CHAPTER 8 Universal

Design for Learning

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How this chapter prepares you to be

an effective inclusive classroom teacher:
•This chapter teaches you the many ways that students are diverse and how that affects their
learning in the classroom. It addresses ways for you to be active and resourceful in seek-
ing to understand how primary language, culture, and familial backgrounds interact with
the individual’s exceptional condition to affect the individual’s academic and social abilities,
attitudes, values, and interests. This helps you meet CEC Standard 3: Individual Learning
Differences.
•This chapter teaches you about universal design for learning and how to create a classroom
that allows for active engagement, self-motivation, empowerment, self-advocacy, and inde-
pendence of all students, and that values diverse characteristics and needs. This helps you
meet CEC Standard 5: Learning Environments and Social Influence.
•In this chapter, you will learn about a case study of a fourth-grade teacher whose classroom
is universally designed for learning. This chapter will teach you how she modifies instruction
and support strategies based on ongoing evaluation of student needs and progress. The case
study shows you how the teacher meets all of her students’ individualized education pro-
grams when she plans and how she uses appropriate pedagogy and technologies to support
student learning. This helps you meet CEC Standard 7: Instructional Planning.
•This chapter prepares you to be a professional and ethical teacher by teaching that your role
as a teacher is to actively plan and engage in activities that foster your professional growth
and keep you current with evidence-based practices. You will learn about many resources
and strategies needed to adjust instruction in consideration of students’ needs, not impose
instruction upon students. You will also learn that knowing how to differentiate for all learners
is a lifelong learning process, because no two students are alike. You will keep learning how
to do this as long as you keep meeting new students during your career. This helps you meet
CEC Standard 9: Professional and Ethical Practice.
Copyright 2012. Brookes Publishing.

143

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 144 Teaching Everyone

After reading and discussing

this chapter, you will be able to
•Explain the concept of universal design for learning (UDL) and its impact on the full citizenship and
inclusion of students
•Explain the principle of multiple means of representation and provide examples
•Explain the principle of multiple means of expression and provide examples
•Explain the principle of multiple means of engagement and provide examples
•Explain the concept and importance of self-regulation
•Explain what executive functions are and how they can be supported by UDL
•Describe the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
•Explain how universal design of physical space fits into the concept of UDL
•Explain what assistive technology is and how it fits into the concept of UDL
•Provide several examples of high, middle, and low assistive technology
•Explain how Beth, the teacher in the case study, met each principle of UDL

I
universal design for n Chapter 7, you learned about the conceptual framework for ensuring full citizen-
learning (UDL)Concept ship of all students in your classroom and received some initial ideas for putting
that the learning environ- that into practice. This chapter builds on the idea that all aspects of the classroom
ment, including the space, should be highly differentiated for all students. This is called universal design for
curriculum and social com- learning (UDL). This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section defines the
munity, are fully accessible concept of universal design for learning (UDL). The second section discusses the pur-
to all persons. pose of UDL. The third section covers the three principles of UDL and the application of
those principles in developing a UDL curriculum, including instructional goals, meth-
ods, materials, and assessment. The fourth section provides a case example of a fourth-
grade teacher who strives to provide a classroom space and curriculum according to the
principles of UDL.
The narrative is written by Tina Calabro, whose son has cerebral palsy. She tells us
about collaboration needed for universal design.

DEFINITION OF UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING

According to the Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008, universal design for
learning
provides flexibility in the ways information is presented, in the ways students respond
or demonstrate knowledge and skills, and in the ways students are engaged; and reduces
barriers in instruction, provides appropriate accommodations, supports, and challenges,
and maintains high achievement expectations for all students, including students with
disabilities and students who are limited English proficient. (p. 11)

Universal design for learning is a set of principles to follow when developing curricu-
lum, so that the curriculum meets the needs of every student, giving all students equal
opportunity to learn (National Center on Universal Design for Learning, 2011c).

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 Universal Design for Learning 145

WHY UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING?

