PG1122 BUSINESS STATISTICS 1

ASSIGNMENTS - PG1122 BUSINESS STATISTICS

Assignment 1:
Describe different primary data collection methods used in statistical

Various Methods Of Collecting Primary Data

Organizations use various sources to collect facts, figures, symbols, objects and information on
events.. What method of data collection they use depends on the problem they’re dealing with and
what outcomes they would prefer. Different methods of collecting primary data as follows:

Quantitative Methods
Quantitative methods are often used for market research that usually demand forecasting and use
statistical tools. Out of all the different methods of collecting

 Time Series Analysis

‘Time series’ is a sequential order of values at equal time intervals. Patterns are used to
identify trends, which help organizations predict the demand for products and services for
a given period of time.

 Smoothing Techniques
Smoothing techniques come in handy where time trends lack significance as they eliminate
random variations from historical data. This exposes patterns and estimates future demand.
Simple and weighted moving average methods are commonly used for such forecasting
techniques.

 Barometric Method
In this method, researchers adopt a leading indicators approach to use current developments
and utilize them to speculate future trends. Past events are considered leading indicators if
they’re capable of predicting future events.

In the absence of historical data, researchers use qualitative methods to facilitate decision-
making.

Qualitative Methods
It deals with non-quantifiable elements and is based on factors such as judgment, intuition,
conjecture, emotion and experience.

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 Surveys
Surveys are one of the most popular ways to collect primary data. A target audience is
identified to gather feedback or their insights into choices, opinions and preferences related
to a product or service. It could be an offline or online survey. Online surveys can be
customized to run analytics and get hidden insights.

 Polls
Polls deal with multiple-choice questions or one primary question to read audience
sentiments. It’s easy to generate quick responses from people as they’re short and can be
embedded into different platforms when done online. It’s a great way to compare target
groups and different individuals in a particular group.

 Interviews
Out of the various methods of collecting primary data, interviews are considered the most
intricate and effective, especially if done face-to-face. This method involves a series of
questions that the respondents answer either in person or over a communication channel
such as email, telephone or video call. It’s a feasible method when participants are less in
number.

 The Delphi Technique

In this data collection method, experts are given an estimate and a set of assumptions laid
down by other industry experts. These assumptions and estimates can be revised and
reconsidered. The final demand forecast is a result of the consensus of all experts.

 Questionnaires
Questionnaires are sets of questions that may or may not be open-ended. Respondents have
to answer based on their experiences and knowledge related to the issue at hand. Although
questionnaires are considered a part of a survey, the end goal may be different.

 Focus Groups
Focus groups are small groups of people, usually eight to ten members who discuss
common areas related to a problem. Individuals offer their insights during discussions and
moderators are responsible for regulating these discussions. The end goal is to have the
group reach a consensus.

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Assignment 2: Critically evaluate different sampling techniques which are used in

Business research. (15 Marks)
Sampling techniques can be classified into two major categories. Those are known as Probability
Sampling and Non-probability Sampling. In probability sampling, the population to be sampled is
defined by the number of items/units. It is usually used to reveal the presence (or absence) of a
defined characteristic in a portfolio of items with similar characteristics.
Probability sampling options use random or quasi-random options to select the sample, and then
use statistical generalization to draw inferences about that population. To minimize bias, these
options have specific rules on selection of the sampling frame, size of the sample, and managing
variation within the sample.
When we going to make a business researches to study population of interest and what we want
to do with the information that we have gathered, before we have to choose a suitable sampling
method. Then the selected sampling frame operationally defines the target population from which
the sample is drawn and to which the sample data will be generalized.
 Simple Random. This technique gives all units in the population an equal opportunity of
being selected by using a method that will select units completely at random. To use this
technique we will need a complete list of everyone in the population – a sampling frame.
Sampling is done in a single stage with each element selected independently. We can
randomly select by using a random number generator or by using a random number table,
or by pulling out of a hat. It is very effective if it have a small or moderate sized population.

 Systematic sampling Samples are drawn by starting at a randomly selected element in the
sampling frame and then taking every n th element. Systematic sampling is easier to
perform and hence is less subject to interviewer errors than simple random sampling.

 Stratified Random sampling. This technique divides the population into meaningful
homogenous or similar groups based on a certain characteristic (e.g. gender, race,
socioeconomic status) called strata, and then selects a random sample from each group.
Stratified sampling ensures greater representativeness on a characteristic of interest within
the population. This method allows us to study a wider range of the population without a
larger sample size.

 Cluster Sampling The sample is selected in stages, first selecting groups of elements, or
clusters (e.g. city blocks, census tracts, schools), and then selecting individual elements
from each cluster (e.g. randomly or by systematic sampling). In case there is no list of every

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member of the population, it is still possible to choose a random sample by using cluster
sampling. Cluster sampling divides our population into groups and a simple random
selection of those groups is made. then survey everybody within the selected groups.
SAMPLING METHORD SUITS FOR
o Simple random sampling - Whole population is available
o Stratified sampling - There are specific sub-groups to
investigate
o Systematic sampling - When a stream of representative people are
available (e.g. in the street)
o Cluster sampling - When population groups are separated and access to all is
. difficult, e.g. in many distant cities

Non-probability The difference between non-probability and probability sampling is that non-
probability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. With non-
probability samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard for
us to know how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random sampling
methods over non-probabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and rigorous. Non-
probability sampling can be classified into purposive, snowball, convenience sampling or quota
sampling.

