FLIGHT STABILITY AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL SECOND EDITIONThe Second Edition of Flight Stabiliny and Ationatic Control presents an integrated treatment of aircraft stability, flight Room iter moron sn nncceai ss Rete nouns era! pre Wts tonnes ee ear UL con emaCoLee and nomenclature. Other highlights of the book include: Paras eerie emer uit arsenic Penrenie ee Cee esmer a ena feet eee eee ernment mos peyton Meo Ne ia eon enc Lecae eof Bite its application to flight control system design. ee ea sonterse tie tac enoroa eae taco Greater rcen Peer ere ed mya cern tocar Rye erence recs tm Interesting historical notes appeal to students’ interest. www-mhhe-com ISBN 0-0?-115838-3 WCB/McGraw-Hill nu A Dwwision of The MeGraw-Hill Companies gli78007 1158581 Oy 78Flight Stability and Automatic Control SECOND EDITION Dr. Robert C, Nelson Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering University of Notre Dame egwee Hilal McGraw-Hill Boston, Massachusetts Burr Ridge, Illinois Dubuque, Towa Wisconsin New York, New York San Francisco, California Lévis, MissouriWCB/McGraw-Hill 4 A Division of The McCraw Eiill Gonipanies FLIGHT STABILITY AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL International Editions 1998 Exclusive rights by McGraw-Hill Book Co — Singapor book cannot he re-exported from the country 10 which i for manufacture and export. ‘This s consigned by McGraw-Hill Copyright © 1998 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 1989, Except as permilted under the United States Copytight Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 678910 SLP PMP 2098765432 Library of Congtess Cataloging-in-Publieation Data Nelson, Robert C,, 1942— Flight stability and automatic controt / Robert C. Nelson, —2nd ed. p cm, Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-07-046273-9 1, Stability of airplanes. 2, Airplanes-Control systems. 3. Airplines-Automatic control. 1, Title TLS74.S7N45 1998 629.132'96-de21 97-26109 CIP hhtp:/www.mbcollege.com When ordering this title, use ISBN 0-07-115838-3 Printed in Singapore ABOUT THE AUTHOR am ROBERT C, NELSON received his B. S, and M.S. degrees in Aerospace Engi- neering from the University of Notre Dame and his Ph.D. in Aerospace Engi- neering fiom the Pennsylvania State University, Prior to joining Notre Dame, Dr. Nelson was'an instructor of Acrospace Engineering at the Pennsylyania State University and an engineer for the Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Fairborn, Ohio. While employed at AFFDL, he worked on an advanced development program to develop the technology for an air to air short range bomber defense missile, For his contribution to this eifort he received a Technical Achievement award from the Air Force Systems Command. To 1975, Dr. Nelson joined the faculty at Notre Dame and has been aetive in research dealing with the aerodynamics and flight dynamics of both aircraft and missiles. His present research interests include the aerodynamics of slender bodies at large angles of attack, flow visualization techniques, delta wing aerodynamics, and aircraft stability and control, He has written over 100 articles and papers on his research, Dr, Nelson is the chairman of the Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering at Notre Dame. He has also been active as a consultant to government and industrial organizations. He is a Registered Professional Engineer and a Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). He served as the general chairman of the AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics. Conference in 1982 and was the chairman of the ATAA Atmospheric Flight Me- chanies Technical Committee from May 1983-1985. Dr. Nelson also served as a member of the ALAA Applied Aerodynamics Technical Committee from 1986 to 1989, Other professional activities include participation as a lecturer and course coordinator of four short courses and one home study course sponsored by the AIAA (1982, 1984, 1989, 1995). He also has been an AGARD lecturer (1991, 1993, 1995, 1997), In 1991, Dr. Nelson received the John Leland Atwood Award from the ALAA and ASEE. This award is given annually for contributions to Aerospace Engineering Education.PREFACE a ST An understanding of flight stability and control played ah important role in the ultimate success of the earliest aircraft designs. In later years the design of auto- matic controls ushered in the rapid development of commercial and military air- craft. Today, both military and civilian aircraft rely heavily on automatic control systems