The purpose of UDL is to meet the needs of all students in an inclusive classroom.
Students are vastly diverse—in what they learn (what they perceive), how they learn
(how they process), and why they learn (what interests and motivates them). If a cur-
riculum is designed with a single “average” student in mind, it will exclude more stu-
dents than it includes because students learn in many different ways. No two students
are alike in their thought processes, learning styles, abilities, or interests.
The National Center on Universal Design for Learning (2011a) described traditional
curricula—those designed for the “average” student—as having curricular disabilities.
Those curricula are disabled because not every student is “average.” They present the
content in one or two ways that are typically accessible to an average student but they
offer limited instructional options.
A UDL curriculum identifies all the different ways a curriculum needs to be
customized so that it can be accessed by all students. Addressing what, how, and
why students learn, and understanding what each student would report about what
he or she learns, empowers educators to create classrooms where all students are full
citizens. It also empowers them to advocate for students so their needs are met in
all settings.
An important distinction must be made here. UDL is not the same as retrofitting
(making after-the-fact adaptations) a one-size-fits-all curriculum. Rather, UDL is a
process by which a curriculum is purposefully and intentionally designed right from
the start to address diverse needs (National Center on Universal Design for Learning,
2011c). This is a philosophical distinction as well as a technical one. The practice of ret-
rofitting means that some students (typical students) were thought of first, and other
students (those who need adaptations) were thought of later. It sends the message that
the classroom is made for only some and others needs to be worked in. This connects to
Kliewer’s (1998) concepts of full citizens, squatters, and aliens, which were discussed in
Chapter 7. That is, full citizenship for all students is difficult with a retrofit model; it is
much more possible when UDL is used.
UDL fosters the development of expert learners. Expert learners do not just receive
content; they create ways to access content according to their unique needs. These stu-
dents show that they are resourceful and knowledgeable by activating their own back-
ground knowledge to lend it to the learning situation; by identifying and utilizing tools
and resources for accessing new learning; and by transforming unfamiliar knowledge
into meaningful, useful knowledge. These students show that they are strategic and
goal-directed by making plans for learning, organizing effective resources and strate-
gies to be used, and recognizing their own strengths and weaknesses. These students
show that they are purposeful and motivated by setting their own challenges, sustain-
ing the effort and persistence needed to achieve the goals, and monitoring their own
interest levels and progress toward goals. The way to achieve a classroom that gives
every student the chance to be an expert learner is one in which UDL principles are
used. Those principles are the described in the next section.

PRINCIPLES OF UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING

There are three primary principles of UDL. The three principles are 1) to provide multi-
ple means of representation, 2) to provide multiple means of action and expression, and
3) to provide multiple means of engagement (National Center on Universal Design for
Learning, 2011b).

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 146 Teaching Everyone

NARRATIVE 8.1. | TINA CALABRO

My 15-year-old son Mark is in tenth grade at Brashear High School in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
He enjoys a fully inclusive education, thanks to the school district’s commitment to reaching
all students, his parents’ involvement, and a well-crafted and implemented IEP.

Mark has athetoid cerebral palsy as a result of asphyxia during birth. He has significant physi-
cal disabilities, including quadriplegia and feeding-swallowing disorder. He uses a communica-
tion device and an electric wheelchair, both of which he activates with head switches.

When Mark began receiving early intervention services, his therapists introduced a range of
assistive technology, such as switches and positioning devices, to enable him to participate
in age-appropriate activities. By the time he entered kindergarten, he was using a commu-
nication device with a dynamic display, spelling page, and word prediction. The district also
provided a one-on-one paraprofessional.

We are fortunate to live in a school district with enthusiastic assistive technology specialists
who apply knowledge and effort to the task of ensuring that Mark and other students fully
participate in all learning activities. In the primary grades, the school district gave Mark the
technological tools he needed to complete “paper” assignments on the computer as well as
adaptations and accommodations that allowed him to participate in hands-on activities. In
addition, the IEP team met regularly to look ahead in the curriculum to identify barriers to
participation and to strategize about how to remove them.

When he entered the intermediate grades, the school district began to provide Mark’s text-
books in digital format. The alternative format allowed Mark to move back and forth within a
text at his own pace and become a more independent learner. Digital textbooks, wide-ranging
computer access, and regular team-planning meetings became the basis for academic success
that has extended into Mark’s high school years.

PROVIDE MULTIPLE MEANS OF REPRESENTATION

The first principle to follow when designing a curriculum is to provide multiple ways
of representing the content to be learned—the “input.” If you just provide the content
in one way, only the students who can access it that way are going to benefit from it. If
you present it in multiple ways, three things happen: 1) more students are going to have
access to the new learning, 2) the new information will be reinforced in multiple ways,
and 3) students are more likely to be expert learners because they will be familiar with
multiple ways to receive information and thus will know what works best for them and
can explore a range of ways to learn new information.
To “input” the new learning, three things need to be in place: 1) Students need to
be able to perceive the information; 2) students need to be able to understand language,
mathematical expressions, and symbols; and 3) students need to be able to comprehend
or assign meaning to the information.

