Western Kentucky University

TopSCHOLAR®
Masters Theses & Specialist Projects Graduate School

5-2015

Corrosion Behaviors of Coated Aluminum Alloys

in Simulated Corrosive Environment
Jingyi Yue
Western Kentucky University, [email protected]

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Yue, Jingyi, "Corrosion Behaviors of Coated Aluminum Alloys in Simulated Corrosive Environment" (2015). Masters Theses &
Specialist Projects. Paper 1485.
http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/theses/1485

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CORROSION BEHAVIORS OF COATED ALUMINUM ALLOYS IN SIMULATED
CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENT

A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of the Department of Chemistry
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science

By
Jingyi Yue

May 2015
 I dedicate this thesis to my parents, Chuncheng Yue and Yonghong Yue, who are a great

inspiration to me. Also, I dedicate this work to my advisor Yan Cao, who helped greatly in

research process and editing this manuscript.

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am using this opportunity to express my special appreciation and thanks to my

advisor Professor Dr. Yan Cao He has been a great mentor for me. I am really

thankful for his patient guidance, seriously but invaluable criticism during these two

years. I would like to thank him for aspiring and encouraging my research work and

leading me to grow as a scientist. He gave me invaluably constructive suggestions

and friendly advices on both of my research work and my career, leaving me a

priceless benefit and influence in my future life. I would also like to thank him for

sharing his brilliant and illuminating ideas and views on a numerous questions and

issues related to the research works.

I would express my gratitude to my work partners who provide me a lot

technique help and constructive suggestions.

I am sincerely grateful to my committee members, Professor Bangbo Yan,

Professor Darwin Dahl., and Professor Yan Cao for serving as my committee

members. I also want to thank them for their helpful comments and suggestions, and

giving me a enjoyable defense time.

Finally, A special appreciation for my family support all the time without any

rewards.

iv
 PREFACE

I have strong curiosity to explore the unknown’s parts in the world. The

mysterious and colorful world gives me a great motivation and power, I made a

decision to be a scientist, and I would keep learning and searching knowledge and

answers of this world.

Chemistry is a fantastic area, which can present mechanism and features of the

world. I am obsessed by chemistry and choose it as my major. The research work

gives me a great opportunity to get close to nature and figure out mechanism behind

natural issues, just like corrosion, which I choose as my thesis topic. I also have a

great interest in the analytical part of chemistry. I tried my every effort to figure out

the rules and principles of instruments. I am really curious about how those

instruments could analyze unknown samples and uncover their characteristics.

I have a great deal of enthusiasm about the research work, and I enjoy the

learning and studying process. I really hope my work would be valuable and useful

in the future.

v
 CONTENTS

CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... vi
INSTRUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Backgrounds ............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Aluminum and aluminum alloys corrosion .............................................. 1
1.2 Anti-corrosion methods ............................................................................ 3
1.3 Purpose of research ................................................................................... 4
EXPERIMENTAL ................................................................................................. 6
2.1 Materials ................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Preparation of test specimens ................................................................... 8
2.3 Coatings Preparation ................................................................................ 8
2.4 Corrosion Inhibitors Preparation .............................................................. 9
2.5 CHI 660E instrument and electrochemical measurements..................... 10
2.5.1 Impedance spectroscopy (EIS) .................................................... 11
2.5.2 Polarization resistance measurement........................................... 13
2.6 Viscosity measurements ......................................................................... 15
2.7 Atomic Force Microscopy and Optical Microscopy .............................. 15
RESULT AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................. 17
3.1 Corrosion behavior of two categories coated specimens in DI- water and
simulated salt water. ........................................................................................... 17
3.2 Corrosion behaviors of the second category coated specimens under
rotation conditions .............................................................................................. 29
3.2.1 The effect of rotation speed on aluminum alloys in simulated sea
water ........................................................................................................... 29
3.2.2 Rotation speed effect on aluminum alloys with various coatings
in simulated sea water ................................................................................ 34
3.3 Corrosion behavior of Al with various coating under sunlight
illumination and in sea water immersion ........................................................... 39
vi
 3.4 Corrosion performance under simulating exterior Temperature ............ 45
3.5 Inhibitors effect on corrosion of aluminum alloy ................................... 47
3.6 Morphology of Al alloy with various coatings under varied corrosive
environments ...................................................................................................... 51
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................... 58
LITERATURE CITED......................................................................................... 60
ACHIEVEMENT ................................................................................................. 68

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Sketch of polarization experiment setup. ............................................ 13

Figure 2. Potentiodynamic polarization curves of sample A, C and E in DI-

water. .......................................................................................................... 19

Figure 3. Potentiodynamic polarization curves of sample A, F, G and H in DI

water. .......................................................................................................... 20

Figure 4. Corrosion rate of sample category 1 tested in salt water and DI-water.

.................................................................................................................... 22

Figure 5. Corrosion rate of sample category 2 tested in salt water and DI-water.

.................................................................................................................... 23

Figure 6. Comparison of Corrosion rate of specific samples tested in salt water

and DI-water. .............................................................................................. 25

Figure 7. The increment of polarization resistances of the category 1 coating

applied on aluminum in salt and pure water............................................... 27

Figure 8. The increment of polarization resistances of the category 2 coating

applied on aluminum in salt and pure water............................................... 28

Figure 9. Polarization curves of Al alloys with various rotation speeds. ........... 30

Figure 10. Variation in limit diffusion current of Al alloy in the square root of

rotation speed in simulated salt water. ....................................................... 32

viii
Figure 11. Polarization curves of ceramic coated Al alloys under various

rotation speeds in simulated salt water. ...................................................... 35

Figure 12. Polarization curves of ceramic and primer coated Al alloys under

various rotation speeds in simulated salt water. ......................................... 36

Figure 13. Sketches of coatings on aluminum alloys with irregular pores

distribution.................................................................................................. 38

Figure 14. Corrosion rate of Al alloys with coatings under different rotation

speeds in simulated salt water. ................................................................... 38

Figure 15. Polarization curves of Al alloys with and without sunlight under

simulated salt water immersion. ................................................................. 40

Figure 16. Corrosion rate of Al alloys under different exposure time of sunlight

in simulated salt water. ............................................................................... 41

Figure 17. Corrosion rate of Al alloys with ceramic coating under different

exposure time of sunlight in simulated salt water. ..................................... 42

Figure 18. Corrosion rate of Al alloys with ceramic and primer coating under

different exposure time of sunlight in simulated salt water. ...................... 43

Figure 19. Corrosion rate of Al alloys with ceramic, primer and topcoat coating

under different exposure time of sunlight in simulated salt water. ............ 43

Figure 20. Temperature variations for one day. ................................................. 46

Figure 21. Corrosion rate of Al alloys (A), ceramic coated Al alloys (B),

ceramic and primer coated Al alloys (C), ceramic, primer and topcoat
ix
 coated Al alloys (D) under temperature variations for 7 days in simulated

salt water..................................................................................................... 46

Figure 22. Polarization curves for aluminum with and without inhibitor in salt

water. .......................................................................................................... 48

Figure 23. The Bode plot diagrams of ionic liquid inhibitors BMIMBR and

BEIMCL (Left).Nyquist diagrams (Right). ................................................ 50

Figure 24. Images of OM and AFM for sample A (Bare aluminum alloy) and

sample C coated with Chromate and Epoxy coating. ................................. 52

Figure 25. Images of OM (a, b) for sample F (coated with Ceramic) and G

(coated with Ceramic and Primer), AFM images (c, d)for samples H

(coated with Ceramic, Primer and Topcoat) and M (coated with Chromate,

Epoxy, Primer and Topcoat). ..................................................................... 53

Figure 26. Optical microscope of Al alloys with and without coating under

different simulated corrosive environment................................................. 55

x
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. The composition of aluminum alloys AA5086 (wt%). .......................... 7

Table 2. Detailed information of commercial coating samples. ........................... 7

Table 3. Coating information of tested samples. .................................................. 8

Table 4. Composition of simulated Salty water. ................................................ 15

Table 5. Parameters of potentiodynamic polarization curves for different coating

samples. ...................................................................................................... 18

Table 6. Parameters of polarization curves of Al alloys with various rotation

speeds in simulated salt water. ................................................................... 34

Table 7. Electrochemical polarization parameters and the related inhibition

efficiencies for aluminum in salt water with and without inhibitors. ......... 49

Table 8. EIS parameters of ionic liquid inhibitors of BMIMRB and BEIMCL. 50

Table 9. Conductivity and Viscosity of ionic liquid inhibitors (BMIMBR and

BEIMCl) at room temperature (25°C)........................................................ 51

xi
 CORROSION BEHAVIORS OF COATED ALUMINUM ALLOYS IN
SIMULATED CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENT
Jingyi Yue May 2015 68 Pages

