Indian Journal of History of Science

https://doi.org/10.1007/s43539-022-00069-7

HISTORICAL NOTE

Hundred years of geophysics (1834–1933)

Indrajit G. Roy1 

Received: 21 April 2022 / Accepted: 23 December 2022

© Indian National Science Academy 2023

Abstract
Geophysics is relatively a new discipline in comparison to physics or geology. Contrary to general perception as an ancillary
to geology, the discipline has been developed with a distinct focus of using the principles and methods of physics for the
earth processes. Geophysics was born in the nineteenth century as a necessary element of theoretical geography. Academi-
cians and researchers in the field of geography played chief roles from its birth to its present level of maturity. Historical
scholarship in this paper provides an account of the development of the discipline over hundred years from its inception in
the early nineteenth century. The article covers, how the discipline was conceptualised and what necessary steps were taken,
such as establishing learned societies, publishing technical journals and text books, endowing university chairs, opening
up departments and course curriculum, and most importantly, appearing as a primary discipline to cater to exploration for
mineral resources.

Keywords  Birth of geophysics · Courses · Journals · Learned societies

Just as physics is not a list of facts about the world, surprised to know that the discipline was proposed, includ-
history is not a list of names and dates. It is a way of ing the appropriate coinage ‘geophysics’ neither by geolo-
thinking that can be powerful and illuminating (Matt gists, nor by physicists but by geographers. Such an interest-
Stanley, 2016) ing fact on the birth of the new discipline in science will be
discussed here.
The literature on the history of geophysics is very lim-
ited. Two important publications in the late 70s of twentieth
1 Introduction
century are worth mentioning. Those are: (i) a book on ‘His-
tory of earth sciences’ by Donald Herbert Hall (1925–2012)
Now being the 20s of twenty first century, one would per-
covering a brief glimpse of geophysics under the guise of
ceive that the discipline ‘Geophysics’ has emerged as a new
‘Emphasis on physical geosciences’ (Hall, 1976), but the
avatar whose influence becomes conspicuous in prospecting
historical background covered is not sufficient enough,
mineral resources, mitigating environmental hazard, con-
and (ii) a book on ‘The history of geophysics in Finland:
ducting geotechnical investigations and many more. Nev-
1828–1918’ written by Heikki Juhani Simojoki (1906–1990)
ertheless, the discipline still remains a niche subject and
(Simojoki, 1978) covering historical account of the devel-
except the professionals in the field, very few are well aware
opment of geophysics only in one particular geographical
of the presence of the subject, let alone know its background
region.
of emergence as a new discipline. Many young beautiful
After a long hiatus, the history of geophysics received
minds before committing to the discipline of geophysics
general attention among the geoscientists in 2005, when
as their major career path often bear an impression, after
the Organizing Committee of International Commission on
going through web portals of various universities, that it is a
the History of Geological Sciences (INHIGEO) held during
branch of physics with a considerable dose of geology. Their
2–12 July 2005 at Prague, Czech Republic kept ‘History
impression is not quite wrong, but they would perhaps be
of Geophysics’ as the theme of the conference. Five years
later, Wilfried Schröder (1941–2011), Member of the Inter-
* Indrajit G. Roy divisional Commission on History of IAGA (International
[email protected]
Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy), published
1
Spaceage Geoconsulting, 5 Bick Place, Banks, ACT​ 2906, an article titled ‘History of geophysics’ (Schröder, 2010), a
Australia rare yet invaluable document of its kind. Schröder (2010)

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 Indian Journal of History of Science

