2/2/23, 5:50 PM Limit State Design of steel members to AS4100

Design guide: Limit State Design of steel

members to AS4100
Structural Design Codes

The limit state is the point at which a member, assembly or entire structure no
longer fulfils required design criteria such as structural integrity, fitness for use or
durability. The steel limit state requirements in Australia are specified in Australian
Standard AS4100 so that the steel members won’t fail and remain fit for their
designed use. The limit state method ensures that structures consider serviceability
and ultimate load states. In other words, both the functionality, appearance
(Serviceability Limit State, SLS) and the safety of a structure and its users (Ultimate
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Limit State, ULS) are verified through unique design methods and sets of
parameters.

The procedure required to design any structural member is a complex and thorough
process. The impact that the execution of these steps has on the final product is
huge, so engineers must understand these intricate steps and make use of their
knowledge of material behaviour and properties to be able to predict, analyse and
understand the suitability of their design to ensure that is it robust, safe and fit for
purpose. For that reason, we’ve detailed a quick summary of the limit state design
of steel members to AS4100. 

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2/2/23, 5:50 PM Limit State Design of steel members to AS4100

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2/2/23, 5:50 PM Limit State Design of steel members to AS4100

Table 1: Summary of Steel Failure modes

Some important parameters for steel design

Basic values of steel considers mostly hot-rolled steel, but the Australian Standard
can also apply for cold-rolled steel (Clause 1.4 AS4100):

Young’s modulus of elasticity: E = 200 000 MPa

Shear modulus: G = 80 000 MPa
Coefficient of thermal expansion for steel: αT = 11.7×10-6 per degree Celsius

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Poisson’s ratio: ν = 0.25

Density: ρ = 7850 kg/m3

To design an appropriate steel member, calculations must satisfy:

S* < 𝞍R

Capacity Factor 𝞍: Also considered as a ‘safety factor, this factor decreases the
allowable loading capacity of members. It accounts for potential issues such as
uncertainties in the condition of materials and allows for the possibility that a
structural element might not achieve its predicted strength properties. It is
provided in Table 3.4 AS4100  and depends on the type of structure, and steel
members included. 
Structural analysis S*: In order to quantify the effect of design actions, this
parameter needs to combine with information from the Design Codes for
Strength Limit State, AS1170.1 and AS1170.2, to provide appropriate loading
conditions. S* refers to the design action effect, referring to the actions, such as
design bending moments (M*), shear forces (V*) or axial loads (N*), calculated
from design actions or design loads using the appropriate method of analysis. 
Design capacity calculation R: The calculated nominal capacity of a member or
connection to resist the imposed design action. What follows is a quick
summary.

Design for Axial Compression

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1. Find the form factor kf .

The form factor is always equal to or smaller than 1. It’s determined

following Clause 6.2.2  and is calculated as:

Ae
kf =
Ag

Where, Ae = the effective area and Ag = the gross area of the section

If kf < 1, then the members will reach localised buckling before reaching
yield stress.
kf is found in manufacturer tables, for example, OneSteel Manufacturing.

2. Find the net area of cross-section (An) and full yield stress (fy) of the
section.

Net area of cross-section (An) and full yield stress (fy) can be found in
manufacturer tables or calculated for custom sections.

An = Ag - Area of holes or other connections features

Yield stress of web and flange might be different, use the lower value.

3. Calculate section capacity (Ns) by the formula:

Ns = kf An f y

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4. Find member slenderness reduction factor ⍺c

Find modified slenderness ratio (λn) using AS4100 Clause 6.3.2.

−− −
−
le −−− fy
√
λn = ( )√ K f
r 250

Where le = effective length = ke x length. ke can be found in Figure 4.6.3.2

AS4100
r = the radius of gyration (In the manufacturer tables)
Members could buckle about 2 axes (x and y) so we need to evaluate lex/rx
and ley/ry and use the larger value (the more critical one).
Find yield stress (fy) for steel grade in Table 2.1 AS4100

Find member section constant (⍺b) according to Table 6.3.3(1) & 6.3.3(2)
AS4100
Use AS4100 Table 6.3.3(3) to find ⍺ c

5. Calculate theTemplates
member capacity
Blog (Nc)About
by the formula:
Contact Join Waitlist Book Demo

Nc = α c Ns

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6. Check if the capacity meets the design axial compression force: N* < 𝞍 N
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Design for Axial Compression

