TOPIC 4 The Energy

Connection
What does the word “energy” mean to you? One definition of
energy is “the ability to do work.” Does that definition seem to
apply to electricity? Electric motors certainly use electric energy to
do work on objects by moving them. Energy, however, has another
important characteristic: it appears in many forms. Some electrical
devices, such as light bulbs and stoves, are designed to change elec-
tric energy into other forms of energy, such as light and heat.
Other technology is able to transform heat, light and energy of
movement (kinetic energy) into electrical energy. In this Topic,
you will investigate a variety of forms of energy, and discover how Figure 4.23 Heating elements convert
electric energy into thermal energy.
they can be converted directly into electricity, and how electricity
What other devices can you name that
can be converted directly into other forms of energy. perform a similar energy conversion?

Find Out
Something to Electricity:
Electricity to Something
In your day-to-day life you encounter many 4. Present your findings about an energy-
devices that do useful tasks by converting conversion device to the rest of the class.
electrical energy into some other form of energy. Discuss similarities and differences among
There are also many types of equipment that the various conversion devices.
convert another form of energy into electricity.
Energy Conversion
Materials
Device Starting form Final form
reference materials (books, Internet, periodicals) electricity
paper
electricity
pencil
electricity
Procedure Analyzing and Interpreting
electricity
1. Copy the table at right into your notebook.
What Did You Find Out?
2. Think of familiar devices that convert elec-
1. How does your list compare with that of
trical energy into some other form. Choose
your classmates? Add several more exam-
examples that cover a variety of forms of
ples from their lists to your list.
energy, and use them to fill in the table.
2. Which type(s) of energy conversion occur
3. Choose one type of energy conversion and
most frequently in your list? Suggest a
find out more about how it is achieved.
reason why this is so.
Then choose a device that is designed to
accomplish this conversion, and prepare a
detailed explanation of how it works. Use a
format specified by your teacher.

The Energy Connection • MHR 293

 Electricity and Heat
In appliances such as a stove or hair drier, electric energy is converted
The movement of mole-
to heat as moving charges meet the resistance of a metal conductor.
cules within a substance
produces thermal energy.
You observed this process in Find Out Activity: Resistance Roadblock
Heat is defined as thermal in Topic 3. The opposite process is also possible.
energy that is transferred Heat can be converted directly to electric energy using a thermo-
from a warmer substance couple. A thermocouple is a loop of two wires made of different types
to a cooler one. of metals. The wires are wrapped together at both ends, or “junctions.”
When one junction is heated, a small electric current is produced. If
the temperature difference between the junctions is increased, the
current increases. For example, one junction might be cooled while the
other is heated. If the positions of the hot and cold junctions are
reversed, current will flow in the opposite direction.
The basic principle of the thermocouple was discovered by
Thomas Johann Seebeck in 1821, and was named the Seebeck Effect.
Seebeck originally concluded that any two metals could be used.
However, it is now known that not every combination of metals
works in thermocouples. Copper and constantan (a copper nickel
alloy), or iron and constantan, are the most common metals used in
modern industrial thermocouples.
Individual thermocouples produce only a small amount of current.
If you hook the two wires
leading from a thermo-
They are widely used to obtain accurate temperature measurements
couple to a battery, one where regular liquid thermometers cannot be used.
junction will get hot and
the other will get cold.

copper wire
ammeter
iron wire
copper wire

direction of
ice electron flow hot
bath water

cold junction hot junction

Figure 4.24 Thermocouples are rugged and can measure high temperatures. They are used as
sensors in safety and control devices for furnaces, hot water heaters, and electric ovens.

294 MHR • Electrical Principles and Technologies

A thermo-electric generator is a device based rejected
on a thermocouple that converts heat directly heat
into electricity without moving parts. Heat
from a gas burner or another heat source
moves through several thermocouples exhaust

thermopile
cooling out
connected in series — a thermopile — creating

burner
fins
a potential difference. Thermopiles are
extremely reliable, low-maintenance devices.
They are used in remote locations to generate
limited quantities of electrical energy that are + –
sufficient to power, for example, emergency load
fuel in
communications equipment.
On one side of the thermopile, a gas burner Figure 4.25 Thermo-electric generators such as this are
or other heat source is installed. The opposite manufactured by Global Thermoelectric, an industry-leading
company based in Calgary.
side is kept cool by components such as
aluminum cooling fins or heat pipe assemblies. Operating generators
generally maintain temperatures of approximately 540°C on the hot
side and 140°C on the cold side. The heat flow through the thermopile
creates a steady flow of electricity. Individual thermo-electric generators
can range in output size from 15–550 W and can be combined to
produce up to 5000 W.