emphasizes that unlike other disciplines in science, such Georg Friedrich Parrot (1767–1852), Baltic German physi-
as medicine, physics or astronomy, geophysics has never cist, published a book titled Grundriβ der physik der erde
received any attention in discussing its historical past. The und geologie: zum gebrauche für akademische borlesungen
author also resonates with the perception of Schröder (2010), (in German: Outline of the physics of the earth and geology:
and holds the opinion that even the publication (Schröder, for use in academic lectures) in 1815, which was the first of
2010) gives only a glimpse on the record of development of its kind to be precise (Parrot, 1815). The book, as the title
geophysics, which is mostly confined in the area of meteor- suggests, is introductory in nature, and contains chapters on
ology and geomagnetism. Interestingly, the Interdivisional figure of the earth, gravity, earth’s magnetism, atmosphere
Commission on History of IAGA which actually motivated and oceans. On the other hand, the French physicist, Fran-
Wilfried Schröder to write on history of geophysics was çois Arago (1786–1853) envisioned the subject as physics of
founded in the year 1957 on suggestion from Russian mete- the earth which he, indeed, mentioned in his book Instruc-
orologist, Nikolay Vasileyvich Pushkov (1903–1981). Note tions pour la physique du globe (in French: Instructions for
that on the historiographical point of view, Schröder’s arti- the physics of the earth) published in 1835 (Lequeux, 2016).
cle on history of geophysics focused mainly on the activity Famous British astronomer and polymath of the nineteenth
associated with IAGA, as according to Schröder (2010) this century, John Herschel (1792–1871), called the subject as
was the major aim of the Commission. terrestrial physics (Herschel, 1830). Evidently, the word
Unlike physics and the geology, the subject geophysics ‘geophysics’ started getting a distinct recognition, although
is poorly perceived by many, especially those who are not the concept of physical description of earth’s process was
trained in this subject. Often, it is believed by many includ- many centuries old.
ing professional geoscientists that the discipline geophysics One should bear in mind that the well-known discipline
is one of the ancillary branch of geology. Similarly, it is also physics itself was recognised separately from the field of
believed by many that the origin of geophysics dates as far natural philosophy only from the middle of nineteenth cen-
back as the beginning of the seventeenth century when the tury. It may be noted that the most celebrated physicist, Isaac
solid earth was ascribed to a large magnet. Some also argue Newton used the terminology ‘natural philosophy’ instead
that the subject was perceived long time back by the geod- of physics in his famous book on theoretical physics Philos-
esists when earth’s physical surface was determined. None ophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. In fact, it was in
of those beliefs are quite right. This article is an attempt to the year 1834 when British natural philosopher and sci-
provide historical scholarship on the origin of the discipline ence’s greatest wordsmith, William Whewell (1794–1866)
and its initial journey of development for hundred years coined the word ‘physics’ in a review article on the book of
since its inception. popular science titled ‘On the connexion of the physical sci-
ences’ by Scottish mathematician, Mary Fairfax Somerville
(1780–1872) in the journal Quarterly Review (Whewell,
2 Geophysics born 1834). Somerville may as well be credited for the coinage
of the word ‘physics’. Therefore, the birth of a separate dis-
Julius Ferdinand Fröbel (1805–1893), German geographer, cipline as geophysics is a remarkable development in the
was specialised in theoretical geography which gave him a nineteenth century.
scope of looking at natural phenomena that influence nature Unfortunately, the word geophysics did not find enough
including life in the geospace. In his textbook on theoreti- usages since its coinage in the early 30s of the nineteenth
cal geography, Mittheilungen aus dem gebiete theoretischen century. This was possibly due to the fact that the subject
erdkunde (in German: Communications to the field of theo- belonged to a niche area of research during that period,
retical geography) Fröbel introduced the term geophysics and many were confused with the appropriateness of its
which, as posited, would explain earth’s physical conditions nomenclature, such as whether the subject should be called
in the realm of experimental physics (Buntebarth, 1998; Frö- geognosy (geo + gnosis) or geophysics (geo + physics). In
bel & Heer, 1834). Some may argue that, although the spe- the year 1849, German Mineralogist and Professor of Geog-
cific word ‘geophysics’ did not arise before Julius Fröbel and nosy at the University of Freiberg, Carl Friedrich Neumann
Oswald Heer introduced it in their book, the concept of geo- (1797–1873), wrote a text book on geognosy where he
physics was, nonetheless, old. Richard Howarth argues that defined geophysics as a branch of geognosy while deal-
La physique terrestre (in French: Earth physics) appeared as ing with the earth on the whole. Note that geognosy is a
early as 1761 in a dictionary published by French physicist, branch of geology which deals with materials of the earth’s
Aimé-Henri Paulian (1722–1802) (Howard, 2020). But the structure and its exterior composition. The word ‘geognosy’
usage of the term ‘physics of the earth’ became more pro- was coined in the late eighteenth century by German miner-
nounced in German and Italian languages from the begin- alogist, Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750–1817). Therefore,
ning of the nineteenth century (Howard, 2020). For example, the word has a German background. Professor Marianne

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Indian Journal of History of Science