Directed by: Dr. Yan Cao, Dr. Bangbo Yan, Dr. Dahl. Darwin

Department of Chemistry Western Kentucky University

This study investigated the corrosion of an aluminum alloy with and without coatings

under simulated corrosive environments. Coatings were selected and applied from

commercial materials and techniques, consisting of microceramic, epoxy primer, and

topcoat. The experiments for coated specimens were carried out under various

corrosive conditions, specifically, hydrodynamic flow, immersion in salt water and

DI water, varying temperatures, and simulated sun light. The hydrodynamic

conditions were simulated using a rotating cylinder electrode (RCE) with rotational

speeds of 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 rpm. The immersion in saltwater and sunlight

illumination tests were applied for 8 hours, and the simulated exterior temperature

variation were cycled for 7 days. Polarization techniques were used to study the

corrosion mechanism and calculate the corrosion rate of coated specimens under

simulated salt water. Microstructure of coated specimens were identified by using

atomic force microscopy (AFM) and optical microscope (OM) analysis. Results

indicated that corrosions in the simulated salt water were generally more serious than

those in the distilled water. This was especially true for bare aluminum alloys, that its

corrosion rates in the salt water exhibited two orders of magnitude higher than those

in the DI water. The combination of an environmentally friendly electrodeposited

ceramic coating with a primer and topcoat, which results in a chromium-free coating,

exhibited a higher polarization resistance and a lower corrosion rate than the

traditional chromate conversion coating combination. In addition, for all coated Al

alloys, the corrosion rate increased with increasing rotation speed. For immersion
xii
portion, immersion in salt water accelerated the pitting corrosion process and

increased the corrosion rate of the aluminum alloy five times higher as compared to

the samples without immersion. For the varying temperature portion, the rates of

corrosion nearly doubled for bare and ceramic coated Al alloy, under varying

temperature conditions for 7 days. Besides, addition of ionic liquid inhibitors, such

as BMIMBR and BEIMCl, exhibited great improvement of corrosion resistances of

aluminum alloy in the salt water. The corrosion rates of aluminum in the presence of

inhibitors were almost one order of magnitude lower than that in the absence of

inhibitors.

xiii
 INSTRUCTION

1.1 Backgrounds

Corrosion is a very serious and inevitable problem for almost all industries. The

early and most commonly figure from NACE corrosion cost study reported that the

corrosion costs were $276 Billion in 1998[1]. However, the total corrosion costs

annually in U.S rose over $1 trillion in 2014. Corrosion occurs anywhere and

anytime with different degrees of severity, especially for common cases where the

metals and alloys are used. In addition to its direct loss in dollars, corrosion is a very

serious problem because it directly and undoubtedly contributes to the depletion of

our natural resources[2]. For example, the steel, is made from iron and produced by

using a lot of coal, but reserves of iron and coal are facing diminishing. The copper,

one of important element for production of alloys used in corrosion resistance, is also

facing dwindling. Therefore, corrosion has arouse considerable attentions because of

growing awareness of protecting natures resources[3]. In particular, corrosion of

metallic materials is much more important due to their widespread use in all fields of

technology.

1.2 Aluminum and aluminum alloys corrosion

Corrosions of aluminum and aluminum alloys have gained much more attentions

of researchers, because aluminum is second only to iron for its high production and

wide consumption and applications[4]. Specifically, Aluminum alloy is widely used

in the chemical, aerospace, food, electronics and marine industries because of its
1
lower price, lighter in its density but higher strength[5, 6]. Aluminum is a very active

metal and it tends to be oxidized quickly in nature. Aluminum reacts with oxygen to

form aluminum oxide quickly[7]. The aluminum oxide layer formed on the surface

has the capability of hardness and self-renewing, and thus protect the inner

aluminum from further corrosion[8]. Even though aluminum gains the reputation of

good corrosion resistance, it is not always resist to severe corrosive environment.

When the oxide layer exposed to extreme environment, the breakdown of the

protective oxide layer proceeds faster than the renewal of the protective layer,

corrosion occurs[9]. The most common cause of aluminum corrosion is galvanic

corrosion[10], which is like a battery consisted of two dissimilar metals in electrolyte

solution. This naturally-formed electrical circuit results in the loss of electrons on

anode and the gain of electrons on cathode[11]. Because of the reactive property of

aluminum, it always performs as an anode and begins to corrode when it contacts

with other metals as cathode. Variable environments also play important roles in

accelerating the corrosion in varying degrees. Especially, an environment containing

a chloride will accelerate the corrosion of aluminum and its alloys in spite of its

capability of forming an effective oxide layer[12, 13]. This usually leads to so called

pitting corrosion, which is by far the most common and detrimental type of corrosion.

Pitting corrosion is an electrochemical oxidation-reduction process which occurs due

to the breakdown of passive oxide film formed on metal surface[14]. The

depassivation of a small area becomes anodic and other unknown large area become

cathodic. It is actually a localized galvanic corrosion. The corrosion pits often

present to be very small at the surface. Because the attack is small at the surface, and

the points of attack are often covered by the products of corrosion, and thus

2
aluminum surfaces often appear visible tiny pits. This localized attack, resulted from

pitting corrosion, is more serious than the uniform corrosion because it finally moves

deep into metal structures. Corrosion of aluminum and its alloys are also largely

dependent on their application environments. Sea water has been considered as one

extreme sample of the most natural corrosive medium, in which the chloride ion

existed in high concentration. Sea water environments also bring in variables

influencing corrosion process, such as the sizable change of temperatures, the

dynamic sea current with abrasive particles, the outdoor direct sunlight radiation, and

other occurred corrosive organic chemicals. This complex environment conditions

result in potentially severe corrosion of applied aluminum alloys.

1.2 Anti-corrosion methods

Three primary methods for corrosion preventions are commonly used including

and coating, inhibitors and cathodic protection [15].

The cathodic protection method addresses corrosion in two application measures.

Firstly, an impressed current is forced from inert anodes to the large area of applied

structure. Secondly, an active metal can be used as anodes and connected to the

applied structure. This sacrificial active anode provides a cathodic protection

current[16, 17].

Inhibitors have various mechanisms to inhibit corrosions [18-20]. Some inhibitors

such as organic amines can be adsorbed on anodes and cathodes to reduce the

corrosion current. Other can directly influence or control the anodic or cathodic

process. Some inhibitors can accelerate the formation of passive layers on metal
3
surface. In addition, inhibitors are usually added in protective coatings, which

enhance the ability of corrosion control[21].

Coating is the most common method to protect applied materials from

corrosion[22], which is a focus of this thesis. The coating protective layers are very

useful and economic to control corrosion by decreasing mass transfer rates of

electrolyte of corrosion environments. In a corrosion process, the electrochemical

reduction plays a primary role in accelerating the corrosions of metals. Organic or

inorganic barrier layers are generally applied to effectively control corrosion rates of

applied metals, and thus to prevent the occurrence of the cathode reaction.

Traditionally, corrosion prevention-coatings can be classified into three types,

including the conversion coating, the primer, and the top coating[23]. Some coatings

may consist of metals, such as chromium, zinc, which are harmful for health in their

ablation process under corrosive environments, and also increase costs of the costing

manufacture.

1.3 Purpose of research

Based on aforementioned introduction, my thesis work is mainly regarding the

following purposes:

1. The setup of an accurate electrochemical method for the determination of

corrosion rates;

2. Corrosion performance studies of commercial coatings on selected aluminum

alloys (AA5086) in DI- water and simulated salt water;

4
 3. Corrosion performance studies of coated aluminum alloy in simulated severe

corrosive environments, covering elevated temperatures, sunlight radiations, and

dynamic flows;

4. Effect of ionic liquid inhibitors on corrosion performance of aluminum alloy in

salt water.

5
 EXPERIMENTAL

2.1 Materials

The experiments were performed by selecting the aluminum alloys (AA5086), of

which the composition is listed in the Table 1. The applied protection coatings

consist of two categories, one is the chromate conversion coating (trade name

Alodine 713) and the other is the micron ceramic coating (Alodine ECC 9000). Other

functional additive coatings include the cationic epoxy coating, the strontium

chromate epoxy primer and the high solids acrylic bake enamel, as listed in Table 2.

Conversion coating (Alodine 713) was selected in this study, because its

amorphous chromium oxide coating could give an excellent corrosion protection of

aluminum and also perform as an adhesion for the next coating. Cationic epoxy

coating (Powercron 590-534) has advantages of good corrosion resistance and

elimination of heavy metals involvement (lead, chrome or zinc). Alodine ECC 9000

was selected due to its unique characteristics of excellent adhesion as well as

corrosion resistance. Alodine 9000 is also a chromium free treatment that is applied

through the electro-deposition of titanium oxides. Strontium chromate based epoxy

primer was selected for its good corrosion resistance, and excellent adhesion for

direct-topcoat application. Topcoat with acrylic enamel was applied as an exterior

coating because it demonstrates good gloss and color retention, as well as, further

protection from corrosion.

6
 Table 1. The composition of aluminum alloys AA5086 (wt%).
Element Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn

Wt% 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 3.5 0.05 0.25

Table 2. Detailed information of commercial coating samples.