to provide artificial stabilization and autopilots to aid pilots in navigating and landing their aircraft in adverse weather conditions. The goal of this book is fo present an integrated treatment of the basic elements of aircraft stability, flight control, and autopilot design. NEW TO THIS EDITION In the second edition, I haye attempted to improve the first six chapters from the first edition, These chapters cover the topics of static stability, flight control, aircraft dynamics and flying qualities. This is accomplished by including more worked-out example problems, additional problems at the end of each chapter. and new material to provide additional insight on the subject. The major change in the text is the addition of an expanded section on automatic contro! theory and its application to flight control system design. CONTENTS This book is intended as a textbook for a course in aircraft flight dynamics for senior undergraduate or first year graduate students. The material presented in- cludes static stability, aircraft equations of motion, dynamic stability, flying or handling qualities, automatic control theory, and application of control theory to the synthesis of automatic flight control systems. Chapter | reviews some basic concepts of aerodynamics, properties of the atmosphere, several of the primary flight instruments, and nomenclature. In Chapter 2 the concepts of airplane static stability and control are presented. The design features that can be incorporated into an aircraft design to provide static stability and sufficient control power are discussed. The rigid body aircraft equations of motion are developed along with techniques to model the aerodynamic forces and moments acting on the airplane in Chapter 3. The aerodynamic forces and moments are modeled using the concept of aerodynamic stability derivatives, Methods for estimating the derivatives are presented in Chapter 3 along with a detailed example calculation of the longitudinal derivatives of a STOL transport. The dynamic characteristics of an airplane for free and forced response are presented in Chapters 4 and 5, Chapter 4 discusses thevi Preface longitudinal dynamics while Chapter 5 presents the lateral dynamics, In both chapters the relationship between the rigid body motions and the pilot's opinion of the ease or difficulty of fying the airplane is explained, Handling or flying qualities are those control and dynamic characteristics that govern how well a pilot can fly a particular centrol task. Chapter 6 discusses the solution of the equations of motion for either arbitrary control input or atmospheric disturbances. Chapters 7-10 include the major changes incorporated into the second edition of this book Chapter 7 provides a review of classical contre! concepts and discusses control system synthesis and design. The root locus method is used to design control systems to meet given time and frequency domain performance specifications. Classical control techniques are used to design automatic control systems for yari- ‘ous Night applications in Chapter 8. Automatic control systems are presented that can be used to maintain an airplane's bank angle, pitch orientation, altitude, and speed. In addition a qualitative deseription of a fully automated landing system is presented, In Chapter 9. the concepts of modern control theory and design tech- niques are reviewed. By using state feedback design, it is theoretically possible for the designer to locate the roots of the closed loop system so that any desired performance can be achieved. The practical constraints of arbitrary root placement are discussed along with the necessary requirements tw successfully implement state feedback control. Finally in Chapter 10 modern control design methods are applied to the design of aircraf{ automatic flight control systems. LEARNING TOOLS To help in understanding the concepts presented in the text | have included a number of worked-out example problems throughout the book, and at the end of each chapter one will find a problem set. Some of the example problems and selected problems atthe end of later chapters require computer solutions, Commer- cially available computer aided design software is used for selected example prob- lems and assigned problems. Problems that require the use of a computer are clearly identified in the problem sets, A major feature of the textbook is that the material is introduced by way of simple exercises. For example, dynamic stability is presented first by restricted single degree of freedom motions. This approach