Klemun from University of Vienna, Austria clarified about Milne developed highly sensitive horizontal pendulum
the conflicting labels ‘geognosy’ and ‘geology’; whilst the based seismograph and started recording earthquakes all
former suggests about the study of the origin of the earth, over Japan. With his hard work and constant cooperation
the latter implies the study of the formation of the earth from the Japanese government, he eventually established
(Klemun, 2015). Such terminology was restricted only world’s first seismic network in Japan. In the same year
within Germany and German speaking nations. Evidently, (i.e., 1880), American physicist, Thomas Corwin Menden-
Werner’s definition of geophysics was unclear. hall (1841–1924), who also taught at the Imperial Univer-
Nevertheless, historical records suggest that right from sity at Tokyo measured absolute gravity in Tokyo and also
the inception to adolescence, the discipline geophysics was on the summit of Mount Fujiyama, Japan using Kater type
reared most effectively by the geographers rather than physi- seconds pendulum (Mendehall, 1881).
cists and geologists combined. To this end, it is important Interestingly, the concept of geophysics, although the
to clarify the scope of geophysics in a broader sense, as word per se was never used, appeared in Indian subconti-
question may arise in one’s mind whether the physics of the nent by the first half of nineteenth century when a geomag-
ocean and atmosphere should be considered within geophys- netic observatory was established at Madras in the year
ics. Truly speaking, in a broader sense those two disciplines 1822. By the year 1841, three more magnetic observato-
are the wings of geophysics; however, we will restrict to ries, such as Trivandrum, Colaba and Shimala were estab-
the definition of geophysics related to the solid earth, as lished (Lakhina & Alex, 2007). These observatories were
the geographers of nineteenth century did. German geog- networked with Magnetischer Verein at Göttingen, estab-
rapher, Ferdinand Paul Wilhelm Richthofen (1833–1905) lished by Carl Frederik Gauss (1777–1855) in 1830. Simi-
who was famous for his work on China and especially in larly, the earliest measurement of absolute value of gravity
coining the word ‘Silk Roads’, mentioned about geophysics using a compound pendulum, designed by Henry Kater
specifically in his book Über die zentralasiatischen Seiden- (1777–1835), was made by John Goldingham (1767–1849)
strasse bis zum 2. Jh. N. Chr (in German: About the Central at Madras, India in 1821 (Goldingham, 1822). In 1862,
Asian Silk Road) which was published in the year 1877. British army engineer, Captain James Palladio Basevi
Richthofen recognised geophysics as an auxiliary science (1831–1871) made pendulum based gravity survey on the
dealing especially with the solid earth while referring to eastern side of the Indian Peninsula. Captain Basevi was
scientific geography. He insisted that geographers should at that time holding the position of Superintendent, Survey
study geographical principle through the lens of geophysics, of India.
as the physical processes of earth’s natural phenomena are Possibly influenced by the work of John Henry Pratt
intrinsically related to the geography. It may be noted that (1809–1871) on the effect of gravitational attraction of
Richtofen recognised the subject geomorphology, a disci- Himalayas on the geodetic survey near the foothills of the
pline that deals with landform, where methods of geophysics mountains (Pratt, 1855), Basevi planned to conduct a sys-
could be implemented. tematic gravity measurements from the southern most point
of Indian Peninsula to up north of the Himalayas. Between
2.1 Onset of geophysics in Asia 1865 and 1873, Basevi along with Captain William James
Heaviside made gravity observations in 31 stations from
Unfortunately, it took more than three decades from Frö- Cape Comorin, Tamil Nadu to Ladakh, Kashmir, India using
bel to Richtofen that the discipline geophysics got some ‘seconds pendulum’ of Kater type on loan from the Royal
mention. One may consider that Fröbel’s mention of the Society of London (Burrard, 1905; Lenzen & Multhauf,
term geophysics was the embryonic stage of the discipline 1965). It is also interesting to note that an early form of
which underwent a gestation period till the year 1877. seismological studies were also conducted by Richard Dixon
Readers may be surprised to know that the discipline of Oldham (1858–1936), Superintendent Geologist at Geologi-
geophysics was probably not very much alien to the Far cal Survey of India, at the end of the nineteenth century fol-
East during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Dur- lowing the Great Assam Earthquake in 1897. Oldham made
ing the rule of Meiji government in Japan there had been three important contributions. Firstly, he identified that fault
large scale transformation in Japanese society, which was motion was associated with an earthquake. Secondly, he dis-
known as Meiji restoration. John Milne (1850–1913), tinguished separate arrivals of seismic wave phases, such as
a young mining engineer from England working as an P- and S-waves. Thirdly, he postulated the presence of dense
explorer in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, was core within earth. Despite, these significant works associated
hired as a Professor of Geology at the Imperial College with geophysics, the concept of geophysics, truly speak-
of Engineering, Tokyo in the year 1875. Milne initiated, ing, was obscured. The studies were either in the gamut of
although rudimentary, courses on geophysics especially natural philosophy, or at best under the category of earth
in the area of crystallography and seismology. In 1880 sciences.