Thickness Thickness
Coating Description Comment
(Min) (Max)

None Aluminum Alloy N/A N/A AA5086

Lyfanite (ALODINE®
Chromate 30 mg/ft² 90 mg/ft² Conversion coating
713)

E-coating Electrodeposition Coating 0.0005 inch 0.0009 inch Cationic Epoxy Electrocoat

Primer Primer 0.0015 inch 0.003 inch Strontium Chromate Epoxy Primer

Topcoat Topcoat 0.0012 inch 0.0014 inch High Solids Acrylic Bake Enamel

EC² Alodine® EC 0.0002 inch 0.0003 inch Micron ceramic coating (chromium free)

In this study, the aluminum alloys (AA5086), coated with chromate, epoxy

coating, primers, and topcoat were defined to be the Category 1 samples and those

coated with ceramic coating, primer and topcoat to be the Category 2 samples. A

summary on the coated samples in this study are shown in Table 3. Both categories

of samples were tested in both deionized (DI) water and simulated salt water.

Samples A to H were labeled as those tested in DI water electrolyte, and samples I-P

in salt water electrolyte.

7
 Table 3. Coating information of tested samples.
Sample
testing in water Sample testing in simulated sea water
code
A Aluminum only I Aluminum only
B Chromate J Chromate
C Chromate + Epoxy K Chromate + Epoxy
D Chromate + Epoxy + Primer L Chromate + Epoxy + Primer
E Chromate + Epoxy + Primer + Topcoat M Chromate + Epoxy + Primer + Topcoat
F Ceramic N Ceramic
G Ceramic + Primer O Ceramic + Primer
H Ceramic + Primer + Topcoat P Ceramic + Primer + Topcoat

2.2 Preparation of test specimens

The aluminum alloy plates (AA5086) were cut into a round shape with a section

area of 2 cm2 using a diamond saw. This was followed by a surface cleanup for the

improvement coating adhesion, prior to coating application, in order to remove

grease, oil and contaminations from the specimens. Chemical cleaning and

degreasing was performed by the following procedures: (1) Specimens were dipped

in a phosphoric acid-based detergent for 10 minutes. (2) Specimens were rinsed with

de-ionized water, (3) The coupons were cleaned in a sonicator for 10 minutes, (4)

Specimens were then rinsed with water and dried.

2.3 Coatings Preparation

The procedures for application of chromate conversion coating on prepared

specimens were: (1) the Alodine 713 solution was prepared by mixing 7 parts of

Alodine 713 and 93 parts of purified water. (2) The prepared solution was heated at

8
60 oC for 5 minutes. (3) Specimens were immersed in the prepared solution for 20 to

60 seconds. (4) Processed specimens were dried in oven under temperature of 120 oC

for 30 minutes. After pre-treatment of this conversion coating, the cationic epoxy

coating (Powercron 590-534) was applied by electrodeposition with bake 20 min at

190 oC.

The Micron ceramic coated specimens were prepared by: (1) 5 parts (volume to

volume) of Alodine ECC 9000 solution was mixed in the 95 parts of de-ionized

water. (2) The solution was acidified to a pH of 3 using a PARCO Neutralizer 700.

(3) The pre-prepared specimens were electro-deposited by applying 350 volts for 3

minutes at a room temperature. (4) Specimens were thoroughly rinsed with de-

ionized water and dried.

The epoxy primer coating was composed of an epoxy resin (Corlar 13550S),

epoxy activator (Corlar 13150S), and VOC-exempt reducer (DuPont 13756S) in a

ratio of 3:1:2, by mass. After applications of the Alodine 9000, or cationic epoxy, the

specimens were continuously applied with epoxy primer by dipping in pre-prepared

epoxy solution for 20 seconds and drying at 30°C for 8 hrs. The specimens were

finally applied with the topcoat (high solids acrylic bake enamel) using a mixture of

an acrylic enamel and V66V29 catalyst a ratio of 8:1, by mass. The specimens were

dipped in this topcoat solution for 20 seconds, followed by drying at room

temperature.

2.4 Corrosion Inhibitors Preparation

9
 The 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (BMIMBR) and 1-Butyl-3-

ethylimidazolium chloride (BEIMCl) were selected as corrosion inhibitors. The

synthesis procedure of BMIMBR and BEIMCL ionic liquid followed the

literature[24], in briefing as followed:

The 1- Bromo butane and N-methyl Imidazole (Purchased from Sigma Aldrich,

St. Louis, MO, USA) solution were prepared in 1:1 molar ratio. (2) N-methyl

Imidazole solution was placed in a 250 ml round bottom flask, and Bromo butane

was added drop wise into the flask under the protection of nitrogen gas atmosphere at

room temperature. (3) BMIMBR was obtained by reacting the mixture under

magnetically stirring at 130 oC for 10 hours.

H3C N N +
H3C N N CH2CH2CH2CH3
+ CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 2Br
Br
-
Eq. 1

BEIMCL was synthesized using the similar method using chloro butane and N-

ethyl Imidazole solution in a 1:1 molar ratio. The preparation procedure followed

that of BMIMBR.

N N +
N N CH2CH2CH2CH3
H3C + CH 3CH 2CH 2CH 2Cl
Cl
-
H3C Eq. 2

The concentration range of inhibitors was 0.01 M in simulated salt water.

2.5 CHI 660E instrument and electrochemical measurements

The CHI 660E electrochemical workstation was used in all electrochemical

measurements. It has the control range of the potential between -10 V to +10 V, and

10
the range of the current between -250 mA and +250 mA. The instrument has the

capability of measuring the current down to picoamperes, and provides a very wide

dynamic range of experimental time scales.

Princeton Applied Research model 636, accommodating the ring-disk electrode,

is a solid-controlled servo-system, which is designed to rotate an electrode with

constantly speed in an electrochemical cell. The instrument has the capability of

rotating an electrode at speeds from 5 to 10,000 RPM and it is very ideal for use in

simulating hydro dynamically experiment.

2.5.1 Electrochemical Impedance spectroscopy (EIS)

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), performed to obtain conductivity

of prepared ionic liquid inhibitors, was carried out using a CHI 660E electrochemical

workstation with a conventional three-electrode setup. Prepared ionic liquid

inhibitors were used as electrolytes with two platinum strips as working electrode

and counter electrode, respectively, and a saturated calomel electrode as reference

electrode. Electrochemical cell was prepared with parameter settings as following:

electrolyte volume in 10 ml, platinum electrode diameter in 0.3 mm, and distance

between working electrode (Pt stripe) and reference electrode in 2.6 cm.

Investigations of the electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) of the ionic liquid

inhibitors were conducted in a frequency range between 0.1Hz and 10 kHz with

initial potential of 0.1V at 25°C. EIS data were presented by the Bode plot diagram

and the Nyquist plot which were capable of evaluating the number of elements in the

equivalent circuits with clear physical interpretations [25]. The Bode diagram is a
11
log-log plot regarding the phase of an impedance, transfer function, or other

frequency-dependent complex-valued quantity [26]. The Bode plot, which was a

design-oriented analysis [27], helped to construct a suitable circuit with certain

electric elements. The Nyquist plot, also presenting the electrochemical impedance

spectra, could be simulated by using “(Rs(QRct)W)” electrical equivalent circuit.

Specifically in this study, Rs represented ionic liquid resistance, giving the unit of

Ω/cm (the distance was determined by working and counter electrodes). This

parameter was further used to interpret the electro-conductivity of tested electrolytes.

Rct represented the charge transfer resistance, was given the unit of Ω/cm2 and related

to the area of working electrode. Parameters, such as Q and W, were defined as the

constant phase element and the Warburg resistance respectively. Parameters of these

equivalent circuit elements were obtained by using the fitting method based on the

simulation software, which was “ZView and CHI 660 fitting software in this study.

The measurements of electro-conductivity of ionic liquid inhibitors were carried

by using the EIS. The experiment procedure and the calculation method referred to

literature [28]. Electrolyte solution obeys the Ohm’s law. The electro-conductivity

was defined as the reciprocal of the resistance, and governs by

K=k/R Eq. 3

Where K was the electro-conductivity with units S/m. k was a cell constant, R is

the resistance of electrolyte in ohms (Ω). The cell constant should be first determined

by using a known standard solution as the reference, which was 0.1M potassium

chloride with an electro-conductivity at 2.88 ms/cm under 25 °C. After the cell

12
constant k was determined, electro-conductivities of ionic liquid inhibitors can be

calculated based on Eq 3. [28]

2.5.2 Polarization resistance measurement

The corrosion resistance of the coatings was tested using a three electrode system,

connected to a CH Instruments electrochemical workstation, Model CHI660 E.

Potentiodynamic polarization resistance measurement was based on ASTM Standard

method (ASTM G59). Corrosion resistance was estimated from the polarization

curve performed using the Tafel technique. A sketch of the polarization experimental

setup is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Sketch of polarization experiment setup.