Electricity to Motion
How can sound be produced by tiny electric watches or the paper-thin
sound modules in “talking” greeting cards? There is no room in these
devices for even the smallest loudspeaker. Instead, sound is produced A scanning tunnelling
when an electric current causes vibrations in a tiny crystal — the piezo- microscope (STM) is
electric effect. Piezo in Greek means pressure or push. When a one of the few machines
piezoelectric crystal such as quartz or Rochelle salt is connected to a capable of producing
potential difference, the crystal expands or contracts slightly. Any material images of individual
atoms. Parts of an STM
touching the crystal experiences pressure, which can create sound
must make incredibly
waves or vibrations. This link between electricity and pressure was first small movements of
investigated in 1880 by two young French scientists, Pierre and Jacques only a few nanometres
Curie, who were 21 and 24 at the time. (109 m). The motion is
Modern researchers have developed non-crystalline materials that produced by piezoelec-
move in response to an electric current. Such materials have many tric ceramic wafers,
potential uses. For example, using a flexible polymer (plastic) with this which move very slightly
when a low voltage is
property, Joseph Bar-Cohen, an American physicist, has created a
applied to them.
robotic hand with four “fingers.” When a voltage is applied, the plastic
“fingers” bend, gripping any small object between them. Bar-Cohen’s
experimental device can lift only 10 g, the mass of a small ball point
pen, but it is inexpensive, durable, and light.

The Energy Connection • MHR 295

 Motion to Electricity
A barbecue “spark” lighter uses the piezoelectric effect in reverse.
While a piezoelectric crystal is being compressed or pulled, a
potential difference builds up on opposite sides of the crystal.
In 1927, Warren Morrison, a
Conductors attached to the crystal can connect it to a circuit,
Canadian engineer working for Bell
Laboratories in the United States,
where the crystal acts as a source of electric energy. In a barbecue
invented the quartz clock and revolu- lighter, this creates a spark. Devices such as crystal microphones
tionized the way time was kept. The and some types of pressure sensors use the changing voltage from
most common crystals are quartz a piezoelectric crystal to control much larger electric currents in
crystals. Quartz is a piezoelectric amplifiers and recording equipment.
material, and quartz crystals vibrate
when a voltage from a battery is
applied to them. Quartz watch crystals
act as miniature tuning forks that
vibrate 32 768 times per second.
Other types of crystals vibrate
at more than 50 million times
per second.

Figure 4.26 Squeezing the handle of a barbecue spark lighter slams a tiny hammer
against a piezoelectric crystal, generating a potential difference of thousands of volts
and a miniature lightning bolt across the spark gap.

Find Out
Flashing Rocks
The piezoelectric effect produced by certain 2. Select two pieces of quartz and either
types of crystals can be observed as flashes of enter a darkened room or duck beneath
light as two crystals (rocks) are hit together. a heavy blanket that does not allow light
This activity allows you to experience piezo- to penetrate.
electricity first hand.
3. Strike the two crystals together with a
Safety Precaution
glancing blow.

4. Record your observations.

Materials
What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
2 large quartz (quartzite) crystals, preferably
1. What did you observe when the crystals
smooth and clear crystals or white quartzite
were hit together?
pebbles
safety glasses or goggles 2. Using your knowledge of piezoelectricity,
a very dark room or heavy blanket attempt to explain your observations.
Procedure Performing and Recording
3. Describe a known application for what
1. Put on your safety glasses.
you have seen or invent an application
of your own.

296 MHR • Electrical Principles and Technologies

Electricity to Light
Using electricity to produce light seems like a pretty simple matter. In
incandescent light bulbs, a filament made of a high-resistance metal Thousands of miniature
glows brightly when an electric current passes through it. In fluorescent LEDs form the liquid-crys-
or neon bulbs, the electric current causes a gas or vapour to glow brightly. tal and flat-panel displays
Piezoelectric crystals can produce light when they are hit together. used in many portable
computers and hand-held
Some recent types of flashlights, bicycle lights, and toy lights do not
“digital assistants.” The
have a light bulb. Instead they have light-emitting diodes (LEDs), displays use organic light-
solid-state electronic components that glow when electricity flows emitting liquids, which
through them. LEDs use only a fraction of the power of a traditional emit light when an electric
bulb and last for years as opposed to months. How do they work? The current passes through
heart of the LED is a tiny semiconductor chip that is often protected them. The colour of light
emitted depends on the
by a transparent plastic case. Unlike regular
particular type of material
light bulbs, LEDs work only when used. In order to observe
connected to a circuit in one direction. the light emitted by an
organic LED, at least one
Figure 4.27 The plastic package of this light-emitting
diode is about the size of a grain of rice, but all the of the electrodes must
light is produced from a microscopic area in the be transparent.
centre of the package.