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2.2 Geophysics in Europe at its early stage the Permanent Central Seismic Commission (PCSC) under
the control of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. With the
Although the discipline geophysics was born in Europe support from PCSC, Russian physicist, Boris Borisovich
by the early 30s of the nineteenth century, its growth was Golitsyn (1862–1916) invented in 1906, the first electro-
very slow. Interestingly, geophysical methods, such as sys- magnetic seismograph which helped to build Russia-wide
tematic long magnetic transect measuring all three compo- seismic network (Minina, 2019). Unfortunately, the percep-
nents of magnetic intensity was conducted by Karl Kreil tion of separate discipline geophysics was still missing.
(1798–1862), Austrian Meteorologist and Director of Geographers in Europe, in general, especially those
Prague Observatory, between 1843 and 1845 in the terri- engaged in the studies of the earth processes, soon realised
tory of Slovakia which was then known as Bohemia (Kreil the requirement of introducing a new scientific discipline
& Fritsch, 1850). However, the first successful magnetic geophysics, as the scope of the subject had become beyond
survey (measuring magnetic total force) with a relatively the arena of geography or even geology. And geognosy
modern approach was conducted by Georg Balthazar von would certainly not be the right labelling of the subject.
Neumayer (1826–1909), German Polar Explorer, in Victoria, One would naturally wonder what attributes made the dis-
Australia between 1858 and 1864. cipline geophysics distinguishably different from geology.
During the onset of Second Industrial Revolution in the It is no wonder even someone engaged in the profession
late 60s of nineteenth century, Sweden started geophysi- and practice of the subject remains oblivious about the dif-
cal prospecting, especially the magnetic method for pros- ference between these two disciplines. ‘Even geophysicists
pecting iron ore deposits. The eponymous Thalén–Tiberg were uncertain about their fields’, a statement made by Jan
mechanical magnetometer invented by Tobias Robert Thalén Kozák and David Oldroyd in their publication (2007) should
(1827–1905) and Johan Tiberg in Sweden was used in pros- not be considered as an exaggeration.
pecting. Interestingly, Tobias Thalén was a Professor in
Physics at the University of Uppsala in Sweden and Johan 2.2.1  Definition used by Oxford English Dictionary
Tiberg was a mining engineer. Strictly speaking, the studies (OED 2012)
on mineral prospecting in entire Europe was done under the
auspices of the subject geography (Avango et al., 2018). Geology is the science which deals with the physical struc-
There were well established geographical societies in Paris ture and substance of the earth while Geophysics is the phys-
and Berlin as early as 1820. One such society was also estab- ics of the earth.
lished in Sweden in the year 1870.
In Soviet Russia, other than studying terrestrial magnet- 2.2.2  Definition used by Encyclopedia Britannica
ism, the study of earthquake seismology also started by the online (EBO)
middle of nineteenth century. Even before the invention of
appropriate seismograph, there was a serious attempt of stud- Geology is the field of study concerned with solid earth
ying earthquake seismology. However, such studies were (https://​www.​brita​nnica.​com/​scien​ce/​geolo​gy) while Geo-
primarily conducted by geographers and geologists. Interest- physics is a discipline that applies the principles and meth-
ingly, the Seismic Commission, a scientific body to inves- ods of physics to the study of the earth (https://​www.​brita​
tigate earthquake, was founded as an umbrella organisation nnica.​com/​scien​ce/​geoph​ysics).
within the Geographical Society of Russia in 1888, after a The above definitions as per both the OED and EBO,
devastating earthquake at the town of Verny (now Alma-Ata although brief, are succinct. It is, however, interesting to note
at Kazakhstan). Ivan Vasiliveich Mushketov (1850–1902), that German geographer, Siegmund Günther (1848–1923) as
Professor at the Department of Geology and Geognosy of far back as the last quarter of the nineteenth century also
Mining Institute of Petrograd (now known St. Petersburg held the same notion about geophysics.
Mining University) took the initiative of completing the
unfinished work of seismic cataloguing by Russian geogra- 2.3 Geophysics in North America
pher, A. P. Orlov, and published a comprehensive catalogue
of earthquakes (with tabulated values of Rossi–Forel scale The application of geophysical methods for mineral pros-
of intensity) that occurred within the Russian Empire from pecting started in U.S. as early as 1882 when American
1700–1888 (Mushketov & Orlov, 1893). Some, however, geophysicist, Carl Barus (1856–1935) used it for prospect-
argue that the systematic observations of earthquake started ing at Comstock Eureka Lode, Nevada (Barus, 1882). Most
as early as 1847 in the City of Sselenginsk, southern Siberia importantly, it was for the first time, the electrical method
of Russia by a geographer, P. A. Kehlberg (Radziminovich in geophysics was used with specific intent and objective.
and Shchetnikov, 2013). By the turn of twentieth century, the Truly speaking, measurement of electric potential on earth
Seismic Commission which was an ancillary body became was conducted more than half a century ago when British

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Indian Journal of History of Science

geologist, Robert Were Fox (1789–1877) in 1830 discovered (1866–1932), Canadian physicist, took a patent in 1914 to
naturally occurring electric potential which is now recog- explore oil bearing strata using seismic method. Actually,
nised as self-potential at the Cornwall Copper Mine in Eng- Fessenden invented sonar (sound navigation and ranging)
land, although Fox wrongfully claimed that as an electro- which could be used to determine the depth of the ocean
magnetic potential (Fox & Gilbert, 1830). Fox predicted that floor. However, the first test use of seismic method was con-
measurement of electric potential could be used for pros- ducted not in Canada, but on 9th August 1921 in Ardmore,
pecting ore deposits. Possibly motivated by Swedish efforts, Oklahoma, U.S. Eight years later, in 1929, seismic survey
the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in the early was conducted in Turner Valley Oil Field, Alberta, Canada.
90s of nineteenth century under the leadership of Henry
Lloyd Smyth (1862–1944) conducted magnetic survey at
Marquette District of Lake Superior iron ore deposits of the 3 Early publications of books and journals
State of Michigan (van Hise & Bayley, 1895; Smyth, 1897).
This was certainly one of the early attempts of conducting Geographers in the late nineteenth century realised that the
systematic geophysical survey in North America, although best way to introduce the new discipline is through publi-
the discipline geophysics was yet to be established formally. cation of books, research journals and introducing course
Soon under the leadership of American physicist, Louis curriculum at the university level. Italian astronomer and
Agricola Bauer (1865–1932), the discipline could lay a physicist, Angelo Secchi (1818–1878), published a book
strong foundation in America. Louis Bauer played a crucial Lezioni elementari fisica terrestre (in Italian: Elementary
role, not only in promoting systematic geophysical survey, lessons of earth physics) in 1879. The book in its first lesson
especially the magnetic survey in all the states of U.S., but introduced the figure of the earth and then continued with
also in conducting research while being a founding editor of oceanography, volcanism, stratigraphy and palaeontology,
the journal Terrestrial Magnetism. In the earliest volume of etc. Secchi’s book Fisica terrestre was descriptive in nature
the journal, Bauer proudly announced that the State of Mary- and, truly speaking, it served geology better than geophys-
land in United States conducted detailed magnetic survey in ics, as there was lack of mathematical and physical details
the entire state. It is important to note that the Department in describing physical processes. Next bold attempt came
of Terrestrial Magnetism was founded in 1904 at Washing- from Siegmund Günther, who published two volumes of
ton based Carnegie Institute for Science, with the primary introductory geophysics textbook in German language. The
intent of conducting marine magnetic measurements. The first volume appeared in the year 1884 and the second one
institution used specially designed non-magnetic ship which in the following year. The title of the book Lehrbuch der
operated from 1909 to 1927 until it was destroyed acciden- geophysik und physikalischen geographie bands I and II (in
tally by fire. German: Textbook on geophysics and physical geography,
Almost at the beginning of the twentieth century, geo- volumes I and II) (Günther, 1884–1885). In the preface of
physical methods in mineral prospecting were also inducted the book, Günther was advocating to the would-be-reader
in Canada, although the first seismograph was stationed at (possibly the first year undergraduate students in the univer-
Toronto, Canada in 1897. In March 1903, Canadian Mining sity) that why prior knowledge of mathematics and physics
Institute held annual meeting where the scope of using mag- are essential in true understanding of geological processes.
netometric measurements in locating magnetic ore bodies He even recommended students to read the report of Ger-
was discussed. A year later Eugene Hannel, Superintendent man mathematician, Karl Bernhard Zöppritz (1881–1908)
of Mines, Canada submitted comprehensive report where which was published in Wagner’s journal Geographisches
he discussed various aspects of magnetic survey including Jahrbuch. Interestingly, during late nineteenth century there
interpretation technique of measured magnetic data (Hannel, was no true geophysics course offered by any European uni-
1904). The report was so nicely presented that it should be versity, and as a matter of fact nowhere in the globe as well.
considered as the first text book written in English on the Therefore, the textbook of Siegmund Günther was meant
magnetic methods of prospecting, although the discipline for graduating geographers who would get some essence
geophysics was yet to be formally recognised in Canada. of geophysics.
While the application of geophysical method for ore pros- Next bold attempt was on bringing scientific publica-
pecting was strongly advocated by Eugene Hannel in 1904, tions with a major focus on geophysics, which would act
it took four and half decades when Canadian Society of as a precursor to forming a learned society in geophysics.
Exploration Geophysicists was founded. Recognition of the The famous German geographers, Herman Hans Wagner
discipline geophysics, by-and-large was slow. (1840–1929) and Ernst Behn (1830–1884) were in the edi-
But within a decade there was a tremendous turn around, torial role of the famous journal of geography in German
especially the discovery of Turner Oil Field at Alberta in language Geographisches Jahrbuch (in German: Annals of
1917. The euphoria was extreme when Reginald Fessenden Geography) in 1872. Wagner had a brilliant idea. He wanted