13
 All polarization experiments were conducted using a rotating cylinder electrode

(PINE Research Instrumentation). The specimens were positioned in the center of the

holder, which was attached to the rotation cylinder. The exposed side of the treated

specimens was in contact with the electrolyte, and the upper side, without coating

was connected to the working electrode. The working electrode side of the specimen,

prior to being loaded into the holder, was sequentially wet polished using 240 grit

and 600 grit SiC paper, followed by degreasing with acetone and rinsing with

distilled water. The counter and reference electrodes, which were a platinum rod with

a diameter of 0.3 mm and a saturated calomel electrode, respectively, were inserted

in parallel into the electrolyte beside the working electrode. A sun lamp (Sunlight

Supply, Inc.) was used for simulated sunlight radiation on corrosion. The light was

reflected by a mirror through the electrolyte solution to illuminate on the bottom side

of the coated samples. The testing temperature was maintained as the ambient

temperature (25 oC). Composition of the simulated salt water (Instant Ocean Salt，

Lake Products Company) was listed in Table 4.

14
 Table 4. Composition of simulated Salty water.
Components Wt % Concentration Solution g/l

NaCl 58.490 24.530

MgCl2·6H2O 26.460 5.200

Na2SO4 9.750 4.090

CaCl2 2.765 1.160

KCl 1.645 0.695

NaHCO3 0.477 0.201

KBr 0.238 0.101

H3BO3 0.071 0.027

SrCl2·6H2O 0.095 0.025

NaF 0.007 0.003

2.6 Viscosity measurements

The measurement of viscosity ionic liquid inhibitors was carried out using a

Discovery Hybrid Rheometer DHR-2. The measurement range of the viscosity of

this rheometer is 20000 mPa.s as the minimum and 0.2 mPa.s as the maximum. The

rheometer performed under room temperature 25 oC in this study.

2.7 Atomic Force Microscopy and Optical Microscopy

The microtopography of specific samples were identified using an Olympus

BX60M confocal Optical Microscopy (OM) with ColorView Soft Imaging System.
15
A Multimode Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) 5500 from Agilent was used in

contact mode under ambient conditions to characterize the coated samples in a

magnified scale. Silicon AFM probes with an aluminum reflex coating were used in

contact mode and purchased from TED PELLA INC. The radius of the probes was

30 nm, with a constant force of 0.2 N/m and a resonant frequency of 13 kHz.

16
 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Corrosion behavior of two categories coated specimens in DI- water and
simulated salt water.

The polarization curves of the two categories of coated aluminum alloy samples

and untreated aluminum alloy samples are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. A

summary of the results of the polarization tests is shown in Table 5.

The corrosion potentials (Ecorr), anodic and cathodic Tafel slopes (ba and bc), and

corrosion current density (Icorr) could be determined using polarization curves

obtained from the CHI 660E software. The polarization resistance (R p) of the

corrosion process can be calculated according to Eq. 4, as follows:

ba×bc
Rp = 2.303×(icorr)(ba+bc) Eq. 4

The corrosion rate can be further determined according to Eq 5:

Icorr×K×Ew
Corrosion Rate (𝑚𝑚/𝑦) = Eq. 5
𝜌

Where K=3.27×10-3 mm g/μA cm yr, the equivalent weight Ew = 9.09 for the

specific aluminum alloy, and ρ = 2.66 g/cm3 for the specific aluminum alloy.

17
 Table 5. Parameters of potentiodynamic polarization curves for different coating
samples.
Sample A C E F G H

Ecorr vs SCE/V -0.67 -0.61 -0.60 -0.65 -0.59 -0.58

ba (mV/dec) 489.6 485.5 427.8 497.6 485.5 474.9

bc (mV/dec) 542.5 506.3 588.9 514.8 505.8 546.8

icorr (μA cm-2) 0.069 0.015 0.014 0.048 0.009 0.0056

Rp (kΩ) 1616.275 7207.5 7905.5 2284.4 11874.7 19631.6

Figure 2 shows the corrosion resistance of the samples coated with the Category

1 chromate and epoxy coating series. Sample C, which was coated with chromate

and an epoxy coating, possessed a lower corrosion current density (0.015 μA cm-2)

than the uncoated sample A (0.069 μA cm-2). In addition, the corrosion potential of

sample C revealed a shift towards a more positive value, which was approximately

0.06 V higher than that of sample A. This result can be attributed to the chromate and

epoxy coating on sample C, which can effectively prevent the corrosion of aluminum

alloys and thus increased corrosion resistance. Sample E, which was coated with a

primer and topcoat in addition to the coating described for sample C, exhibited a

slightly lower corrosion current density (0.014 μA cm-2) and a more positive shift in

the corrosion potential in comparison to sample C (-0.6 V). The corrosion resistance

of sample E was further increased due to the application of two more coatings in

comparison to sample C. Furthermore, the polarization resistance of sample E was

increased to 7905.5 kΩ, which was much higher than the values obtained for samples

A and C, which were 1616.3 kΩ and 7207.5 kΩ, respectively.

18
 Figure 2. Potentiodynamic polarization curves of sample A, C and E in DI-water.

Figure 3 plots the polarization curves of the Category 2 samples, which

possessed a ceramic coating, primer and topcoat. Sample F was coated with ceramic,

which is chromium-free and considered to be an environmental coating. This sample

exhibited a corrosion current density and a corrosion potential of 0.048 μA cm-2 and -

0.65 V, respectively. Both of these values proved that the corrosion resistance of

sample F with the ceramic coating was slightly but not significantly better than that

of the uncoated sample A (0.069 μA cm-2 and -0.67 V, respectively). Sample G,

which had an additional primer coating on top of the ceramic coating described for

sample F, exhibited significantly improved corrosion resistance performance based

on a significantly reduced corrosion current density of 0.009 μA cm-2 and a large

positive shift in corrosion potential to -0.59 V, as well as a significantly increased

polarization resistance of 11874.7 kΩ. This significant change in corrosion resistance

19
(i.e., increased corrosion potential and decreased corrosion current density) may have

occurred because the effective combination of the ceramic coating and primer

provided coverage that can significantly reduce defects and limit corrosion attack.

The corrosion resistance performance of sample H was only slightly enhanced by the

addition of one more topcoat onto sample G. The corrosion current density, the

corrosion potential and the polarization resistance of sample H were 0.0056 μA cm-2,

-0.58V and 19631.6 kΩ, respectively. These values were similar to those of sample

G.

Figure 3. Potentiodynamic polarization curves of sample A, F, G and H in DI

water.

20
 Figure 4 shows that the corrosion rates of commercial coatings on aluminum

alloys in different electrolytes varied, with an order of magnitude from 10-6 to 10-4

mpy. The corrosion rates of samples A-E were tested in pure water. Sample E, which

was coated with four layers, including chromate, epoxy coating, primer, and topcoat,

exhibited the lowest corrosion rate, with an order of magnitude of 10-6 mm/y. The

bare aluminum alloy (sample A) had the highest corrosion rate, on the order of 10-4

mm/y. The reduction of the corrosion rate was largest between samples A (bare

aluminum) and B (coated with chromate oxide film), indicating that the chromate

oxide film was very effective for corrosion resistance. This resistance could be

attributed to the fact that the rough surface of the bare aluminum had many

imperfections, rubs and scratches, which were healed when the chromate oxide film

was applied. This finding is in accordance with the unique self-healing ability and

electrochemical protection of chromate oxide[29, 30]. Sample C had an additional

epoxy coating in comparison to sample B and exhibited a corrosion rate one order of

magnitude lower than that of sample B. This difference occurred because the coating

on sample C provided better coverage for a continuous reduction in the surface

roughness, leading to improved corrosion resistance. However, no appreciable

difference in corrosion rates was observed between sample D (with one more primer

coating than Sample C) and sample E (with one more top coating than sample D).

The corrosion rates of these samples were 3.04 × 10-5 and 3.01 × 10-5 mm/y,

respectively. Corrosion tests of samples I-M were conducted in simulated salt water.

For all of the samples, the corrosion rates in salt water were significantly different

than those obtained in DI water. The corrosion resistance of the samples was

significantly weaker in the salt water condition. This difference may be attributed to

21
the high concentration of chloride ions in the salt water, which increased the electric

conductivity and resulted in a high corrosion rate[31]. Sample I, which had no

coatings, exhibited the highest corrosion rate of 0.01 mm/y

Figure 4. Corrosion rate of sample category 1 tested in salt water and DI-water.

From Figure 5, it was noted that sample N, which was coated with the ceramic

coating, exhibited a corrosion rate of 0.0016 mm/y in salt water; this value was ten

times lower than that of the original sample I (bare aluminum alloy).

Correspondingly, the corrosion rate of sample F (9.69×10-5 mm/y), which had the

same ceramic coating, in DI water was three times lower than that of sample A.