Design for Axial Tension
Design for Axial Tension Design for Bending/Flexure strength
Design for Shear Capacity
Design for Bearing Capacity
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Design for Bearing Capacity
There are two possible modes of failure for tensile axial load, including yielding
Design for Combined Axial load and
of members along its entire length or rupture of steel where the cross-section Bending
has been locally reduced (holes, connections etc). References

1. Calculate section capacity due to yielding on gross section

CREATOR

May Tran
Nt = Ag f y
Creator

Find gross cross-section area (Ag) using manufacturer tables or by manual

calculation.
Find yield stress (fy) for steel grade in Table 2.1 AS4100
Copy Link

2. Calculate section capacity due to rupture on net section per Clause 7.2
Published: Dec 21, 2022
AS4100
Edited: December 7, 2022

Nt = 0.85kt An f u

Find correction Factor for distribution of forces (kt) based on Clause 7.3
AS4100.
Find cross-sections where there are holes (due to connections, bolts etc.)
where rupture is likely to happen and calculate the net area of cross-
section (An)
An can be calculated as per Clause 9.1.10 AS4100

Use Table 2.1 AS4100 to find the tensile strength used in design (fu)

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3. Compare section capacity between gross and net section, choose the
smaller one as the main tensile capacity Nt

4. Check if the capacity meets the design axial tensile force: N* < 𝞍 Nt

Design for Bending/Flexure strength

Bending strength over the steel beams or columns might lead to two failure
modes: localised plate buckling and lateral buckling of compression flange.

For localised plate buckling, the buckling will appear at one specific point
(usually at the maximum bending moment). The capacity at which the beam
reaches the localised plate buckling is called Ms, and it is because the beam is
fully restrained against lateral buckling so another failure mode is likely not to
happen.

1. Check section moment capacity

Ms = f y Ze

Ze = Effective section modulus, which can be found in the appropriate

tables in manufacturer guides that specify material properties of different
steel members or specified in Clauses 5.2.3, 5.2.4, or 5.2.5 AS4100 as
appropriate.
fy = yield stress of the steel grade
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2. Find member moment capacity:

Mb = α m α s Ms

Calculate the moment modification factor (αm) according to Tables 5.6.1.

and 5.6.2 AS4100 OR Equation in Clause 5.6.1.1(a)iii AS4100:

∗
1.7Mm
αm = ≤ 2.5
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2
√ (M ) + (M ) + (M )
2 3 4

Where 

M*m= maximum design bending moment in the segment

M*2, M*4 = design bending moments at the quarter points of the segment

M*3 = design bending moment at the midpoint of the segment

If the beam has different bending moment profiles along its length, then
we segment the beam and assess (αm) and (αs) in each segment. 
Calculate slenderness reduction factor (αs) according to the formula
(Clause 5.6.1.1(2) AS4100): 

−−−−−−−−
2
Ms Ms
α s = 0.6[√ + 3− ]
Moa Moa

Where Moa = Mo, where Mo is the reference buckling moment

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Find the member’s effective length le with the formula: 

le = kt kl kr l

kt is found in Clause 5.6.3 (1), and it is only relevant for a partially restrained
section

kl is found in Clause 5.6.3 (2) and it is only relevant if the load applied at the
top flange of the beam can move sideways with buckling flange

kr  is found in Clause 5.6.3 (3) and it allows for restraint provided at the
segment ends against lateral rotation.

l is the segment length.

Using le above, find the reference buckling moment (Mo) with the formula:

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
π E Iy π E Iw
Mo = √ ( )[GJ + ( )]
2 2
le le

E, G = the elastic moduli (see Clause 1.4 AS4100)

Iy, J, and Iw = section constants (see Clause 1.4 AS4100)

le = the effective length determined in accordance with Clause 5.6.3 AS4100

NOTE: Values of E and G and expressions for J and Iw are given in Paragraph
H4 of Appendix H AS4100. 

Find αs as the formula above

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Calculate (αm . αs) for each segment

Choose the smallest (αm . αs)
If αm . αs > 1 then use αm . αs = 1
Find Mb

3. Use Mb as the final member capacity and perform design checks: M* < 𝞍 Mb

Design for Shear Capacity

There are two possible modes of shear failure; yielding and buckling. That is
why there are two shear capacities for two modes of failure.