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 Indian Journal of History of Science

to give an edge to his geography journal in order to increase appeared in June, 1880. Nonetheless, the journal Gerlands
more readership and circulation among disparate group of Beiträge zur Geophysik was certainly the corner stone of
researchers. He convinced his fellow editor, Ernst Behn that the development of geophysics. Unfortunately, the journal
the vision of German geographer, Paul Richthofen, could struggled severely due to the lack of articles on geophysics.
be executed by inducting some researchers in the editorial Between 1888 and 1898 only three volumes of the journal
board who were primarily working on the area of physics were published.
of the earth’s processes; for example, geomagnetism, earth- However, the situation improved dramatically with the
quakes and its physical/mathematical description so on. In turn of the new century. In the first half of the twentieth
other words, Wagner attempted to bring notice to the readers century Gerlands Beiträge zur Geophysik was the leading
of his journal about some scope of geophysics. journal on geophysics. It would be surprising to many geo-
Wagner’s task was simplified when German anthro- physicists to know that the famous physicist, Albert Ein-
pologist and geophysicist, Georg Cornelius Karl Gerland stein (1879–1955) was a member of the editorial board of
(1833–1919) became one of members of the editorial the journal during 1926–1933 (Schröder & Treder, 1997).
board of the journal. Although the journal Geographisches By then the coveted journal made a time travel for almost
Jahrbuch dedicated one section for publishing geophysics four decades; a great feat indeed to support the discipline
between 1881 and 1885 but, it was difficult to get enough geophysics from its juvenile state to maturity. The journal
articles related to geophysics. Even the concept of seismol- Beiträge zur Geophysik continued to be published over a
ogy was premature and majority of seismological works in century, until it stopped publishing from the year 1990.
the last quarter of the nineteenth century were merely crude Within a decade from the day of foundation of the first
observations due to lack of appropriate instrumentation. journal on geophysics, the leading American geophysicist
Nonetheless, the perception of mechanical properties, such of the late nineteenth to early twentieth century, Louis Agri-
as theory of elasticity of earth materials and propagating cola Bauer (1865–1932) introduced a new journal Terres-
kinematic disturbances as wave had been developing within trial Magnetism in the year 1896 which has been known
some group of physicists and applied mathematicians. In since March 1949 as Journal of Geophysical Research, the
December 1887, Cornellius Gerland founded a highly pres- flagship journal of American Geophysical Union. Agricola
tigious journal in German language, known as Gerlands Bauer was the founding member of the journal till 1932.
Beiträge zur Geophysik Zeitschrift für Physikalische Erd- From the second decade of twentieth century, more journals
kunde (in German: Gerland's Contributions to the Geophys- on geophysics started appearing. For example, Ludger Mint-
ics Journal of Physical Geography). Four months later, in the rop (1880–1956), German mine surveyor and geophysicist,
April issue of the magazine Science a review of the world’s who developed seismic refraction method in the year 1917
earliest technical journal on geophysics appeared. A brief established the Zeitschrift für Geophysik in 1924, which was
excerpt of the review by the editor of the magazine Science rechristened in 1974 as Journal of Geophysics. Twelve years
is given below. later, from the year 1936 the journal Geophysics, the flagship
journal for professional geophysicists, especially focussing
[... It illustrates the method of geography teaching at
on publishing research works related mainly to prospect-
German universities better than any elaborate descrip-
ing hydrocarbon and other mineral resources started regular
tion could do. As indicated in the title it contains the
publications of research articles under the banner of Society
results of researches of members of the geographical
of Explorations Geophysicists, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Seminar. ... In the introduction, Professor Gerland
gives his views on the aim and scope of geography. ...
On the other hand, he does not consider the methods of
4 Establishing learned societies
geology, so far as they are founded on palaeontology,
as the proper field of geographical studies, and con-
One of the oldest learned societies in geophysics, other
fines the latter to the study of the problems of geophys-
than Magnetischer Verein which was founded in 1830, was
ics: i.e., the study of the physical and chemical forces
the Seismological Society of Japan, which was established
as acting upon the earth. ...] (Editor Science, 1888).
in 1879 with organised efforts from John Milne, James
It was not quite right, as mentioned by the editor of Science Alfred Ewing (1855–1935) and Thomas Corwin Menden-
magazine, that Beiträge zur Geophysik was the earliest jour- hall (1841–1924). The founding president was, however,
nal in geophysics. In fact, the Transactions of Seismological Japanese politician, Hattori Ichizo. Truly speaking, Mag-
Society of Japan should be considered as the forerunner of netischer Verein should not be counted as one of the learned
the geophysical journal, although it was publishing seismo- societies of geophysics as the terminology geophysics was
logical observations including seismogram. The first pub- yet to appear. In fact, Milne’s horizontal pendulum seismo-
lication of Transactions of Seismological Society of Japan graph which was a remarkable development in 1887 was a