permits the reader to gain some experience in the mathematical representation and physical understanding of aircraft response before the more complicated multiple degree of freedom motions are analyzed, A similar approach is used in developing the control system designs. For example, a roll autopilot to maintain a wings level attitude is modeled using the simplest mathematical formulation to represent the aircraft and control system elements, Following this approach the students can be introduced to the design process without undue mathematical complexity. Several appendices have also been included to provide additional data on airplane aeredy- hamic, mass, and geometric characteristics as well as review material of some of the mathematical and analysis techniques used in the text. Acknowledgements vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Tam indebted to all the students who used the early drafts of this book, Their many suggestions and patience as the book evolved is greatly appreciated. | would like to express my thanks for the many useful comments and suggestions provided by colleagues who reviewed this text during the course of its development, espe- cially to: Donald T, Ward Andrew S. Arena, Jr, C. H. Chuang Frederick H, Lutze Roberto Celi Finally, 1 would like to express my appreciation to Marilyn Walker for her patience in Lyping the many versions of this manuscript. Texas A & M University Oklahoma State University Georgia Institute of Technology Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University University of Maryland Robert C. NelsonCONTENTS ET Preface 1 Introduction 1.1 Atmospheric Flight Mechanics 1.2 Basic Definitions 1.2.1 Fluid / 1.2.2 Pressure / 1.2.3 Temperature / 1.2.4 Density / 1.2.5 Viscosity / 1.2.6 The Mach Number and the Speed of Sound 13 Aerostatics 1.3.1 Variation of Pressure in @ Static Fluid 1.4 Development of Bernoulli’s Equation 1.4.) Incompressible Bernoulli Equation / 1.4.2 Bernoulli's Equation for a Compressible Fluid 1.4 | The Atmosphere 16 Aeradynamic Nomenclature 1.7 Aircraft Instruments L771 Air Data Systems / 1.7.2 Airspeed Indicator / 1.7.3 Altimeter / 1.7.4 Rate of Climb Indicator / 1.7.5 Machmeter 7 1,7.6 Angte of Attack Indicators 1.8 Summary Problems References 2 Static Stability and Control 2.1 Historical Perspective 2.2 Introduction 2.2.) Static Stability / 2.2.2 Dynamic Stability 23 Static Stability and Control 2.1 Definition of Longitudinal Static Stability / Contrilnition of Aircraft Components / 2.3.3 Wing Contribution / 2.3.4 Tail Coutribution—Aft Tail / 2.3.5 Canard—Forward Tail Surface / 2.3.6 Fuselage Contribution / 2.3.7 Power Effects / 2.3.8 Stick Fixed Neutral Point 2.4 Longitudinal Control 2.4.1 Elevator Effectiveness / 2.4.2 Elevator Angle to Trim / 2.4.3 Flight Measurement of Xyp / 2.4.4 Elevator Hinge Moment 32 33 35 35 42x Contents 2.6 27 2.8 29 2,10 Stick Forces 2.5.1 Trim Tabs / 2.5.2 Stick Force Gradients Definition of Directional Stability 2.6.1 Contribution of Aircraft Components Directional Control Roll Stability Roll Control Summary Problems References Aircraft Equations of Motion 3.1 3.2 3.3 34 35 36 37 Introduction Derivation of Rigid Body Equations of Motion Orientation and Position of the Airplane Gravitational and Thrust Forces Small-Disturbance Theory Aerodynamic Force and Moment Representation 3.6.1 Derivatives Due to the Change in Forward Speed / 3.6.2 Derivatives Due t the Pitching Velocity, q / 3.6.3 Derivatives Due to the Time Rate of Change of the Angle of Attack / 3.6.4 Derivative Due to the Rolling Rave, p / 3.6.5 Derivative Due to the Yawing Rate, r Summary Problems References Longitudinal Motion (Stick Fixed) 41 42 43 44 45 4.6 47 Historical Perspective Second-Order Differential Equations Pure Pitching Motion Stick Fixed Longitudinal Motion 4.4.1 State Variable Representation of the Equations of Motion Longitudinal Approximations 4.5.1 Short-Periad Approximation The Influence of Stability Derivatives on the Longitudinal Modes of Motion Flying Qualities 4.7.1 Pilot Opinion 70 3 qT. B 81 84 96 96 oF 10] 103 104 108 127 128 130 131 131 133 139 147 152 162 164 Contents 4.8 Flight Simulation 4.9 Summary Problems References Lateral Motion (Stick Fixed) §.1 Introduction §.2 Pure Rolling Motion 5.2.1 Wing Rock / 5.2.2 Roll Control Reversal 5.3 Pure Yawing Motion 5.4 Lateral-Directional Equations of Motion 5.41 Spiral Approximation / 5.4.2 Roll Approximation / 5.4.3 Dutch Roll Appoximation 5.5 Lateral Flying Qualities 5.6 Inertial Coupling 5.7. Summary Problems References Aircraft Response to Control