Samples O and G have the same coatings (i.e., the ceramic coating plus primer), but

these two samples exhibited a large difference in corrosion resistance between salt

water and DI water due to the existence of chloride ions. The corrosion rates of

22
samples O and G were 2.85×10-4 and 2.16×10-5 mm/y, respectively. The primer

coating was more effective for protecting against corrosion, especially in salt water.

Both samples P and H were coated with one more layer of top coating than samples

O and G; the corrosion rates of these two samples were 1.39×10-4 and 1.12×10-5

mm/y, respectively, which were nearly one times lower than those of samples O and

G. This result revealed that the application of top coatings could further reduce

corrosion rates.

Figure 5. Corrosion rate of sample category 2 tested in salt water and DI-water.

23
 Based on Figure 6, the coating combination of the ceramic coating, primer and

topcoat significantly reduced the corrosion rate in comparison to the coating

combination of chromate coating, epoxy coating, primer and topcoat. Specifically,

the corrosion rates of samples P and H, which had the same coating combination in

the ceramic series, in simulated salt water and pure water were 1.39×10-4 and 1.12

×10-5 mm/y, respectively. These two corrosion rates were nearly two times lower

than those of the coating combination of chromate and epoxy (i.e., samples M and E),

which had corrosion rates of 2.7×10-4 and 3.02×10-5 mm/y, respectively. Therefore,

the chromium-free environmental ceramic coating appeared to have better corrosion

resistance than the chromate and epoxy coating. The excellent corrosion resistance of

the ceramic coating series can be attributed to the superior adhesion of ceramic and

to the effective combination of the ceramic with the strontium chromate primer. The

primer has a strong anti-corrosion capability when the aluminum is coated with

another material that is porous or can provide excellent adhesion[32]. Ceramic

served as a better base for the primer than the chromate and epoxy coating. The

unique porous surface of the ceramic coating on aluminum was revealed by the AFM

images, as shown in Figure 25a.

24
 Figure 6. Comparison of corrosion rate of specific samples tested in salt water
and DI-water.

The catholic reaction for aluminum alloys in pure water or saline electrolyte has

been proved to be the reduction of oxygen as follows[33]:

2H2O + O2 + 4e- → 4OH- Eq. 6

The anodic reaction for aluminum alloys occurs as the following reaction:

Al → Al3+ + 3e- Eq. 7

Al3+ + 3OH- → Al(OH)3 Eq. 8

2Al + 6OH- → Al2O3 + 3H2O + 6e- Eq. 9

25
 The corrosion of uncoated bare aluminum alloys, especially in the saline

electrolyte solution, is much more severe than that of the coated metal. The existence

of chloride ions increases the corrosion process by dissolving the Al and forming

aluminum oxide on the surface[34]. For coated samples, the anodic reactions (shown

in Eq.7, Eq.8 and Eq.9) were significantly restricted due to the mass-transfer barrier

effect of the coatings. Therefore, the corrosion rate of the coated samples was

significantly reduced in comparison to the bare metal. The coating layers function as

barrier films to slow the transport of ions from the outer environment toward the bare

metal. Increasing the coating layers improves the corrosion resistance of the bare

metal, although the corrosion cannot be fully eliminated. Further studies that used

AFM revealed the formation or the existence of pores during the coating process; the

pores could be eliminated by increasing the coating layers. This result is presented

and discussed in detail later.

The polarization resistance, which was obtained from polarization curves, can be

used to investigate the influence of functional coatings on corrosion and to determine

the resistance capabilities of anti-corrosion coatings. The incremental percentage of

polarization resistance achieved with various coatings can be expressed by the

following equation:

Rp’−Rp
θ= × 100% Eq. 10
Rp’

where θ indicates the increment of polarization resistance. Rp’ and Rp represent

the polarization resistance of the coated sample and uncoated sample, respectively.

26
 Figure 7. The increment of polarization resistances of the category 1 coating
applied on aluminum in salt and pure water.

The polarization resistance values of the Category 1 coated samples in water are

shown in Figure 7. The polarization resistance of the chromate-coated sample was

only increased by 30%, although the chromate coating exhibits a good adhesion

capability and is thus always used as the first and required base for the next coat.

However, this coating is less likely to have good coverage on the bare aluminum

alloy. The second epoxy coating was applied over the chromate coating and

exhibited a 77% increment of Rp. The defects and roughness of the chromate coating

were significantly improved by this second layer. The high increment of Rp also

indicates that the less porous epoxy coating tends to be a more effective barrier for

preventing electrolyte ion transport. However, in terms of commercial application,

the epoxy coating is typically coated with one more topcoat because the epoxy

coating is vulnerable and degradable under ultraviolet light[33, 35].Thus, the

specimen with the primer and topcoat exhibited no significant differences in Rp in

this study.

The Category 1 coated samples tested in salt water are shown in Figure 7.

Notably, the chromate-coated sample exhibits a large percentage increase in Rp. The

27
chromate conversion coating was much more efficient as a resistant barrier in the salt

water environment than in water. The chromate, which is retained in the conversion

coating, is the king of soluble, oxidizing, and high-valence ions (in CrO42- or Cr2O72-)

[36]. The protective layer is formed when the ion is converted to an insoluble and

low-valence form (Cr2O3 or Cr(OH)3)[37]. The reduction reaction of this process is

as follows:

Cr2O72- + 8H+ + 6e- → 2Cr(OH)3 + H2O Eq. 11

The existence of Cl- would accelerate the chromate reduction, in which the

reduction products serves as inhibitors[29]. This effect was observed in previous

studies, as the Cr(VI) content of the coating decreased and the content of Cr(III)

increased when the coating was exposed to NaCl or salt water [36, 38]. The serious

localized pin corrosion of bare aluminum can be significantly reduced by the

reduction of chromate. Similarly, this study demonstrated that the chromate coating

significantly reduced the corrosion rate in salt water in comparison to the bare metal.

Figure 8. The increment of polarization resistances of the category 2 coating

applied on aluminum in salt and pure water.

28
 The polarization resistance values of the Category 2 coatings in water are shown

in Figure 8. The ceramic coating only increased the Rp value by 29.24%. The

principal property of the ceramic coating is its excellent adhesion capability, despite

its porous surface. The porous surface generates a weaker barrier for restricting the

transportation of electrolyte ions, leading to a lower Rp. However, the good adhesion

properties of this layer enable the primer coating to be applied tightly. As expected,

the Rp value of the primer coating increased by 86.38% in comparison to the bare

metal specimen. The outermost coating (i.e., the topcoat) serves as a seal and

decoration and contributes a small increment of Rp. Figure 8 shows the same coating

system tested in salt water. Similar to the results obtained for the Category 1 coating,

the Rp values of the ceramic coating were increased by 88.81% in salt water. This

result demonstrated the necessity and importance of the ceramic coating, in addition

to the primer and topcoat, in the salt water environment. The environmental benefits

of using the ceramic coating were apparent in comparison to the chromate-based

coating. As expected, the combined primer and topcoat only resulted in a limited

improvement in Rp (99.55%) in the salty water environment. However, the

effectiveness of these coats for improving the Rp was still desired to nearly stop the

transportation of electrolyte ions and subsequent corrosion.

3.2 Corrosion behaviors of the second category coated specimens under

rotation conditions

3.2.1 The effect of rotation speed on aluminum alloys in simulated sea water

29
 The dynamic corrosive environment of Al alloy electrode was simulated in the

rotation tests, controlled by its rotation speed. Polarization curves of studied

aluminum alloy at various rotational speeds were performed in simulated salt water

at a room temperature (25 oC), and results are shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Polarization curves of Al alloys with various rotation speeds.

In Figure 9, both cathodic current density and anodic current density increased

with increasing of rotational speed of the tested Al alloy electrodes. This

phenomenon can be attributed to enhancement of oxygen mass transfer to increase

the availability of oxygen to contact with the surface of the alloy in corrosion

reactions, as well as increase the dissolution of the corroded anodic Al alloy. All

polarization curves of various rotational speeds showed the existence of a current

platform, which was manifested in the potential range of -950 mV to -1100 mV. This

30
platform corresponding to various limit diffusion current (IL), which can be obtained

through the cathodic portion of the polarization curves. The current platform

demonstrated in the cathodic reaction can be attributed to oxygen diffusion[39].

From the polarization curves, the height of the platforms increases with increasing

rotational speed of the Al alloy electrode, which can be attributed to the increasing of

oxygen diffusivity and decreasing concentration of oxygen mass transfer benefit.

Furthermore, the current diffusion limit (IL) related to the platforms can also be

explained by Levich’s relationship[40-42]. It is noted from Figure 10, that the current

limit is a function of the square root of the rotational speed, and a nearly linear to the

square root of the rotational speed; however, this line does not pass through the

origin. It can be assumed that there exists a non-diffusion relative current. And this

diffusion phenonmeon affects the cathodic current based on the following equation:

1 1 1
= 𝐼𝑐 + Eq.12
𝐼 𝐼𝐿

With IL= 0.62nFSX0Dx2/3υ-1/6w1/2

Where the IL is limit diffusion current, I is cathodic current under kinetic mixed

and Ic is corrected current, n is the number of electrons transferred in the half

reaction, F is the Faraday constant, S is the electrode area, X0 is oxygen

concentration, Dx is the oxygen diffusion coefficient, υ is the kinematic viscosity of

the electrolyte, w is the angular rotation speed of electrode.

