Let us achieve this:


CHAPTER 1 Understand the importance of
communication in society;

COMMUNICATION  Know the principles and processes

PROCESSES, PRINCIPLES of communication as embodied in

AND ETHICS the communication models

provided; and
 Relate the communication models to
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
the experiences and apply them to
Simply, an act of conveying intended information
and understanding from one person to another is their own communication processes.

called as communication. The term communication is

derived from the Latin word “Communis” which
means to share. Effective communication is when the
message conveyed by the sender is understood by the receiver in exactly the same way as it
was intended.
 Most people define it according to its various forms such as speaking or writing
 However, communication goes beyond that, it involves giving in/or receiving
information from one source to another (done effectively when information is
transmitted without changing both the content and the context of the message)
 It is the art of creating and sharing ideas for a specific purpose

Most Common Types of Communication

1. Verbal Communication, wherein you speak your

subject matter, and others listen to it carefully and try to
associate meaning with it.
2. Nonverbal Communication, wherein the others observe
you and try to confer a meaning to it.
3. Written Communication wherein you write your
message and others read it to derive meaning out of it.
Communication comes in many forms such as:
 Verbal (language, sounds, tone of voice)
 Aural (hearing and listening)
  Non-verbal (body language, deportment, facial expressions, gestures, tactile,
proxemics, chronemics
 Written (journal. Email, blog, text message)
 Visual (signs, symbols, pictures, graphics, emojis)
Communication Skills
1. Skills on Audience Analysis
Knowing the audience, understanding their level and how they need to receive the
information
2. Skills on Identifying and Overcoming Communication Barriers
Physical Noise
Psychological Noise
Cultural Difference
Varying Levels of Expectations and Experiences
Difference in Perspectives
Difference in Communication Style

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

In order to explain the social process of communication, scholars have developed

several models. The three most well-known models for communication are Linear,
Interactional, and Transactional. As West & Turner (2007) explain, each model sheds light on
the development of communication, but emphasizes different parts of the communication
process. The models provide pictures, or visual representations, of complex interactions. They
are useful because they simplify the basic structure of communication and can help us to
understand that structure not just verbally, but also visually. Most importantly, they identify
the various elements of communication and serve as a kind of map to show how different parts
of the communication process are interrelated.

Linear Models

Originally developed by Shannon & Weaver in 1948, this model describes

communication as a linear process. This model describes how a sender, or speaker, transmits a
message to a receiver, or listener. More specifically, the sender is the source of the message.
A message may consist of the sounds, words, or behaviours in a communication interaction.
The message itself is transmitted through a channel, the pathway or route for communication,
to a receiver, who is the target or recipient of the message. There may be obstacles in the
communication process, or noise. Noise refers to any interference in the channel or distortion
of the message. This is a fairly simple model in which a message is simply passed from sender
to receiver.

Shannon and Weaver Model

While the linear model was highly influential during the mid-20th century, this model
is perhaps too simple. Its limitations are easy to see if you pause to think about the beliefs about
communication, or assumptions, made in this model. First, this model assumes that
communication only goes in one direction. Here, a person can be a sender or receiver, but not
both. This is problematic because communication in action is more dynamic than the linear
model suggests. In action, communication involves a give and take between senders and
receivers in which listeners are not simply passive receptacles for a sender’s message. This
model is also limited because it provides only one channel for only one message. Finally, it
implies that messages themselves are clear-cut with a distinct beginning and a distinct end.
However, communication is rarely, if ever, as neat and tidy as a linear model would suggest.

Interactional Models

In the move to a more dynamic view of communication, interactional models follow

two channels in which communication and feedback flow between sender and
receiver. Feedback is simply a response that a receiver gives to a sender. Feedback can be
verbal (i.e. “yes”) or nonverbal (i.e. a nod or smile). Most importantly, feedback indicates
comprehension. It can help senders know if their message was received and understood. By
focusing on flow and feedback, interactional models view communication as an ongoing
process.
Interactional Model

The final feature of this model is the field of experience. The field of experience refers
to how environment, experiences, culture, and even heredity can influence how a sender
constructs a message. Keep in mind that each person brings a unique field of experience to an
interaction. Likewise, each communication interaction is unique. While the interactional model
is more dynamic than the linear model, it still contains some limitations. For instance, this
model implies that while people can be both senders and receivers, they cannot do so
simultaneously. In lived communication, roles are not quite so clear-cut and in fact are much
more fluid.

