +1 9  =  7 2 9 .
3
−2 8 s −1 −2 8 −π

(a) Find the value(s) for x, & y if,

   
x y +3 12 5
= .
2z 8 6 8

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Equation of the plane

Answer:
(a) Then, √
p 2 − 1 = 1, ⇒ p 2 = 2, ⇒ p = ± 2, q = −27, r = 31 , &s = 1 − π.
(b) Similarly, x = 12, & y = 2.

Definition (Matrix transpose)

This implies that rows becomes columns and columns becomes rows.
Henceforth denoted as AT = [aij ]T := [aji ], for each j, & i.

Example

 T  
a11 a12 a11 a21
(a) = .
a21 a22 a12 a22

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