or Atmospheric Inputs 6.1 6.2 63 64 65 6.6 6.7 Introduction ‘Equations of Motion in a Nonuniform Atmosphere Pure Vertical or Plunging Motion Atmospheric Turbulence Harmonic Analysis 6.5.1 Turbulence Models Wind Shear Summary Problems References Automatic Control Theory— The Classical Approach TAL 72 13 74 75 Introduction Routh’s Criterion Root Locus Technique 7.3.1 Addition of Poles and Zeres Frequency Domain Techniques Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Specifications 7.5.1 Gain and Phase Margin from Root Locus / 7.5.2 Higher-Order Systems xi 169 171 174, 179 181 181 182 188 193 203 205 206 206 210 212 212 215 218 225 227 229 232 233) 234 235, 235 238 243 250 251xii Contents 7.6 Te 78 79 Steady-State Error Control System Design 7.7.1 Compensation (7.7.2 Forward-Path Compensation 77.3 Feedhack-Path Compensation PID Controller Summary Problems References Application of Classical Contral Theory to Aircraft Autopilot Design BL 82 83 84 8.5 8.6 8.7 Introduction Aircraft Transfer Functions 8.2.1 Short-Period Dynamics / 8.2.2 Long Period or Phugoid Dynamics / 8.2.3 Roll Dynamics / 8.2.4 Dutch Roll Approximation Control Surface Actuator Displacement Autopilot 8.4.1 Pitch Displacement Autopilot / 8.4.2 Roll Attitude Autopilot / 8.4.3 Altitude Hold Control System / 8.4.4 Velocity Hole Control System Stability Augmentation Instrument Landing Summary Problems References Modern Control Theory 91 9.2 93 94 95 9.6 Introduction State-Space Modeling 9.2.1 State Transition Matrix / 9.2.2 Numerical Solution of State Equations Canonical Transformations 9.3.1 Rett| Distinet Bigenvalues / 9.3.2 Repeaied Eigenvalues / 9.3.3 Complex Eigenvalues Controllability and Observability State Feedback Design 9.5.1 Numerical Method for Determining Feedback Gains ( 9.5.2 Multiple Input-Output System: / 0.5.3 Eigenvalue Placement State Variable Reconstruction: The State Observer 258 262 281 281 283 288 292 a12 a4 318 10 97 9.8 Contents Optimal State-Space Control System Desiga Summary Problems References Application of Modern Control Theory to Aircraft Autopilot Design WA 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Introduction Stability Augmentation 10.2.1 Longitudinal Stability Augmentation / 10,2.2 Lateral Stability Augmentation Autopilot Design State Observer Optimal Control Summary Problems References Appendices A B Cc D Atmospheric Tables (ICAO Standard Atmosphere) Geometric, Mass, and Aerodynamic Characteristics of Selected Airplanes Mathematical Review of Laplace Transforms and Matrix Algebra Review of Control System Analysis Techniques Index sili 359 362 362. 366 367 367 367 379 383 386 391 391 394 395 398 420, 429CHAPTER 1 Introduction “For some years I have been afflicted with the belief that flight is possible to man." Wilbur Wright, May 13, 1900 La ATMOSPHERIC FLIGHT MECHANICS Atmospheri¢ flight mechanics is a broad heading that encompasses three major disciplines; namely, performance, flight dynamics, and aeroelasticity. In the past each of these subjects was treated independently of the others. However, because of the structural flexibility of’ modern airplanes, the interplay among the disciplines no longer can be ignored, Forexample, if the flight loads cause si jgnificant structural deformation of the aircraft, one can expect changes in the airplane's aerodynamic and stability characteristics that will influence its performance and dynamic behavior. ‘Airplane performance deals with the determination of performance character istics such as range, endurance, rate of climb, and takeoff and landing distance as well as flight path optimization, To evaluate these performance characteristics, one normally treats the airplane as a point mass acted on by gravity, lift, drag, and thrust. The accuracy of the performance calculations depends on how accurately the lift, drag, and thrust can be determined. Flight dynamies is concerned with the motion of an airplane duc to internally orexternally generated disturbances. We particularly are interested in the yehicle’s stability and control capabilities. To describe adequately the rigid-body motion of an airplane one needs to consider the complete ‘equations of motion with six degrees of freedom, Again, this will require accurate estimates of the aerodynamic forces and moments. acting on the airplane. The final subject included under the heading of ztmospheric flight mechanics is acroelasticity, Acroclasticity deals with both static and dynamic aeroelastic phenomena. Basically, aeroelasticity is concerned with pheaomena associated with interactions between