Transactional Models

The transactional is the most dynamic of communication models. One notable feature
of this model is the move from referring to people as senders and receivers to referring to
people as communicators. This implies that communication is achieved as people both send
and receive messages. Fundamentally, this model views communication as a transaction. In
other words, communication is a cooperative action in which communicators co-create the
process, outcome and effectiveness of the interaction. Unlike the linear model in which
meaning is sent from one person to another, also unlike the interactional model in which
understanding is achieved through feedback, people create shared meaning in a more dynamic
process in the transactional model.
 This model also places more emphasis on the field of experience. While each
communicator has a unique field of experience, they must also inhabit a shared field of
experience. In other words, communicators must share at least some degree of overlap in
culture, language, or environment if people are to communicate at all. This model also
recognizes that messages will influence the responses, or subsequent messages, produced in
the communication interaction. This means that messages do not stand alone, but instead are
interrelated. The principle of interrelation states that messages are connected to and build upon
one another. The transactional model forms the basis for much communication theory because
(1) people are viewed as dynamic communicators rather than simple senders or receivers, (2)
there must be some overlap in fields of experience in order to build shared meaning, and (3)
messages are interdependent.

The transactional understanding of shared meaning has informed variety of

communication theories. In general terms, a theory comprises a way of seeing, interpreting,
and explaining. A theory is a framework for understanding. It illuminates social practices and
helps to make sense of the everyday life-world. Durham & Kellner (2001) suggest that we
consider a theory as “a way of seeing, an optic, that focuses on specific subject matter” (3).
Think about a theory as an optic or a technology that enhances vision. Just as there are many
different communication theories, there are also many different visual technologies.
Sunglasses, contacts, or even virtual reality goggles each us help to see in a certain way. For
instance, when you put on a pair of glasses, it will cause you to see in a particular way, focusing
things near or far depending on the type of lens. In this way, every different theory will require
a different way of seeing the world of communication. The most important part of this metaphor
is that a particular theory will bring specific aspects of communication into focus yet may blur
others. As you work through this book, pay attention to the ways in which a particular
perspective illuminates certain elements while leaving others in shadow. Also think about how
exploring different theories will provide a more comprehensive look at communication while
also allowing you to select those that will be of greatest use for your interests in communication
studies.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The communication is a dynamic process that begins with the conceptualizing of ideas
by the sender who then transmits the message through a channel to the receiver, who in turn
gives the feedback in the form of some message or signal within the given time frame. Thus,
there are seven major elements of communication process:

1. Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who

initiates the conversation and has conceptualized the idea that
he intends to convey it to others.

2. Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process

wherein he uses certain words or non-verbal methods such as
symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate the information
into a message. The sender’s knowledge, skills, perception,
background, competencies, etc. has a great impact on the
success of the message.

3. Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the

message that he intends to convey. The message can be written,
oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as body gestures, silence, sighs, sounds, etc. or any
other signal that triggers the response of a receiver.

4. Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which he wants
to convey his message to the recipient. It must be selected carefully in order to make
the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. The choice of medium
depends on the interpersonal relationships between the sender and the receiver and also
 on the urgency of the message being sent. Oral, virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are
some of the commonly used communication mediums.

5. Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended or targeted. He
tries to comprehend it in the best possible manner such that the communication
objective is attained. The degree to which the receiver decodes the message depends on
his knowledge of the subject matter, experience, trust and relationship with the sender.

6. Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and tries to understand it
in the best possible manner. An effective communication occurs only if the receiver
understands the message in exactly the same way as it was intended by the sender.

7. Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the receiver has
received the message and interpreted it correctly as it was intended by the sender. It
increases the effectiveness of the communication as it permits the sender to know the
efficacy of his message. The response of the receiver can be verbal or non-verbal.