Purposive Sampling- This is sampling with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or
more specific predefined groups we are seeking. Purposive sampling can be very useful for
situations where we need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for
proportionality is not the primary concern. The variables to which the sample is drawn up are
linked to the research question. Purposive sampling options study information-rich cases from a
given population to make analytical inferences about the population. Units are selected based on
one or more predetermined characteristics and the sample size can be as small as one (n=1). To
minimize bias, this cluster of options encourages transparency in case selection, triangulation, and
seeking out of disconfirming evidence. Only people with specified characteristics are selected.
These characteristics can represent the range of characteristics in your population of interest, or
we can focus on some characteristics in particular.

For example, if we are evaluating the attitudes of drivers towards speeding, we may want to only
sample those who have got penalty points. Or, we could sample those with extreme characteristics
by only selecting drivers who have been disqualified as a result of multiple offences.
Snowball sampling
A type of purpose sampling where existing participants recruit future subjects from among their
acquaintances. Thus the sample group appears to grow like a rolling snowball. Using this approach,

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a few potential respondents are contacted and asked whether they know of anybody with the
characteristics that we are looking for in your evaluation., if we wanted to interview a sample of
vegetarians/cyclists/people with a particular disability/people that support a particular political
party or the homeless, your initial contacts may well have knowledge of other. In these cases you
we not likely to be able to find good lists of people of these characteristics within a specific
geographical area. However, if we go to that area and identify one or two, we may find that they
know very well who the others in their vicinity are and how we can find them. This makes it easier
to contact people
However, it does introduce a lot of bias into our results because our samples are all likely to know
each other and to have similar opinions. With this method we survey whoever we happen to have
access to. It is also called 'opportunity sampling'. This is commonly used in market research.

Once a sample is selected, an attempt is made to collect data (e.g. through interviews or
questionnaires) from all of its members. In practice, researchers never obtain responses from 100%
of the sample. Some sample members inevitably are travelling, hospitalized, incarcerated, away at
school, or in the military. Others cannot be contacted because of their work schedule, community
involvement, or social life. Others simply refuse to participate in the study, even after the best
efforts of the researcher to persuade them. Unless every person in a sample is interviewed, the
sample will not be a true random sample. Non response must therefore be kept to negligible
proportions if the results of the survey are to be valid. If a respondent is not interviewed when first
called upon, it will be necessary to follow-up with a second call. The simplest way of dealing with
non-response is to treat the non-respondents as being similar to the respondents. This treats the
people who do not respond at all as if they are similar to the initial no respondents who
subsequently respond, but takes into account differences between those who respond initially and
those who do not.
It is useless to substitute the person next door. Suppose, for example, an enquiry is made as to the
size of family. Then people without children are more likely to be out than those who have
children. If the people without children are not interviewed because they are not at home, and the
interviewer turns to other people who are at home, the results will obviously be biased and
inaccurate.
However, given a proper method of selecting the sample, the probability of errors of any given
size can be calculated from the detailed results of the actual sample. By calculating the errors of
different sampling methods which can be used on the same material, it is possible to plan further
surveys more efficiently. The use of appropriate sampling methods and an adequate response rate
are necessary for a representative sample, but not sufficient. In addition, the sample size must be
evaluated. The sampling error is a number that describes the precision of an estimate from any one
of those samples.

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Assignment 3: Select a research article related to management discipline and discussabout

the research problem, research objectives and methods and procedures of that research
paper. Give special attention on followings when preparing the assignment.
Research Problem
it is assumed that disciplinary measures are enforced to improve their performance and
maintain the healthy relationship. However, if the employees do not agree with the
manner of implementing disciplinary actions, it can have an adverse effect on the
rapport between management and the employees.
Human behavior is designed to achieve certain goals and objectives. It is therefore, a
deficiency of something within the individuals, which sparks chains of events leading
the individual to engage in one kind of behavior - good or bad, lawful or unlawful.
Clearly, if a rule is unenforceable, it is not worth having. Standards of conduct must be
maintained but they must be realistic so as to contribute to the proper functioning of
the workplace. Rules governing insubordination, theft, vandalism, gambling on
company premises, drinking on the job and taking drugs at work, are all related to
productivity and the general wellbeing of an organization, (Eni, 2000).

2. Research Objectives
The main purpose of conducting this research is to find out whether there is a relationship between
the discipline existing among the employees of an organization and the successful achievement of
the organization's goals.

3. Source of Data (Primary or secondary)

It is based on the primary data. Data for the study is generated through the personal administration
of questionnaires using the cross sectional survey method. The accessible population for the
study comprises of 225 managerial and supervisory staff randomly drawn from a purposely
selected 15 manufacturing organizations operating within the six states of the Southsouth region
of Nigerial.

4. Type of Data (Primary or Secondary/Cross sectional, Time series or panel data)

questionnaires using the cross sectional survey method

5. If primary data, sampling technique employed.

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The accessible population for the study comprises of 225 managerial and supervisory staff
randomly drawn from a purposely selected 15 manufacturing organizations operating within the
six states of the Southsouth region of Nigerial.

6. Important variables of the study

Correlation Coefficient between Discipline and Productivity
7. Description about Data Analysis (Statistical tests or techniques applied to achieve research
objectives)
The study revealed a high correlation coefficient between workplace discipline and organizational
productivity in the organisations that were covered in the south south region of Nigeria. The shows
that workplace discipline which are often neglected by some management is critical for the success
of any going concern. It is therefore recommended that management of organisations should
demonstrate high level discipline to attract a reciprocal disciplinary behavior from all employees.
Supervisors and leaders of organization are also tasked to show commited discipline so as to
achieve unalloyed loyalty from followership at work. Employees in their quest to get job
satisfaction should be encouraged to show discipline that traverse the entire length and breadth of
the given organisations. These are expected to earn for companies the needed level of productivity.

REFERENCES.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273447446_Workplace_Discipline_A_catalyst_fo
r_Organizational_Productivity_in_Nigeria.
(20 Marks)

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