1. Compare the ratio dp/tw to:

82
−−
−
fy
√
250

dp = total depth of the steel section

tw = thickness of the web  
fy = yield stress for steel grade in Table 2.1 AS4100

2. If

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dp 82
≤
−−
−
tw fy
√
250

then the capacity of the beam is limited by yielding, so we use Clause 5.11.4
AS4100 to find shear yield capacity (Vv) according to the formula:

Vv = 0.6f y Aw

Calculate the area of the web:

Aw = d1 ∗ tw

fy = yield stress in the manufacturer tables

3. If

dp 82
≥
−−
−
tw fy
√
250

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then the capacity of the beam is limited by buckling, so we use Clause 5.11.5
AS4100 to find shear buckling capacity (Vb) and is dependent on whether the
web is stiffened or unstiffened. 

4. Check if the capacity (buckling or yielding) meets the design shear force:
V* < 𝞍 Vw

Design for Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity failure usually happens near the supports where highly
concentrated reaction forces propagate. For I-sections, this can result in the
crushing (yielding) of the web directly above the flange or buckling close to
where the force is applied. That is why there are two bearing capacities for the
webs of I-sections; bearing yield capacity and bearing buckling capacity.
Engineers need to check both.

1. Calculate the bearing yield capacity (Rby) according to Clause 5.13.3 AS4100,
with the formula:

Rby = 1.25bbf tw f y

Use Figure 5.13.1.2 AS4100 to find bbf = length of the web over which force
disperses.

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Find tw = thickness of the web and fy = yield stress from manufacturer

table

2. Calculate the bearing buckling capacity (Rbb). The bearing buckling capacity
could be treated as compressive capacity from AS4100 Section 6 and from
Step 3 in designing for Axial Compresion specified in this article:

Rbb = Nc = α c Nc = kf An f y

Use cross-section dimension of the web as An = tw x bb

Where, 

tw = thickness of the web

bb can be calculated from Figure 5.13.1.1 AS4100

Use ⍺b = 0.5 & kf = 1 to find ⍺c

Slenderness ratio for an I or C section can be taken as le/r = 2.5 d1/tw 

3. Choose the lesser between Rby and Rbb to be used as as the overall bearing
capacity Rb

4. Check if the capacity meets the design shear force: R* < 𝞍 Rb

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Design for Combined Axial load and Bending

Typically, steel members will be subjected to combined axial load and bending.
So as well as checking the axial load capacity and the bending capacity in
isolation, engineers must also consider combined axial and bending actions in
certain load cases. In many cases, this will be the dominant condition for steel
members. This can lead to one of two failure mechanisms;in-plane buckling
and out-of-plane buckling. 

1. Assess the secondary effects by calculating the moment amplification

factor (𝛿b) according to Clause 4.4.2.2. AS4100, with the formula: 

cm
δb = ≥ 1
N∗
1 −
Nomb

cm = 0.6 - 0.4ꞵm

Where 

Ꞵm ratio of smaller to the larger bending moment at ends of the member

Some typical values of Ꞵm could be found in figure 4.4.2.2 (A) AS4100

N* = design axial compressive force

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Nomb = elastic buckling load, determined in accordance with Clause 4.6.2.

AS4100

2. Calculate Design bending moment

∗ ∗
M = δb Mm

Mm* is the maximum bending moment along the member

3. Check in-plane capacity for compression members according to Clause

8.4.2 AS4100 with the formula:

∗ ∗
Mx N
+ ≤ 1
ϕMsx ϕNcx

The tension members won’t cause buckling so there is no need to check

combined action

Find ultimate design bending moment (Mx*) and axial compression (N*)
(use the moment amplification factor)
Find the section capacity in bending (Msx) and axial compression (Ncx) in
the x-axis direction (in-plane direction) 

4. Check out-of-plane capacity for compression members according to Clause

8.4.4 AS4100 with the formula:

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∗ ∗
Mx N
+ ≤ 1
ϕMbx ϕNcy

Find ultimate design bending moment (Mx*) and axial compression (N*)
(use the moment amplification factor)
Find the section capacity in bending (Msx) on the x-axis and axial
compression (Ncy) on the y-axis

5. Check out of plane capacity for tension members according to Clause 8.4.4
AS4100 with the formula:

∗ ∗
Mx N
− ≤ 1
ϕMbx ϕNt

Find ultimate design bending moment (Mx*) and axial tension (N*) (use the
moment amplification factor)
Find the section capacity in bending (Mbx) as per clause 5.6 and axial
tension (Nt) as per Clause 7.2

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References

[1] Gorenc., B.E. Tinyou., R. Syam., A. (2012). The Steel Designer's Handbook (8th
Ed.). UNSW Press.

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