Note: The Noise shows the barriers in communications. There are chances when the message
sent by the sender is not received by the recipient.

Activity:

Through a slogan, state how the knowledge of the communication process aids people
in communicating effectively.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

To have effective communication, one should keep the following 7 C’s of communication in
mind:

1. Clear: The message should be clear and easily

understandable to the recipient. The purpose of
the communication should be clear to sender then
only the receiver will be sure about it. The
message should emphasize on a single goal at a
time and shall not cover several ideas in a single
sentence.

2. Correct: The message should be correct, i.e. a

correct language should be used, and the sender
must ensure that there is no grammatical and spelling mistakes. Also, the message
should be exact and well-timed. The correct messages have a greater impact on the
receiver and at the same time, the morale of the sender increases with the accurate
message.

3. Complete: The message should be complete, i.e. it must include all the relevant
information as required by the intended audience. The complete information gives
answers to all the questions of the receivers and helps in better decision-making by the
recipient.

4. Concrete: The communication should be concrete, which means the message should
be clear and particularly such that no room for misinterpretation is left. All the facts
and figures should be clearly mentioned in a message so as to substantiate to whatever
the sender is saying.

5. Concise: The message should be precise and to the point. The sender should avoid the
lengthy sentences and try to convey the subject matter in the least possible words. The
short and brief message is more comprehensive and helps in retaining the receiver’s
attention.
 6. Consideration: The sender must take into consideration the receiver’s opinions,
knowledge, mindset, background, etc. in order to have an effective communication. In
order to communicate, the sender must relate to the target recipient and be involved.

7. Courteous: It implies that the sender must take into consideration both the feelings and
viewpoints of the receiver such that the message is positive and focused at the audience.
The message should not be biased and must include the terms that show respect for the
recipient.

Note: This checklist applies to both the written and oral communication.

ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION

Effective communication is ethical communication. Communication is ethical only

when it is genuine, open, cooperative and sensitive to one’s cultural and social beliefs and
practices. If there is an intent to conceal the truth, or bring damage to any organization, group
or individual person, communication is considered unethical. Even in situations when there is
no intent to harm, but damage to a certain group is inevitable because of the message or the
channel used to relay the message, it is still considered unethical.

When communicating, we do not simply choose words; we choose words for the effect
they will have on our audiences, on ourselves, and ultimately, on society. Thus, when we
communicate, we cannot escape ethical questions, questions which ask how helpful or harmful
our actions are.

An awareness of the ethical dimensions of communication provides us with a deeper

understanding of ourselves and of our potential as human beings. Communicating ethically is
important because it has the greatest positive impact for others and, ultimately, ourselves.

Ethics is the discussion of the judgments we make about the appropriateness, the right
or wrong, of our actions and policies be those actions communicative, political, social,
personal, or a mixture of areas.

Ethics is the study of what, ultimately, is the best course of action: How should we
behave to have the most positive effect upon society and to become the best individuals we
can?
Ethical Communication

Discovering the ethical element in our communication does not mean that we go
through a complete ethical inventory every time we engage in communication. Rather, we
make basic assumptions about the nature of people and our responsibilities to them and then
act on the basis of those assumptions.

To make the best decisions in our communication, to communicate ethically, we must

give thought to the manner in which we communicate. Formulating a list of rules to be applied
in the different communication situations in which we find ourselves would be a futile
endeavor. The situations are too vast and too varying. Rather, we would do better to suggest
guidelines for ethical communication, considerations which should shape communicating
practice.

Guidelines for Ethical Communicators

1. Ethical Communicators are Respectful of Their Audiences.

Communication is a two way process. Communication implies a party other than

ourselves and an attempt on our part to influence that person or party in some way. As one
scholar has put the matter, "A communicator, with particular motives, attempts to achieve a
specific end with a specific audience by employing (intentionally or unintentionally)
communicative means or techniques to influence that audience“.

In terms of practice, this principle means that audience analysis is an important part of
communication. We cannot respond appropriately if we are ignorant of the people with whom
we communicate. Respect for audiences includes respect for the ideas and feelings of the
people with whom we interact. If people possess dignity and worth, then they need to be treated
as such even when we may disagree with them strongly.