inertial, clastic, and aerodynamic forces. Problems that arise for a flexible aircraft include control reversal, wing divergence, and control surface flutter, to name just a few.2 CHAPTER J: Introduction ate lane sentation x Biotiycornied AN anna \ ‘Aljabledl tena * era see Ineornetned ithe kien fal) To eueesaie ing FIGURE L1 Advanced technologies incorporated in the X-29A aircraft. This book is divided into three parts: The first part deals with the properties of the atmosphere, static stability and control concepts, development of aircraft equa- tions of motion, and aerodynamic modeling of the airplane; the second part exam- ines aircraft motions due to control inputs or atmospheric disturbances; the third part is devoted to aircraft autopilots. Although no specific chapters are devoted entirely to performance or aeroelasticity, an effort is made to show the reader, at least in a qualitative way, how performance specifications and aeroelastic phenom- ena influence aircraft stability and control characteristics. The interplay among the three disciplines that make up atmospheric flight mechanics is best illustrated by the experimental high-performance airplane shown in Figure 1,1. The X-29A aircraft incorporates the latest advanced technologies in controls, structures, and aerodynamics. These technologies will provide substantial performance improvements over more conventional fighter designs. Such a design could not be developed without paying close attention to the interplay among performance, aeroelasticity, stability, and control. In fact, the evolution of this radical design was developed using trade-off studies between the various disciplines to justify the expected performance improvements. ‘The forces and moments acting on an airplane depend on the properties of the atmosphere through which itis flying, In the following sections we will review some basic concepts of fluid mechanics that will help us appreciate the atmospheric properties essential to our understanding of airplane flight mechanics. In addition we will discuss some of the important aircraft instruments that provide flight information to the pilot. 1.2 Basic Definitions 3 1.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS The aerodynamic forces and moments generated on an airplane are due to its geometric shape, attitude to the flow, airspeed, and the properties of the ambient air mass through which itis flying, Air is‘ fluid and as such possesses certain fluid properties. The properties we are interested in are the pressure, temperature, density, viscosity, and speed of sound of air at the flight altitude, 1.2.1 Fluid A fiuid can be thought of as any substance that flows. To haye such a property, the fluid must deform continuously when acted on by a shearing force. A shear force is a force tangent to the surface of the fluid element. No shear stresses are present in the fluid when it is at rest. A fluid can transmit forces normal to any chosen direction. The normal force and the normal stress are the pressure force and pressure, respectively. Both liquids and gases can be considered fluids. Liquids under most conditions do not change their weight per unit of volume appreciably and can be considered incompressible for most engineering applications, Gases, on the other hand, change their weight or mass per unit of volume appreciably under the influences of pressure or temperature and therefore must be considered compressibic, 1.2.2 Pressure Pressure is the normal force per unit area acting on the fluid. The average pressure is calculated by dividing the normal force to the surface by the surface area: af Se (LL) ‘The static pressure in the atmosphere is nothing more than the weight per unit of area of the air above the elevation being considered. The ratio of the pressure P at altitude to sea-level standard pressure P, is given the symbol 6; PB eo Py (1.2) ‘The relationship between pressure, density p, and temperature T'is given by the equation of state P= pkT (1.3) where R js a constant, the magnitude depending on the gas being considered. For air, R has a value 287 J/(kg°K) or 1718 f2/(e°R). Atmospheric air follows the4 CHAPTER I: Introduction equation of stete provided that the temperature is not too high and that air can be treated as a continuum. 