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Indian Journal of History of Science

trend setter. Milne’s seismographs were installed in several importantly, the first IPY was a great scientific movement
places in Japan in order to build a seismological network. for geophysics which brought together eleven countries
James Ewing in a publication to the journal Nature in 1886 from Europe including Russia and also North America to
described how the Seismological Society of Japan carried form a consortium on geophysical research, especially on
out remarkable works on seismology including publica- the studies of extra terrestrial effect on geomagnetism. The
tion of Transactions of the Seismological Society of Japan key person who conceptualised the IPY was Lieutenant Karl
(Ewing, 1886). Earthquake observations in Japan with the Weyprecht (1838–1881), Austro-Hungarian Naval Officer.
help of nation wide network of seismometers helped Japa- But the first IPY was coordinated by Georg Balthazar von
nese seismologist, Fusakichi Omori (1868–1923) to propose Neumayer (1826–1909), German geophysicist and Polar
the eponymous law, according to which the frequency of explorer owing to untimely demise of Karl Weyprecht. The
aftershocks from an earthquake decreases with the recipro- four major scientific programs identified in the first IPY were
cal of time. John Milne’s return to England boosted idea of (i) geomagnetic variations, (ii) atmospheric electricity, (iii)
coordinated seismic network installation in all five conti- earth currents and (iv) meteorological parameters. Further,
nents. By the year 1899, there were 27 coordinated seismic the measurement schedule of thirty four permanent magnetic
networks operating in all five continents except Antarctica observatories established in other parts of the world (some
(Herbert-Gustar & Nott, 1980) and by 1903, 13 more seis- of which had been operating for more than four decades)
mic stations were connected to the world wide seismic net- was synchronized with those of newly established stations
work (Helffrich, 2013). of the Arctic regions (Baker, 1982; Taylor, 1981).
An early ambitious international scientific collaboration The program of the first IPY actually popularised the
in geosciences in general and geomagnetism in particular upcoming discipline geophysics. In the year 1919, Ameri-
was initiated during the first International Polar Year (IPY) can Geophysical Union (AGU) was founded by National
1882–1883, which made significant influence on the devel- Research Council of America with a mission of promoting
opment of geophysics (Baker, 1982; Taylor, 1981). This geophysical endeavours and mutual cooperation with other
was not the first and the only effort of building international international organisations. But neither the IUGG, nor the
scientific collaboration in the nineteenth century. In fact, AGU is older than the Seismological Society of America
there had been at least two notable efforts of international which was established in 1906 at Albany, California due
scientific cooperation made by the first half of the nineteenth to strong persuasion from Alexander George McAdie
century. Those are: (i) Gauss–Weber initiation in building (1863–1943), American meteorologist, after San Francisco
global collaboration in the late 1830, called Magnetischer earthquake on 18 April 1906. The society publishes the flag-
Verein with the objective of studying temporal variation of ship journals Bulletin of Seismological Society of America
geomagnetic elements (declination, inclination and inten- since 1911.
sity) globally, and (ii) the world astronomical cooperation
(1849–1852) to determine solar parallax more accurately, as
the reported value of the measured solar parallax 8.57116ʺ 5 Geophysical applications in prospecting
from the data of transit of Venus in the years 1761 and 1769
by German astronomer Johan Franz Encke (1791–1865) in Although the geophysical methods of prospecting for min-
1824 cast considerable doubts among the researchers about eral resources were attempted in the later half of nineteenth
its accuracy (Huffman, 1991). Several nations from north- century, especially in Europe, its potential usage with full
ern and southern hemispheres participated in the program recognition started by the start of twentieth century. This was
(Baker, 1982), although it has been recognised as Naval chiefly due to enhanced demand for mineral resources. In
Astronomical Expedition of United States of America (Huff- the beginning of the twentieth century, the second Industrial
man, 1991). Revolution attained its peak which resulted in increase in
The first IPY (1882–1883), nevertheless, carries a special demand of mineral resources by manifold compared to that
significance, as it ushered not only a new frontier of col- of nineteenth century. This in turn encouraged developing
laboration on researches on geomagnetism, but also helped geophysical methods as powerful tools of exploration. But
in forming an umbrella organisation in geophysics, the the notable development was transforming piece-meal effort
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG), to a coordinated one by establishing geophysical service
in the year 1909. It is, however, important to note that the company in 1926 by French entrepreneurs and researchers,
International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy Conrad (1878–1936) and his brother Marcel Schlumberger
(IAGA), one of the eight sister associations of IUGG, was (1884–1953). The Schlumberger brothers were actually
founded in 1873, but in those days it was known as Com- engaged in geophysical prospecting business privately for
mission for Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electric- quite some times. They were operating not only in Europe,
ity (Fukushima, 1995; Mandea & Petrovský, 2019). Most but also in North America in the early 20s of the twentieth