2. Ethical Communicators Consider the Consequences of Their Communication.

We do not communicate in vacuums. Our communication endeavors are never isolated

one from the other. How we respond at school influences how we respond at home and that in
turn affects how we respond in our public lives. Having considered the natures of our
audiences, we need to consider further the effect of our communication on them and upon
ourselves.

3. Ethical Communicators Respect Truth

A great deal of the ethics of communication involves a respect for truth. Indeed, as one
has put it, the assumption of truth undergirds the very concept of communication itself: "an
inherent end of speech is the communication of belief". If we cannot trust the other party, we
cannot accurately judge how to respond. If we cannot accurately judge how to respond, then
our communication becomes increasingly ineffective. If the lack of trust is pervasive enough,
it is destructive finally to society. As one person has observed, "This is why some level of
truthfulness has always been seen as essential to human society, no matter how deficient the
observance of other moral principles".

4. Ethical Communicators Use Information Properly

Adequate Information

As an ethical communicator, a respect for truth means being informed on a topic before
posing as any kind of authority on the subject. Certain professions such as law, medicine, and
education have formal standards of expertise and knowledge that must be met before one can
be a practitioner. We would be appropriately appalled to discover that the physician who just
treated us had never attended medical school.

The same principle applies in communication situations. If we are going to provide

information to people, much less persuade them, we need to be well prepared for the occasion.
To talk about "How Students Can Handle Their Finances" with little or no background would
be giving limited, if not false, information. To speak with any authenticity on the subject, we
would need to look into such items as educational costs, credit card use, banks and credit
unions, and work opportunities.

Accurate Information

In addition to securing information, we also need to consider the accuracy of the

information and the accuracy with which we use it. When we communicate, we expect people
to react in some way to what we say and do. When we use inaccurate information to influence
others, we cause difficulty for them and for ourselves.

Accurate information is information that is timely, up to date, and applicable to the

situation. In making a presentation on where to attend college, a speaker might quote a
reference work that listed information about schools such as tuition, majors, and academic
standing. If the reference book, though, were ten years old, the information would be of little
use. Out of date information about other significant topics such as the environment, drug use,
or crime rates would be as useless.

Along with finding timely and adequate information, an ethical speaker will use
quotations, facts, ideas, and figures accurately. Quotations will, for example, reflect the intent
of the larger passage from which they are taken.

5. Ethical Communicators Do Not Falsify Information

Worse than the distortion of information is falsifying information. Failing to find

information useful to our goals, we make it up. Lena Guerrero, a person active in Texas politics
was appointed to an important state commission by the governor. Part of Guerrero's credentials
were notations of her graduation from the University of Texas and membership in Phi Beta
Kappa, a prestigious honorary society. As the featured speaker at a college graduation, she
waxed sentimental about her own graduation, saying, "Now, I remember well my own
commencement, and I think I can guess what you're feeling about now“.

Investigative reporters discovered some important facts about her college years:
Guerrero attended college but fell nineteen hours short of the required minimum. She had no
college degree; she never graduated. Nor was she ever a member of Phi Beta Kappa. She had
lied about the situation. Such invention of information is highly unethical.

Another way of falsifying information is through plagiarism. Plagiarism is a kind of

theft, intellectual theft. We plagiarize when we use the words or ideas of another and fail to
credit the source. Instead of attributing the material to its original creator, we pretend the words
or ideas are our own. When writing, we acknowledge sources by the use of quotation marks
and include a citation of the source. When speaking, we acknowledge sources by naming them
in the context of the speech.
6. Ethical Communicators Respect the Rights of Others to Information

A respect for truth and an ethical consideration of others also means respecting the
rights of others in regard to information and access to information. Collecting information is
an integral part of the research process, but stealing information is theft, taking something that
does not belong to us. Beyond the personal act of theft, stealing information is unethical
because it prevents other people from securing information and unnecessarily makes their lives
more difficult.