31
 Figure 10. Variation in limit diffusion current of Al alloy in the square root of
rotation speed in simulated salt water.
The cathode polarization curves can be further subdivided into three domains[43,

44], an obvious inflection point in the first domain is related to a mixed kinetic effect,

including both mass transfer and charge transfer. Subsquently, platforms were the

second domain, which corresponds to oxygen diffusion in the reduction reaction

when potentials were negative enough for the mass transfer to dominate. ( Eq. 6)

The more negative potential, over -1200 mV/SCE, belongs to third domain,

indicating an obvious increasing trend of cathodic current, which can be explained

by reduction of solvent (H2O), thus releasing hydrogen (Eq.13). The anodic reaction

shows the dissolution of metal described by the equation 7, 8, and 9.

2H2O + 2e- → 2OH- + H2 Eq. 13

32
 From the polarization curves, it is also noted that with increasing rotational speed

of the electrodes, the corrosion potential (Ecorr) also shifted to higher values, as well

as, a shifting of the polarization curves towards higher corrosion current density

including both anodic and cathodic current part.

Furthermore, the value of outer surface linear velocity of rotation electrode is

determined from the following equation[45, 46]:

πdF
U = ωr = Eq. 14
60

Where the U= linear velocity in units of cm/s

ω=angular rotation rate in units of rad/s

F=angular rotation rate in units of rpm

d= diameter of rotation cylinder electrode in units of cm

Udρ
Re = Eq. 15
μ

Where, Re is the Reynolds number of the rotating cylinder electrode, usually, the

flow is usually turbulent when the Reynolds number is greater than 4000.

ρ= density of the solution of g/cm3 units

μ= absolute viscosity of the solution of g/cm.s units.

Calculated results and related parameters obtained from polarization curves

(Figure 9) are summarized in Table 6. It can be seen that with increasing rotational

speed, the corrosion current density Icorr increases, which results in higher corrosion

rates, the corrosion potentials Ecorr swift to more negative values. This can be
33
explained from the thickness of the diffusion layer, which decreases with increasing

rotational speed.

Table 6. Parameters of polarization curves of Al alloys with various rotation

speeds in simulated salt water.
Speed Velocity Reynold corrosion
Ecorr βc βa Rp Icorr IL
rotation linear,U number rate
(mV) (V/dec) (V/dec) (Ω) (μA/cm2) (μA/cm2)
(rpm) (cm/s) (Re) (mm/y)
200 16.75 3023.29 -856 0.57 0.45 8939 4.76 23 2.66E-02
400 33.49 6046.58 -866 0.58 0.49 6787 6.00 30 3.35E-02
600 50.24 9069.88 -870 0.57 0.50 6395 6.40 34 3.58E-02
800 66.99 12093.17 -878 0.54 0.63 4114 9.02 40 5.04E-02
1000 83.73 15116.46 -880 0.50 1.66 2220 9.60 50 5.36E-02

3.2.2 Rotation speed effect on aluminum alloys with various coatings in

simulated sea water

Aluminum alloys were coated successively by micro ceramic coating, primer and

topcoat successively. The coated specimens were tested by polarization

potentiodynamic under various rotational speeds at room temperature.

34
 Figure 11. Polarization curves of ceramic coated Al alloys under various rotation
speeds in simulated salt water.

Figure 11 reflects the polarization curves of the coated aluminum alloy specimens

at varying rotational speeds. The corrosion potential shifted to more negative values

with increasing rotational speed. In the cathodic polarization portion, platforms were

once again observed, which are demonstrated in the potential domain of -900 mV to

-1100mV. The platform related to limit diffusion current IL is controlled by the

oxygen diffusion. In Figure 11, it can be seen that the limit diffusion currents are not

linearly increasing with rotational speeds. Therefore, it can be assumed that the

oxygen reduction transport is limited to the coated surface, in other words, the

electron transfer is sluggish through the coating surface onto the bare metal. But

because the micron ceramic coating is amorphous[47, 48] and the pores of surfaces

are not regular, which is shown in Figure 25. The reduction reaction still existed. For

35
the anodic polarization part, the anodic current density increases with increasing of

rotational speed. And the passivation phenomenon indicated by the ceramic coating

existed as passive film, which resistive to corrosion.

Figure 12. Polarization curves of ceramic and primer coated Al alloys under
various rotation speeds in simulated salt water.

From Figure 12, the polarization curves were obtained from the aluminum alloy

coated with ceramic and primer coating under different rotational speeds. The

evaluated corrosion potential moved toward more negative values, as well as, the

whole polarization curves shifted to higher corrosion current density with the

increasing of rotation speed. But for the cathodic polarization component, there are

no obvious platforms even with changes in the rotational speeds. The oxygen

transport process is largely reduced when additional coatings were applied on the

alloy. The sketches of one and two coatings applied on aluminum alloys are shown
36
in Figure 13. The first coating was applied by micron ceramic coating, and due to the

porosity of this layer which formed during coating process is the main problem. The

second coating was epoxy primer. The porous surface is greatly improved with two

layer coatings. That is because the porous spacing for the two different coatings is

not exactly the same[49]. The distribution of pores is described in Figure 13.

Therefore, it is improbable for each pore to directly align contact with the electrolyte

or the bottom substrate. The topper layer is generally less porous to help restricting

mass transfers of ions. The formation of this special structure increases the ability of

anti-corrosion of the underlying bare metal. However, it cannot completely prevent

species from passing or transport from the electrolyte through the coating. Base on

the difficulty of the transport of the species and electronically resistive nature for

most coatings materials, the reduction reaction is difficult to conduct, and which rely

mainly on electron transfer. In other words, the reduction reaction is not well

supported by the two coating surface. For the anodic polarization shown in Figure 12,

there are two obvious passivation processes occuring in the anodic reaction and

which can be attributed to the two passive coating films applied on the alloy.

37
 Figure 13. Sketches of coatings on aluminum alloys with irregular pores
distribution.

Figure 14. Corrosion rate of Al alloys with coatings under different rotation
speeds in simulated salt water.

38
 In Figure 14, it is shown that the corrosion rate of Al alloy and coated Al alloy

increased with increasing rotational speed. The increasing tendency of the corrosion

rate for the Al alloy was more apparent, that is because without the coating

protection, the corrosive particles were more easily able to oxidize the Al alloy

surface. The corrosion rate drops significantly with the surface of the alloy is coated

with the micro-ceramic, additionally, the slope of increasing corrosion rate was small,

due to the protective film, which inhibited the corrosive particles from migrating to

the alloy surface. The two closely related corrosion rate tendency lines were ceramic

coated Al alloy, respectively, with primer and topcoat coating. Corrosion rate of

these two coated samples were further reduced, and the tendency of these two lines

kept rising but much more flatter and smoother.

3.3 Corrosion behavior of Al alloy with various coating under sunlight

illumination and in sea water immersion

Polarization curves of Al alloys and coated Al alloys immersed in simulating salt

water with varying exposure time of sunlight were obtained. For comparison purpose,

specimens immersed in salt water for different time periods were initially tested

without sunlight and followed by same test conditions but with simulated sunlight

radiation. Experiments were conducted under same conditions except availability of

sunlight radiation. Those same tests setting include electrolyte concentration, natural

laboratory light, pH, and temperature (the temperature was checked during the

sunlight exposure experiment and keep constant about 25+1oC).

39
 Figure 15. Polarization curves of Al alloys with and without sunlight under
simulated salt water immersion.

Test results on the Tafel polarization curves of Al alloy are shown in Figure 15.

The anodic and cathodic current increased in the salt water immersion and also was

magnified in the presence of sunlight. The anodic reaction of the Al alloy without

coating reached a current platform in the potential range of -700 mV to -800 mV.

The temporarily steady platform indicates that the metal was in a passive state, which

was resulted from the quick formation of the passive oxide film on the surface of Al

alloy to prevent the increase of the corrosion current. Compared to the result of Al

alloy without sunlight but immersed for 4 h, the sunlight illumination increased the

anodic current significantly, and the anodic current reached another platform at high

current levels. This can be attributed to the sunlight which excited electrons of the

oxide layer and consequently increased the conductivity of the oxide layer[50]. The

40
activation of naturally formed surface metal oxide thin film by sunlight let Al alloy

lose natural protection, leading an increase of the anodic current density and thus an

increase of corrosion rate. This will be discussed later in details.

Figure 16. Corrosion rate of Al alloys under different exposure time of sunlight
in simulated salt water.

41
Figure 17. Corrosion rate of Al alloys with ceramic coating under different
exposure time of sunlight in simulated salt water.