13
 Indian Journal of History of Science

century. The newly established geophysical service com- But within a short period of time Wiechert formed one
pany, headed by Schlumberger brothers, Conrad and Marcel, of the famous Schools of Geophysics at the University of
and their brother-in-law, Henri George Doll (1902–1991), Göttingen, especially in the field of seismology. He made a
was involved in conducting geophysical method of explora- rapid development in the field of seismology both in terms
tion, especially borehole logging in oil exploration. of theory and designing a sophisticated seismograph. In
After the First World War, in the 20s but before 30s of the year 1900, he designed highly sensitive inverted pen-
the twentieth century, the economic boom in U.S. resulted in dulum seismograph, and mentored a group of highly meri-
increased demand for resources. The hydrocarbon industry torious students, like Beno Gutenberg, Karl Bernhard Zöp-
which started in the late nineteenth century took great initia- pritz and many more. With his colleague, Gustav Herglotz
tive in exploring new hydrocarbon reserves. The geophysi- (1881–1953), a mathematician, he developed mathematical
cal methods which were emerging techniques of exploration technique in 1910 to delineate layered structure within earth
received astounding welcome. Soon, professionals engaged from seismological data (Herglotz, 1907; Wiechert, 1910).
in geophysical methods in exploration found the need of The studies of geophysics at a university level started on the
establishing Society of Exploration of Geophysicists (SEG) back of seismology in the University of Göttingen.
in 1930. The society was financially supported by several Nearly two decades later after the establishment of
resource based companies, especially by hydrocarbon indus- Geophysics Department at the University of Göttingen,
tries. The SEG started its flagship journal Geophysics from Germany, the Institute of Geophysics at the University of
1936 which is continuing since then. Interestingly, there was Bergen, Norway was established in 1917 with an initiative
huge development in Soviet Russia as well using geophysi- from Professor Bjørn Helland Hansen (1877–1957), who
cal methods for ore body prospecting. In the year 1931, the was famous for inventing Helland-Hansen electromagnetic
famous Kursk iron ore deposit in Russia was discovered photometer. Professor Helland Hansen was an oceanogra-
using systematic magnetic prospecting method. Similarly, pher and the institute was involved primarily in research on
geophysical methods for prospecting were also used in Bra- meteorology and oceanography. Interestingly, except only
zil. In the early 30s of the twentieth century, Mark Cyril the doctoral program neither the University of Göttingen,
Malamphy (1902-), American geophysicist working at Bra- nor the University of Bremen started any geophysics under-
zil conducted magnetic prospecting method for prospecting graduate courses in the early twentieth century. On the other
gold bearing quartzite vein in the State of Santa Catharina hand, in 1923 Soviet Russia established the first geophysi-
of Brazil (Malamphy, 1934). cal research institute, the Institute of Applied Geophysics at
Moscow. The institute appointed Vladimir Ivanovich Bau-
man (1867–1923) as a Director, who specialised in geodesy
and mine surveying and had been holding a Chair of Profes-
6 University chair and course on geophysics sor at the Mining Institute in Petrograd (now known as St.
Petersburg Mining University). Bauman planned offering a
Herman Wagner’s contribution in establishing geophysics course on magnetometry for the academic year 1923–1924,
to be recognised as an important scientific discipline not but unfortunately, it never materialised due to his untimely
only in Germany, but also elsewhere in Europe as a whole demise within a few months since he took the charge as
was the most significant one. Wagner was highly influential director of the institute. It may be noted that while working
among academicians and researchers in Europe. He played at the Mining Institute at Petrograd, Bauman developed a
a key role in establishing a Chair in Geophysics at the Uni- novel technique of magnetic measurement for prospecting
versity of Göttingen in the year 1898, where Emil Johann magnetic ore body. After his demise, Alexey Alekseevich
Wiechert (1861–1928), German physicist and geophysicist, Petrovsky (1873–1942) was appointed as a Director of the
became the first recognised Professor in Geophysics. Actu- Institute. In the year 1930, the institute conferred degree
ally, in 1898 he joined as an Associate Professor in Geo- to the first batch of students graduating in the discipline of
physics and became a Full Professor in the year 1905. Emil ‘Geophysical Methods of Exploration’.
Wiechert was actually a trained physicist. Initially he was In October 1926, Colorado School of Mines, Denver
working on electrodynamics and X-ray at the University opened Geophysics Department with Carl August Heiland
of Königsberg, mentored by German physicist, Woldemar (1899–1956), German geophysicist who immigrated to
Voigt (1850–1919). It is believed (although some call it a America in 1925, as the Departmental Head. The univer-
grapevine) that Woldemar Voigt encouraged Emil Wiechert sity immediately engaged in offering courses on exploration
to leave the University of Königsberg. Wiechert had moved geophysics. American seismologist, James B. Macelwane
from the University of Königsberg to the University of Göt- (1883–1956) stated “… prior to 1924, geophysical methods
tingen a year before he occupied the Chair of Associate Pro- of prospecting was widely known in America. It was only
fessor Geophysics at the University of Göttingen. in the late 1924 that the startling success of geophysical