1.2.3 Temperature In aeronautics the temperature of air is an extremely important parameter in that it affects the properties of air such as density and viscosity. Temperature is an abstract concept but can be thought of as a measure of the motion of molecular particles within a substance. The concept of temperature also serves as a means of determining the direction in which heat energy will flow when two objects of different temperatures come into contact. Heat energy will flow from the higher temperature object to that al lower temperature. As we will show later the temperature of the atmosphere varies significantly with altitude, The ratio of the ambient temperature at altitude, 7, to a sea-level standard value, Z) is denoted by the symbol 6: (4) where the temperatures are measured using the absolute Kelvin or Rankine scales, 1.2.4 Density The density of a substance is defined us the mass per unit of volume: ‘ae (1.5) Unit of yolume From the equation of state, it can be seen that the density of a gas is directly proportional to the pressure and inversely proportional to the absolute tempera- ture, The ratio of ambient air density p to standard sea-level air density py occurs in many aeronautical formulas and is given the designation o: 7 =\p/p (1.6) 1.2.5 Viscosity Viscosity can be thought of as the internal friction of a Nuid. Both liquids and gases possess viscosity, with liquids being much more viscous than gases. As an aid in yisualizing the concept of viscosity, consider the following simple experiment. Consider the motion of the fluid between two parallel plates separated by the distance h. If one plate is held fixed while the other plate is being pulled with a constant velocity u, then the velocity distribution of the fluid between the plates will be linear as shown in Figure 1. To produce the constant velocity motion of the upper plate, a tangential force must be applied to the plate. The magnitude of the force must be equal to the 1,2 Basic Definitions 5 Moving plate é F Apparent h ee velocity | profile TTTTTTTT TUTTI TTT ddd Fixed plate FIGURE 1.2 Shear siress between two plates. friction forces in the fluid. Tt has been established from experiments that the force per unit of area of the plate is proportional to the velocity of the moving plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. Expressed mathemati- cally we have net (17) A where 7 is the force per unit area, which is called the shear stress. A more general form of Equation (1.7) can be written by replacing «/A with the derivative du/dy. The proportionality factor is denoted by js, the coefficient of absolute viscosity, which is obtained experimentally. d r= 4G (1.8) Equation (1,8) is known as Newton’s law of friction. For gases, the absolute viscosity depends only on the temperature, with in- creasing temperature causing an increase in viscosity, To estimate the change in viscosity with the temperature, several empirical formulations commonly are used. The simplest formula is Rayleigh's, which is 2) vs : where the temperatures are on the absolute scale and the subscript 0 denotes the reference condition. An alternate expression for calculating the variation of absolute viscosity with temperature was developed by Sutherland, The empirical formula developed by Sutherland is yalid provided the pressure is greater than 0.1 atmosphere and is ae HA TV" Th + 8 SS. -10 Bey @) T+ 8, (1.00) where 5; is a constant. When the temperatures are expressed in the Rankine scale, S| = 198°R; when the temperatures are expressed in the Kelvin seale, 5; = 110°K. The ratio of the absolute viscosity to the density of the fluid is a parameter that appears frequently and has been identified with the symbol v; it is called the6 CHAPTER 1: Introduction kinematic visvosity: a (LL) An important dimensionless quantity, known as the Reynolds number, is defined as pvi _ Vi pow where / is a characteristic length and V is the flutd velocity. The Reynolds number cart be thought ol as the ratio of the inertial to viscous forces of the fluid. (1.12) 1.2.6 The Mach Number and the Speed of Sound The ratio of an airplane’s speed VY to the local speed of sound @ is an extremely important parameter. called the Mach number after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach. The mathematical definition of Mach number is M=— (1,13) As an airplane moves through the air, it creates pressure disturbances that propa- gate away from the airplane in all directions with the speed of sound, [f the airplane is flying at a Mach number less than 1, the pressure disturbances travel faster than the airplane and influence the air ahead of the airplane. An example of this phenomenon is the upwash field created in front of a wing. However, for flight at Mach numbers greater than | the pressure disturbances move more slowly than the airplane