42
 Figure 18. Corrosion rate of Al alloys with ceramic and primer coating under
different exposure time of sunlight in simulated salt water.

Figure 19. Corrosion rate of Al alloys with ceramic, primer and topcoat coating
under different exposure time of sunlight in simulated salt water.

Figure 16-19 shows the corrosion rate of various coated Al samples under

sunlight illumination as a function of exposure time, as well as in different

immersion periods without sunlight illumination.

Figure 16 presented corrosion rates of uncoated Al alloy increased with

increasing immersion time even without sunlight illumination. Chloride ions are

present in the simulated salt water, which has a significant effect on corrosion

behaviors of immersed Al alloy. Increasing immersion time accelerated the pitting

43
corrosion on the surface of the tested Al alloy by the chloride ion[51]. The corrosion

rate of uncoated Al alloy increased from 0.035 to 0.25 mm/y after being immersed

for 8 hours. Holding all other conditions constant, the sunlight illumination appears

to increase the corrosion rate of the Al alloy to higher levels. Specifically, the

corrosion rate significantly changed from 0.03 to 0.3 mm/y after 8 hours of

immersion and sunlight illumination. As aforementioned, it can be assumed that

sunlight effectively damaged the oxide protection film which naturally forms on the

Al surface. This may be attributed the increase of the conductivity of the passive

oxide film under the presence of sunlight[50].

Figure 17 indicates that the corrosion rate of ceramic coated Al alloy, tested under

both immersion and sunlight illumination, was higher than that of the immersion

only. Specifically, the average corrosion rate of 2-8 hours with sunlight illumination

is generally double its corrosion rates, compared to the Al alloy without sunlight.

This can be attributed to the photoconductivity of the ceramic coating[52, 53]. The

ceramic coating, which forms through the electro-deposition of titanium oxide, is a

semiconductor material, sensitive and responsive to ultra-visible spectrum of sunlight.

Part of the light was absorbed by the surface coating ceramic to excite it generating

free electron and hole pairs. The increase of electron or hole pairs accelerates anodic

and cathodic reactions of Al alloy underneath, and a higher corrosion rates.

The Figure 18 presented that the sunlight illumination has obviously affected the

corrosion rate of Al alloy coated with ceramic and primer. With this coating pair, the

average corrosion rate of 4-8 hours was roughly double, compared to the Al alloy

without sunlight illumination. Sunlight radiation similarly penetrates both coating

layers, but may follows different responses to sunlight. Part of the reason for the
44
corrosion rate increasing can be related to the sunlight effect on the exterior epoxy

primer coating. The epoxy coating is commonly a polymer between epichlorohydrin

and bisphenol A. Bisphenol A tends to absorb in the UV above 290 nm, and further

undergoes the photo cleavage, producing free radicals that facilitate the reaction

portion of oxidative degradation[54]. The epoxy primer coating undergoing the

photo degradation likely alters the inter-chemical structure, which would allow the

corrosive particles to more easily permeate the coating and contact the metal surface,

thereby increasing the corrosion rate[54].

The Figure 19 shows the two corrosion rate lines of bare Al alloy and coated Al

alloy with ceramic, primer, and topcoat. No significant difference was observed

between these two corrosion rate lines under the condition of, respectively, with and

without sunlight. This provided strong evidence to support effectiveness of the

polyurethane-contained topcoat generally provides good resistance to sunlight, that is

also purpose to have this topcoat on Al alloy[55, 56].

3.4 Corrosion performance under simulating exterior Temperature

Coated Al alloys specimens were allowed to undergo a simulating exterior

temperature for 7 days prior to the Tafel polarization tests. The simulating

temperature profile was shown in Figure 20. The coated samples underwent a

temperature change from 25 oC to 50 oC, and held isothermal for 4 hours, before

being allowed to naturally cool to room temperature.

45
 Figure 20. Temperature variations for one day.

Figure 21. Corrosion rate of Al alloys (A), ceramic coated Al alloys (B), ceramic
and primer coated Al alloys (C), ceramic, primer and topcoat coated Al alloys (D)
under temperature variations for 7 days in simulated salt water.

46
 The Figure 21 presented comparisons of corrosion rates of specimens under

ambient or elevated temperatures. As expected, the corrosion rates of coated Al

specimens decreased with adding coatings layer by layer. It is noted that the

corrosion rates of both the Al alloy and the ceramic coated Al alloy were doubled

after a 7-day elevated temperature cycle, compared to those under the ambient

temperature. This revealed that temperature variation has a great effect on the

corrosion rates. The variations in temperature might result in the expansion and

contraction of the coating, which might allow surface cracking and thus lower the

corrosion resistance. The changes in the environment temperatures also bring in the

changes of environmental humidity. The environmental humidity subsequently leads

the changes of contacting status of water to the metal surface, which serves as an

electrolyte to induce the corrosion rates[57]. Almost one order of magnitude in

corrosion rates was decreased when coated with ceramic. But, the corrosion rate of

ceramic coating still increased when allowed to undergo the variations in

temperature. This is most likely because the porous ceramic surface provide

transportation avenues for the corrosive particles to contact with the Al alloy. The

corrosion rate changes for exterior primer coating and exterior topcoat (shown in C,

and D) were not significant with or without temperature variations. Specifically, the

corrosion rate of primer and topcoat increased respectively, from 4.17×10-4 and

1.20e-4 to 5.20×10-4 and 2.40×10-4 mm/y. This 7-day simulating temperature

change tests was still short to be sufficient for the demonstration of Al alloy

behaviors under exterior environment, which generally last years.

3.5 Inhibitors effect on corrosion of aluminum alloy

47
 Aluminum alloys were tested in simulated salt water with different inhibitors at

room temperature (25 oC) after 60 minutes of immersion time. Results, in the

polarization curves, are presented in Figure 22. It can be observed that additions of

two inhibitors, respectively, resulted in both corrosion potentials shifting towards

more negative. Parameters, obtained from polarization curves, such as the corrosion

potential (Ecorr), both the cathodic and anodic Tafel slopes (βc,βa), the corrosion

current density and the calculated corrosion rate, were listed in Table 7. The

corrosion rate of two addition inhibitors of BMIMBr and BEIMCl were 1.89×10-3

and 3.08 ×10-3 mm/y, respectively. Both values were lower than that without an

application of inhibitor, which was 2.38×10-2 mm/y. The additions of both corrosion

inhibitors brought in deceases of corrosion rates by around one order of magnitude.

Figure 22. Polarization curves for aluminum with and without inhibitor in salt
water.

48
 Table 7. Electrochemical polarization parameters and the related inhibition
efficiencies for aluminum in salt water with and without inhibitors.
Icorr corrosion
Inhibitors Ecorr (mV) βc (V/dec) βa (V/dec) Rp (Ω) IE (%)
(μA/cm2) rate (mm/y)
Blank -675 0.27 1.35 6281 4.26 2.38E-02 -
BMIMBR -722 0.42 2.21 48732 0.33 1.89E-03 92
BEIMCl -794 0.51 1.26 44405 0.55 3.08E-03 87.1

Additionally, the inhibition efficiency (IE) was calculated by using the following

equation[58].

CRcorr−CRcorr(inh)
𝐼𝐸 (%) = × 100 Eq.16
CRcorr

Where the CRcorr and CRcorr (inh) are the corrosion rates of the tested

aluminum alloy in the absence and presence of inhibitors, respectively. IE values

were listed in Table 7, it can be seen that IE increase in the presence of this two

inhibitors by around 90%. The results from polarization curves of circumstances with

and without inhibitors indicated that the presence of ionic liquid inhibitors in

corrosive electrolyte environment increased the corrosion resistance of tested

aluminum alloy. This can be attributed to two major reasons. Firstly, the Cl- ion,

occurred in salt water, was adsorbed onto the metal surface due to the columbic

attraction, and similarly applied inhibitor molecules was adsorbed on metal surface

by the electrostatic interaction between positively and negatively charged molecules

on metal surface[59, 60]. The absorbed inhibitor molecules had an ability to react

with (AlCl-)ads species and formed molecular layers covered on metal surface[58].

These formed layers prevented aluminum alloy from being further attacked by

chloride ions and consequently lowered the corrosion rates. Secondly, the effect of

inhibitors can be attributed to physical properties of ionic liquids (such as

49
conductivity), which were shown in Table 9. The conductivity of ionic liquids were

tested using EIS techniques, have previously been summarized in Figure 23 and in

Table 8. Addition of highly viscosity and lowly conductive ionic liquid inhibitors in

corrosive environment, to some extent, lowered the conductivity of salt water

electrolyte and the mass transfer rates of corrosive species, and thus decreased the

corrosion rates of the tested aluminum alloys.

Figure 23. The Bode plot diagrams of ionic liquid inhibitors BMIMBR and
BEIMCL (Left).Nyquist diagrams (Right).

Table 8. EIS parameters of ionic liquid inhibitors of BMIMRB and BEIMCL.