Perception To understand what it means to perceive new learning, we need to

make a distinction between sensing and perceiving. Often, senses are confused with

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 Universal Design for Learning 147

Figure 8.1.Optical illusion. (From Hill, W.E. [1915]. “My wife and my mother-in-law. They are both in
this picture - find them.” Illustration in Puck, 78 [2018], p. 11.)

perceptions. The senses (i.e., sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch) allow us to detect or perceptionUnderstand-
sense environmental stimuli. Perception is what allows us to understand or bring ing or making meaning
meaning to it once we have sensed it. So, it is possible to sense something, but not be from sensory input from
able to perceive it. It is also possible for two different people to sense the same stimuli, the environment.
but perceive it in different ways. Optical illusions are an example of sight versus visual
perception. Look at the image in Figure 8.1. What do you perceive? You may perceive a
young woman or you may perceive an old woman. You may even perceive something
else entirely, because of the meaning your background knowledge brings to it.
Perception is needed to learn new information. If teachers present information oral-
ly, for instance by lecturing, there are students who will be able to hear the information,
but may not be able to make sense of it because they do not perceive auditory input
very well. They may need to see it represented visually in words or pictures to process
it. Or they may bring a different meaning to the information than the teacher expected,
because of their background knowledge and experiences. On the flip side, if teachers
present the information visually, by writing on the board or handing out a note packet
for example, some students may be able to see and read the information but not be able
to make sense of it, because they need to hear an explanation through their preferred
auditory modality. In summary, if teachers present information in only one way or as-
sume there is only one way to perceive it, they are excluding many students with differ-
ing perceptual abilities.

Understanding Language, Mathematical Expressions, and Symbols Written infor-

mation is not only represented in letters and words, it is also represented in numbers
and symbols. Not everyone understands these lexicons the same way. Some people are
more comfortable with words, while others are more adept at understanding numbers
and mathematical symbols. Some have difficulty with both. This depends on the indi-
vidual’s processing style, cultural background, language, and lexical knowledge (Na-
tional Center on Universal Design for Learning, 2011b).
There are several ways to make written information more accessible to all students.
Vocabulary, numbers, and symbols should be paired with alternative representations
of their meaning—photos, illustrations, graphs, or charts. Figure 8.2 contains three dif-
ferent representations of the same information. Which do you prefer? Which helps you

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 148 Teaching Everyone

To-Do List for June

Pay the rent on the 1st.
Haircut at 2:30 p.m. on the 4th.
Take the dog to the vet at 1:00 p.m. on the 8th.
Dentist appointment at 8:45 a.m. on the 9th.
Meet Sarah for lunch at noon on the 10th.
Mom’s birthday on the 14th.
Take car for oil change on the 16th.
Visit Grandpa on the 20th.
Bake sale at school on the 24th.
Dance class every Tuesday and Thursday at 6:00 p.m.
Pay the electric bill on the 30th.

Agenda for June

June Task
1st Pay the rent.
4th Haircut at 2:30 p.m.
8th Dog to vet at 1:00 p.m.
9th Dentist at 8:45 a.m.
10th Meet Sarah for lunch at noon.
14th Mom’s birthday
16th Car for oil change
20th Visit Grandpa.
24th Bake sale at school
30th Pay electric bill.
T/TH Dance class at 6:00 p.m.

Calendar for June

June
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pay the rent 2:30 Haircut
6:00 Dance 6:00 Dance
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1:00 Vet 8:45 Dentist 12:00 Sarah Mom’s
birthday
6:00 Dance 6:00 Dance
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Oil change Visit
6:00 Dance 6:00 Dance Grandpa
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Bake sale
6:00 Dance 6:00 Dance
29 30
Pay electric bill

Figure 8.2.Different ways of representing the same information.

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 Universal Design for Learning 149

understand or keep track of the information more easily? Not everyone will choose the
same representation. A curriculum that is universally designed for learning will utilize
various representations for all information.
All jargon, slang, and idiomatic expressions should be translated and explained.
Structural rules and relationships should be made more explicit, such as the syntax in
a sentence or the properties in equations. Make sure everything is available in the per-
son’s first language, including American Sign Language for those who sign. This last
suggestion is particularly important because students who are learning English as a sec-
ond language enter classrooms and need access to content presented in Spanish or an-
other first language. In the Rochester City Schools in New York State, some schools have
classrooms for first and second graders who speak Spanish that are taught by bilingual
teachers—first grade and the first semester of second grade are taught in Spanish. In the
second semester of second grade, instruction gradually incorporates both Spanish and
English, and in third grade instruction is in English. This very gradual change allows
students to perceive information without a language barrier when they are learning
to read.