and, therefore, the flow ahead of the airplane has no warning of the oncoming aireraft. The aerodynamic characteristics of an airplane depend on the flow regime around the airplane, As the flight Mach number is increased, the flow around the airplane can be completely subsonic, a mixture of subsonic and supersonic flow, or completely supersonic, The flight Mach number is used to classify the various flow regimes. An approximate classification of the flow regimes follows: Incompressible subsonic flow Oo 0.5 compressibility effects must be included. The local speed of sound must be known to determine the Mach number. The speed of sound can be shown to be related to the absolute ambient temperature by 1.3 Aerostatics 7 the following expression: a = (yRT)'? (1.14) Where y is the ratio of specific heats and & is the gas constant. The ambient temperature will be shown in a later section to be a function of altitude, 13 AEROSTATICS Aerostalics'deals with the state of a gas at rest, It follows from the definition given for a fluid that all forces acting on the fluid must be normal to any cross-section within the fluid, Unlike a solid, a fluid at rest cannot support a shearing force. A consequence of this is that the pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of direction. That is to say that at any pomit the pressure is the same in all directions. This fundamental concept owes its origin to Pascal, a French scientist (1623-1662). 1.3.1 Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid Consider the small vertical column of fluid shown in Figure 1.3, Because the fluid is at rest, the forces in both the vertical and horizontal directions must sum to 0), The forces in the vertical direction are due to the pressure forces and the weight of the fluid column. The force balance in the vertical diréction is given by PA = (P + dP)A + pgA dh (1.15) or dP = —pg dh (1.16) P+ dP FIGURE 1.3 Element of fluid at rest. A=dx dy dh8 CHAPTER I: Introduction Equation (1,16) tells us how the pressure varies with elevation above some refer- ence Jevel in a fluid, As the elevation is increased, the pressure will decrease. Therefore, the pressure in a static fluid is equal to the weight of the column of fluid above the point of interest. One of the simplest means of measuring pressure is by a fluid manometer. Figure 1.4 shows two types of manometers. The first manometer consists of a U-shaped tube containing a liquid. When pressures of different magnitudes are applied across the manometer the fluid will rise on the side of the lower pressure and fall on the side of the higher pressure. By writing a force balance for each side, one can show that PA + pgxA = PA + pg(x + WA aan which yields a relationship for the pressure difference in terms of the change in height of the liquid column: P\ — P: = pgh (1.18) The second sketch shows a simple mercury barometer. The barometer can be thought of as a modified U-tube manometer. One leg of the tube is closed off and evacuated. The pressure at the top of this leg is 0 and atmospheric pressure acts on the open leg. The atmospheric pressure therefore is equal to the height of the mercury column; that is, Fam = pgh (1.19) In practice the atmospheric pressure is commonly expressed as so many inches or millimeters of mercury. Remember, however, thal neither inches nor millimeters of mereury are units of pressure. P, Ps FIGURE 1.4 Sketch of U-tube manometer and barometer. U-tube manometer Barometer 1.4 Development of Bernoulli's Equation 9 14 DEVELOPMENT OF BERNOULLI'S EQUATION Bernoulli's equation establishes the relationship between pressure, elevation, and velocity of the flow along a stream tube. For this analysis, the fluid is assumed to be a perfect fluid; that is, we will ignore viscous effects, Consider the element of fluid in the siream tube shown in Figure 1.5. The forces acting on the differential element of fluid are due to pressure and gravitational forces, The pressure force acting in the direction of the motion is given by F, pressure =pat—(p + as) aa (1.20) Is or = —dP dA (1.21) The gravitational force can be expressed as Fegusnauonay = — 8 dm sin a (1.22) = —gdm (1.23) Applying Newton's second law yields dz dV = = = =dm— 1.2 AP dA ~ gdm = de (1.24) The differential mass dit can be expressed in terms of the mass density of the fluid element times its respective volume; that is, dim = p dA ds (1.25) Inserting the expression for the differential mass, the acceleration of the fluid can dA FIGURE 1.5 Forces acting on an element of flow ina stream tube, is oS Zodm Stream tube