Parameters Rs (Ωcm) Rct (kΩ cm2) CPE W

BMIMBR 164.19 31.38 1.29E-09 8.06

BEIMCL 591.92 175.26 3.87E-10 7.44

50
 Table 9. Conductivity and Viscosity of ionic liquid inhibitors (BMIMBR and
BEIMCl) at room temperature (25°C).
Samples Viscosity (Pa.s) Conductivity (mS/cm)

BMIMBR 0.025 2.78

BEIMCL 0.029 0.77

3.6 Morphology of Al alloy with various coatings under varied corrosive

environments

The microtopography of samples and applied coatings has a significant impact on

the corrosion performance of the samples. Typical samples, which were tested using

AFM and OM analysis, are shown in Figure 24 and Figure 25. The same scale was

applied to images of two different samples using the same magnification method.

The maximum resolution of the images using OM is approximately 500 um based on

the confocal optical technology; in comparison, AFM can achieve a much higher

resolution down to 1 um (10-100 nm), depending on the scan time step and the

diameter of the AFM tips. Images (a) and (b) were obtained using OM for samples A

and C, respectively, and images (c) and (d) were obtained using AFM for samples A

and C, respectively.

51
 Figure 24. Images of OM and AFM for sample A (Bare aluminum alloy) and
sample C coated with Chromate and Epoxy coating.

A comparison of the AFM images and the OM images provides a good example

of how more detailed local information can be obtained by using AFM to explore the

microtopography, homogeneity and defects of applied coatings. The images of

sample A that were obtained using both AFM (Figure 24c) and OM (Figure 24a)

clearly revealed the existence of rougher surfaces on sample A than on sample C

(Figure 24b and Figure 24d), which the coatings were applied. A rougher surface

generally increased the specific surface area of samples, likely leading the

acceleration of the corrosion reaction kinetics. This was coincidence to to the higher

corrosion rates that have been observed for those of sample A than for sample C.

52
Further investigations of the obtained sample images indicated that the coating on

sample C had a good coverage over the whole surface in the investigated area,

indicating an acceptable homogeneity of the coating application. No significant

defects were detected on the surface of sample C, even in a nanometer scale

investigation, in spite of a few spots to be identified variably in their thickness.

Figure 25. Images of OM (a, b) for sample F (coated with Ceramic) and G
(coated with Ceramic and Primer), AFM images (c, d)for samples H (coated with
Ceramic, Primer and Topcoat) and M (coated with Chromate, Epoxy, Primer and
Topcoat).

Figure 25 shows OM images of selected samples F and G and AFM images of

selected samples H and M. Sample F, which had a ceramic coating, exhibited porous

surfaces with a pore diameter near 20 um (shown in Figure 25a). This porous

53
topography was worse leading its corrosion-resistance performance, but likely

beneficial and appropriate for the adherence of the next layer of coating [61]. The

porous surface promoted good deposition of the primer, leading a sample G with a

good corrosion resistance. This joint coating coverage eventually eliminated surface

roughness and covered surface defects thoroughly, resulting to a significant

reduction in the corrosion rate in comparison to the single coating (shown in Figure

25b). Figure 25c depicts sample H, which has one more topcoat than sample G with

two coatings on. The topography of this sample was even much smoother and flatter

than that of sample G. As a consequence, the corrosion rate of sample H was

expected to be reduced further. This result again provided evidence that surface

roughness can impact corrosion process, and improvement of the surface roughness,

leading a less surface area, can improve prevention capabilities to attacks from the

corrosive environment. Sample M, which is shown in Figure 25d, presented

numerous micro-holes on its surface likely caused by the coating process. Defects in

the surface provided more chances for electrolyte ions to attack the surface. This was

coincidence to the increased corrosion rate of sample M.

The microstructure of Al alloy and coated Al alloys, undergoing different

simulated corrosive environments, are shown in Figure 26.

54
 After sunlight and immersion for After simulating temperature for 7
Before Test
8 hours days

Only Al

Alloy

Al

Ceramic

Al

Ceramic

Primer

Al

Ceramic

Primer

Topcoat

Figure 26. Optical microscope of Al alloys with and without coating under
different simulated corrosive environment.

Under sunlight illumination in salt water for 8 hours, corrosions of the uncoated

Al alloy was much more serious, Corrosive products on the surface were clearly
55
observed, as shown in Figure 26. The pitting attack was promoted under the

existence of chloride ions and became more serious with increasing immersion time.

However, for the Al alloy, which only underwent temperature variations, the shape

of the distributed corrosive particles was much smaller, but still obvious on the

surface. It is assumed that the relatively humidity changes, which brought additional

water condensation to be an instant electrolyte, could accelerate the pitting corrosion

process on the rough Al alloy surface. The coated ceramic Al alloy has a unique

porous property, which can be seen from the image of many small light spots before

the test in the corrosion environment. The AFM images did not reveal significant

changes of surfaces of ceramic coated Al alloy after being exposed in the sunlight-

radiated and temperature-elevated and salt-water environment. The only visible

changes are light spot tends to be darken, which could be attributed to the doped

electrolyte. The exterior primer coating, more flatten and with less defects, helped to

eliminate the porousness and roughness of ceramic surface. However, in the center

area of both primer coatings after exposure in corrosion environment, the coating

have swelled out and were detached from the bottom layer. This could be explained

by the expansion propensities of polymer coatings under thermal conditions. The

penetration of electrolyte would also expand polymer coatings. Similar to the

exterior topcoat, it was not easily to distinguish the obvious difference on the surface

under various simulating corrosive conditions. This was not true when sample with

topcoat was examined under a larger magnification, very small pin holes could be

seen on the surface, especially for the sample after its exposure under sunlight-

radiation. It could be assumed that the sunlight radiation tends to accelerate the

56
formations of coating defects, leading a serious corrosion effects, more significant

than that under elevated temperature.

57
 CONCLUSION

In this study, investigations on corrosion resistance behaviors of a selected

aluminum alloy and its applied combination of coatings on have been conducted.

The major conclusions of this study were:

The corrosion resistance experiment in this study confirmed that corrosions in the

simulated salt water were generally more serious than those in the distilled water.

This was especially true for bare aluminum alloys, that its corrosion rates in the salt

water exhibited two orders of magnitude higher than those in the distilled water. The

application of corrosion-resistance coatings was necessary to help protecting the

tested aluminum alloys;

The environmentally-friendly coating combination (i.e., the ceramic coating,

primer and topcoat (Category 2 samples P and H)) exhibited an excellent corrosion

resistance, in comparison to that of another coating combination (chromate, epoxy

coating, primer and topcoat (Category 1 samples M and E)). The tested corrosion

rates of Category 2 coatings, based on the ASTM standard, were reported to be as

low as 1.39×10-4 and 1.12×10-5 mm/y in the salt water and the distilled water,

respectively. This coating combination significantly improved overall polarization

resistances of the coated aluminum alloys by 91.76% in the water and by 99.55% in

the salty water;

58
 Corrosion rates of both uncoated and coated Al alloys became increased with

increasing of rotation speeds, simulating a severe dynamic environment. The applied

coatings to some extent were found to be capable to slow down this increasing trend.

Sunlight illumination speeded up, to some extent, the corrosion process by

degrading coatings or exciting photoreactions of electron transfers. This became

severe when the tested samples were immersed in the salt water;

Temperature variation has serious effect on the corrosions of the uncoated Al

alloy by speeding corrosion reaction kinetics, but applied coatings helped eliminating

the impact of temperatures;

Image characterizations using both optical microscope and atomic force

microscopy, could be helpful to investigate surface morphology of corroded samples,

addressing the coating defects and pores as well as expansions before or after

applications in the corrosive environment. Images also provided evidence that

corrosive environments, to some extent, destroyed the contact status of coating

surfaces, lowering their corrosion resistance;

Addition of ionic liquid inhibitors, such as BMIMBR and BEIMCl, exhibited

great improvement of corrosion resistances of aluminum alloy in the salt water. The

corrosion rates of aluminum in the presence of inhibitors were almost one order of

magnitude lower than that in the absence of inhibitors.

59
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67
 ACHIEVEMENT

Publication

Jingyi Yue, Yan Cao* , Corrosion Prevention by Applied Coatings on Aluminum

Alloys in Corrosive Environments, Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 10 (2015)

Jingyi Yue, Yan Cao*, Varun K. Kolanka, Webb Cathleen, The Synthesis of The

Highly Electrical-conductive, Thermally-stable And Less Costly Ionic liquids, J.

Chem. Eng. Data. (Submitted)

Jingyi Yue, Yan Cao*, Corrosion Hehaviors of Aluminum Alloy with Applied

Coatings under Sunlight-Radiative, Temperature-Elevated and Dynamic

Environment. (In preparation)

Conference

Kentucky Academy of Science Lexington, Kentucky November 2014

North American Thermal Analysis Society Santa Fe, New Mexico October 2014

68