Comprehension Comprehension occurs when a student takes new information and

translates it into useable knowledge. This is an active process that includes attention to
select bits of information, integrating new information with existing knowledge, and
categorizing the integrated information.
Comprehension can be improved when teachers utilize many different ways to
activate existing knowledge. The more connections you can make from what students
already know to new information that is learned, the more opportunities you open up
for students to comprehend it. The key to comprehension is to connect, connect, con-
nect. Anchor new knowledge to what the students already know. Ask them about their
experiences and have them share those experiences with the whole class. Use meta-
phors and analogies to illustrate concepts. These can also be very powerful in helping
students understand how they learn so they can be their own best advocates, a charac-
teristic of expert learners.
For example, a fifth grader was meeting with his teacher and parents following
an incident in the classroom. During a particularly chaotic class activity, the student—
who has sensory processing difficulties and becomes anxious easily—left the classroom
without permission and found a quiet hidden spot in the library to read. When asked
why he did that even though he knows it was against the rules, he replied, “Stress for
me is like a sieve. When I am stressed, the sieve shakes all of the good decisions out, so
when I reach in for a decision, only the bad ones are left.” This expression led his teach-
ers to plan a classroom environment that was less stressful for the student.
Another connection to make is between curricular content areas. Working with tes-
sellations (repeated patterns that fill a surface with no gaps, such as a honeycomb or quilt)
connects math, art, and science or social studies. Comprehension can also be improved
by highlighting patterns or relationships in the information to be learned. Literally
using a highlighter to mark the words that rhyme in a poem, the letter combinations in
a word family, or the patterns of zero in the multiplication chart can be helpful. Other
helpful strategies are providing several examples and nonexamples of a concept and
using cues, such as clapping or holding up a hand when new information is used.

PROVIDE MULTIPLE MEANS OF ACTION AND EXPRESSION

The second principle to follow when designing a curriculum is to provide multiple
ways for “output”—ways for students to show what they know. The two most common
ways that we have students demonstrate their knowledge is through writing (e.g., tests,

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 150 Teaching Everyone

worksheets, essays) and oral response to teacher-posed questions in class. While these
methods should be continued for the students who are well able to demonstrate their
learning in these ways, many more options need to be offered as well. To meet the “out-
put” needs of all learners, options for physical expression, options for communication,
and options for executive functions (i.e., the functions of organization, planning, and
task execution) are essential.

Options for Physical Expression Some students need to express themselves physi-
cally. They need to use their bodies beyond writing and speaking to show what they
have learned. Maybe it means tracing letters or words in sand or shaving cream. Maybe
it means operating a computer with a joystick, balance board, or eye controls rather than
with a traditional mouse. In the narrative by Tina Calabro, we hear that Mark uses head
switches to control his wheelchair and communication device. It may mean acting out
a concept instead of explaining it. The use of hands-on manipulatives, field trips, and
movement around the classroom is essential. Providing options for physical expression
also means making sure that everything in the classroom is physically accessible to all
students and teachers. Later in this chapter, we will go into more depth about the uni-
versal design of classroom space.

Options for Communication Not everyone is able to express themselves and their
knowledge through traditional writing and speaking. It is important to offer many
different ways for students to communicate with an audience. Some alternatives for
communication include drawing, creating storyboards, film design, music composi-
tion, model-making, and sculpture. Assistive technology to help with the writing proc-
ess may include speech-to-text software, spellcheckers, word-prediction software, and
social media such as online discussion forums and blogs.