For example, a periodical article may be useful to our speech, but we should either take
notes on the material or photocopy it rather than tearing it out of the magazine. Tearing out the
article robs others of the opportunity to read it and creates added expense for the library which
must replace it. That expense, along with similar expenses, adds to the financial burden of the
school and eventually, its students, including the person who tore out the article.

In communicative situations, ethics is best observed by people who manifest the following:

A. Active and respectful listening (face-to-face communication)

“You cannot truly listen to anyone and do anything else at the same time.”- M. Scott
Peck

 Active listening allows a person to help others communicate better

 Provides opportunities to be more productive at work, establish deeper relationships

and increase efficiency in both study and work

 Helps avoid misinterpretation and misunderstanding, especially when communicating

with people having different belief system, culture and social background

The importance of self-awareness: A requisite for ethical communication is being aware of

one’s behavior and habits during the communicative process in different circumstances. While
listening, the following must be considered:

Body language: Are you supposed to stand or do you have to remain seated? Are you
fidgeting or relaxed?
 Eye contact: Do you make direct eye contact and keep it? If yes, are you supposed to
do that? Do you tend to look away, look down or turn your attention to your
environment?

Sense of the message: Can you at least rephrase the message being told to you? Or does
your mind wander off to another topic or to another person?

Turn-taking: Are you actually listening, or just waiting for the other person to stop
talking so you can have your turn?

The importance of active listening: Being an active listener requires involvement in the
conversation or communicative situation. It demands a conscious effort to be attentive to the
words and more importantly, to the sense of the message being relayed. This necessitates
concentration, which means all distractions during communication must be ignored, as well as
practice, which means it has to be done in every communicative situation until it becomes
habitual.

Five Key Aspects of Active Listening

1. Pay close attention

2. Show physical manifestations that you are listening

3. Check for understanding

4. Don’t interrupt

5. Respond appropriately

Avoiding prejudice

Past experiences inevitably affect people’s communication styles in the future. When their
audience responded positively to their message, chances of them repeating the same style are
relatively high. However, when they were turned down or given negative feedback, this will
definitely influence how they deliver the message next time.

Sample Past Experiences

 o Your parents reacted negatively when you opened up about your interest for an
opposite sex.
o Your colleague has forgotten some very important information many times in
the past.
o A subordinate in a group that you lead disagreed twice in your suggestions.
o Your professor ignored your inputs last session.
o Your teammates reacted positively to your strategy.

Prejudice, on the other hand, when people take their past experiences and make certain
assumptions that the same experience will happen with the same people, given the same
context. Prejudices may be attributed to culture or personal preference.

It must be noted that effective communicators should avoid prejudice because it influences
the communication process even before it begins.

B. Showing commitment and genuine interest

A key component of ethical communication is showing commitment in the

communicative situation. Being committed means giving sufficient time and resources to
any discussion or conversation, and being open about any issue that may arise.
Commitment also involves volunteering important information, even if it puts a person’s
own short term interests at risk, as long as it is for the benefit of the majority especially in
the long run. Encouraging a communicative environment of trust can go a long way in
promoting ethical communication in any academic or business setting.

THE BELLY BUTTON PSYCHE/THE BELLY BUTTON RULE

 believed to communicate true interest while engaging in face-to-face

communication

 The origin of this rule dates back to the 1930s and since then, numerous scientists and
body language experts have honed the theory

 Most notably, Dr. Albert Mehrabian, professor of Psychology at UCLA said that the
belly button rule is the most important indicator of reading a person’s intention
  The belly button rule means the direction of a person’s navel reflects his/her true
interest

C. Respecting socio-cultural beliefs and practices of others

The concept of globalization is not new, but people somehow fail to realize that this is
not confined to technology or bridging the world and making it a virtual community.
Globalization also entails changing the way people communicate to others, especially with
different norms, cultures and belief system.

Conclusion

For the sake of our audiences, ourselves, and the people affected by our interactions we
need to recognize the ethical component of our communication. Ethics is not just a matter of
political or social policy but is a part of our personal policies as well, an integral part of our
behaviors and our regard for others. Ethical communication will incorporate a respectful view
of its audiences, a consideration of the consequences of the communication for all parties
involved, and a respect for truth.

Such a view is both a challenge and a rewards.