13
Indian Journal of History of Science

prospecting in the discovery of oil bearing structures led to Buntebarth, G. (1998). Geophysics: Disciplinary history in sciences of

sity curricula … (Macelwane, 1940)”. Interestingly in 1928,

the foundation of geophysics in America within the univer- the earth. In G. A. Good (Ed.), An encyclopedia of events, people
and phenomena (pp. 377–380). Routledge.
Burrard, S. G. (1905). On the intensity and direction of the force of
the Government Geologist at the Department of Mines, gravity in India. Proceedings of Royal Society of London, A76,
New South Wales, Australia, Earnest Clayton Andrews 313–315.
(1870–1948) proposed opening the courses on exploration Editor Science. (1888). Beiträge zur Geophysik. Abhandlungen aus
dem geographischen Seminar der Universität Strassburg. In
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NS-11(273), 203.
Ewing, J. A. (1886). Seismology in Japan. Nature, 34, 195–196.
Fox, R. W., & Gilbert, D. (1830). On the electromagnetic properties
7 Conclusions of metalliferous veins in the Mines of Cornwall. Philosophical
Transactions, Royal Society, 120, 399–414.
Fröbel, J., & Heer, O. (1834). Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete der theo-
The discipline geophysics is a relatively niche area in sci- retischen Erdkunde (Vol. I). Orell Füssli und Compagnie.
ence. The historical background of the subject regarding its Fukushima, N. (1995). History of the International Association of Geo-
inception and progress as a complete well recognised dis- magnetism and Aeronomy. IUGG Chronicle, 226, 73–87.
Goldingham, J. (1822). Observations for ascertaining the length of the
cipline seems to provide a picture of how a new branch of pendulum at Madras in the East Indies, latitude 13° 4′ 9″, 1 N with
science and technology emerges from initial struggles. The the conclusions drawn from the same. Philosophical Transactions
difference between the disciplines geology and geophysics, of Royal Society of London, 112, 127–170.
as described in the text gives a clear understanding not only Günther, S. (1884 and 1885). Lehrbuch der Geophysik und der Physi-
kalischen Geographie, Band I and II. Verlag von Ferdinan Enke.
to the budding graduates of the discipline, but also to those Hall, D. H. (1976). History of the earth sciences during the scientific
who are actively engaged in the geoscience profession. The and industrial revolutions with special emphasis on the physical
records of past achievements in the path of its development geoscienes. Elsevier: Amsterdam.
would encourage young students and researchers in their Hannel, E. (1904). On the location and examination of magnetic ore
deposits by magnetometric measurements. Report to Minister of
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Helffrich, G. (2013). Geology: The maverick founder of modern seis-
Acknowledgements  The author gratefully acknowledges all three mology. Nature, 504, 216–217. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​50421​6a
anonymous reviewers for their illuminating reviews. The author Henderson, R. (2016). The history of exploration geophysics educa-
extends his special thanks to the first anonymous reviewer for alerting tion in Australia: A brief introduction. Exploration Geophysics
the author with the publication of Dr. Wilfried Schröder on the similar Education. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://​www.​aseg.​org.​
topic more than a decade back. The current research on history of sci- au/​histo​ry/​explo​ration-​geoph​ysics-​educa​tion
ence with special reference to geophysics’ by the author is supported Herbert-Gustar, A. L., & Nott, P. A. (1980). John Milne: Father of
by Spaceage Geoconsulting (a research oriented consulting firm). modern seismology. Paul Norbury Publications.
Herglotz, G. (1907). Über das Benndorfsche Problem der Fortpflan-
Data availability  The historical evidences or data, if any present in zungsgeschwindigkeit der Erdbebenstrahlen. Zeitschrift Zur Geo-
the article, are available in the cited literature which are enlisted in the physik, 8, 145–147.
References of the article. Herschel, J. F. W. (1830). Preliminary discourse on the study of natural
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Competing interests  The authors hereby declares that there is no org/​10.​17704/​1944-​6187-​39.1.1
competing interest involved with this article, nor there is any finan- Huffman, W. W. (1991). The United States Naval Astronomical Expe-
cial interest including funding from an external agency involved. The dition (1849–52) for the solar parallax. Journal for the History
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