Light to Electricity
As traditional methods of producing electricity
are becoming more expensive and causing
increased concerns about pollution, using light
to produce electricity could play a large role in
our future (see figure 4.28). The International
Space Station is powered entirely by an electric-
ity-generating solar array that will eventually
cover an area of approximately 0.5 ha.
The device that is most commonly used to
produce electricity from light is called a
Figure 4.28 Light hitting an individual photovoltaic cell transfers
photovoltaic (PV) cell, or solar cell.
energy to electrons, starting a current through the load. A
Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconducting rooftop solar array can power a house.
materials such as silicon. When light strikes
the cell, some light is absorbed by the semicon- Electric current
Junction Light
ductor material, breaking electrons loose and
allowing them to flow freely. Metal contacts on
the top and bottom of the PV cell allow this
electric current to be drawn off for external use in
devices such as calculators, water heaters, or emer- e–
Load
gency roadside telephones. Because voltage and Energized
current of an individual cell are limited, solar cells Atom electron
are usually combined to form modules, which are
in turn combined to form arrays. Semiconducting
material Contacts

The Energy Connection • MHR 297

 Find Out
Show Me the Light!
How much electricity can be produced by 2. What were the manipulated variables in
photovoltaic cells (solar cells)? What factors other groups’ investigations?
affect the output of a photovoltaic cell?
Investigate these questions as you perform 3. Based on your findings, which variable or
this activity. variables had the greatest effect on the
electrical current produced by the cell?
Materials
Suggest a reason why.
1–3 small photovoltaic cells
ammeter or milliameter 4. In addition to the factors investigated by
plug-in light source groups in your class, name at least three
wires with alligator clips other factors that might affect the ability of
meter stick a photovoltaic cell to produce electricity.
protractor
Extension
Safety Precautions 5. Based on the data you collected, describe
features you would include if you were
to design a home powered by photo-
If your light source uses an electric bulb, voltaic cells.
handle it carefully. Light bulbs are fragile and
can get hot enough to burn you. 6. What are the main reasons why some
people are currently choosing photovoltaics
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
as a home power source, and the main
Procedure
reasons why other people are not using
1. Work with your group to formulate a solar power?
hypothesis that identifies one factor that
you think affects the amount of current
produced by a photovoltaic cell or cells.
Predict how the current will change when
this factor increases and decreases.

2. Design a simple investigation to test your

hypothesis. Then carry out the investigation
using the materials supplied.

3. Collect results from at least two other

groups that investigated different factors.

4. Record your results and the results

collected from your classmates in an
appropriate format. Analyzing and Interpreting

What Did You Find Out?

1. For the investigation carried out by your
group, what were the manipulated and
responding variables?

298 MHR • Electrical Principles and Technologies

Many fish have electric organs that can
produce a large voltage. They use this electric
energy to detect enemies, navigate, and
possibly to communicate. These animals are
said to be electrogenic and electroreceptive.
The South American fresh water eel,
Electrophorous electricus, can generate the muscles
largest voltage of any fish. The electric organ used for
consists of thousands of flat, specialized swimming
muscle cells, called electroplaques, which
make up about 40% of the eel’s mass. Each
cell generates a voltage of about 0.15 V. spinal cord
Because the cells are connected in series,
the electric organ can generate a total voltage muscles
of about 600 V. The eel releases a burst of
electric energy, lasting about 3/1000 of a
The electric
second, to stun prey. This “electric shock” organs make cross-section
causes the prey to stop breathing and drown. up most of the of an electric eel
Then the eel consumes its meal. fish’s body.

TOPIC 4 Review
1. Describe at least three ways in which usable light can be produced
from electricity.

2. How does a thermocouple work? Give two examples of uses for

thermocouples.

3. What happens to a piezoelectric crystal when it is squeezed? Give one

example of how this phenomenon can be applied.

4. What would happen if an electric current were passed through a piezo-

electric crystal? Describe an application for this phenomenon.

5. Photovoltaic cells produce electricity from light. Describe two concerns

or problems a homeowner might face in a house powered entirely by
photovoltaics.

The Energy Connection • MHR 299