executive functions Options for Executive Functions Your executive functions are essentially the chief
The executive director of the directors of your brain. Another apt metaphor is that they are the “maestro” that con-
brain’s functions. Executive ducts your orchestra of skills and abilities (Packer, 2010). Executive functions help you
functions make decisions decide when and how to use each skill that you have. They are the managers—time
about which skills to use managers, material managers, goal setters, planners, task initiators, attention sustainers,
and when, when and how and the social skill regulators. Everyone has executive functions, but some people have
to transition from one skill stronger ones than others.
to the next, and where and
According to the National Center on Universal Design for Learning, executive abil-
how to store the skills when
ities are reduced when
they are not in use. Persons
who have executive- Executive functioning capacity must be devoted to managing “lower level” skills and re-
function difficulties often sponses which are not automatic or fluent, thus the capacity for “higher level” functions
struggle with organization, is taken; and executive capacity is reduced due to some sort of higher-level disability or
planning, initiating and to lack of fluency with executive strategies. (2011b, p. 5)
sustaining tasks, as well
as responding to and UDL responds to stresses on executive functioning by scaffolding lower-level skills
managing social cues. (such as keeping track of time and materials) so they become more automatic. Once
lower-level skills are more automatic, higher-level executive skills (such as long-term
scaffoldingA way to goal setting and managing a multistep, complex project) can become more developed
support a student in new (National Center on Universal Design for Learning, 2011b). Skills to be scaffolded are
learning. Just like physical goal-setting, planning, developing strategies that work best for various tasks, managing
scaffolding, instructional information to make sense of it, managing all the resources available, and self-monitoring
scaffolding is made of of progress. Scaffolding does not mean doing the work for the students. It means pro-
layers of support that can
viding a boost or support so the students can accomplish the work themselves. Then,
be removed as the student
the support is gradually withdrawn or reduced on an individual basis until the student
is able to perform on his or
her own.
is as independent as possible.

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 Universal Design for Learning 151

Provide Multiple Means of Engagement

The third principle for designing a curriculum based on UDL is to use many different
ways to engage students in learning. Everyone becomes engaged by different types of
tasks and different learning situations. Some prefer working alone, while others prefer
group work. Some prefer open-ended, highly subjective tasks, while others prefer struc-
tured, objective tasks. Each student is unique in his or her learning style and abilities,
and in the ways used to engage in various learning opportunities. To increase engage-
ment, teachers need to catch students’ interest and help them to sustain effort, to persist
toward a goal, and to self-regulate their learning behaviors.

Options for Catching Interest One of the most effective ways to catch students’
interests and encourage them to attend to important information is to provide choice
and autonomy. If you have prepared properly, students can choose the process used to
accomplish a task, the tools or materials used during the process, and the product they
create to show their learning. The differentiated menus in Chapter 7 are an excellent
example of offering choice to students. As long as the choices are appropriate—not too
easy and not too challenging—providing choice increases interest and engagement.
Another important way to interest students is to offer relevant, valuable, authentic
activities. Teaching them to work division problems in math for the purpose of complet-
ing a worksheet or test is not authentic. Bringing in a cake and teaching them to work a
division problem so that each student receives an equal piece is relevant. Have students
bring in real problems from home—how should the vegetable garden be divided, how
can I double or halve a recipe, how much tile do I need to cover the bathroom floor—
and work the problems to inform their families is valuable. Make sure activities are
culturally relevant, as well as socially, developmentally, and individually appropriate.
A final important consideration for increasing interest is to decrease discomfort
and distractions. Some students can focus their attention easily on a given task, while
others have more difficulty filtering out distractions in the environment, some of which
may cause discomfort or distress. There are many factors involved here to make sure the
classroom is physically as well as emotionally comfortable. Physically, the temperature
should be moderate, the lighting should be adequate, and the furniture appropriate for
all students’ needs. Emotionally, the classroom should be supportive, free of ridicule
and judgment, and encouraging. Each student should be urged to take risks, but not
forced out of his or her comfort zone. This comfort zone is unique to each student.

Options for Sustaining Effort and Persistence Once the teacher has the student’s
interest, it is important to help the student persevere in his or her efforts. Sustaining
effort on a task can be increased by frequently revisiting the goals and steps toward the
goal, so the student can “keep an eye on the prize.” Varying resources and changing
materials can refresh engagement. Fostering collaboration and communication through
carefully structured groups helps students guide each other toward task completion.
Providing frequent feedback and showing the student how much progress has been
made demonstrates how far he or she has come and how much is left to do.

Options for Self-Regulation For students to self-regulate their learning behaviors, self-regulationThe
they need to know what those behaviors are and how they can be improved. As a teach- ability to monitor and
er, every time you find an effective strategy for a student, it is important that the student modify one’s own actions
be made aware of the strategy and its positive effect. The more students know about as needed.
their strengths, needs, and best strategies, the more they will be able to take charge of
their own learning, including self-regulating their performance and progress. This is a
point that we have made often. Areas in which a student should be self-aware include

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 152 Teaching Everyone

extrinsicFactors outside extrinsic (external) and intrinsic (internal) motivators, personal coping skills, self-
or external to a person. assessment, and self-reflection. Some extrinsic motivators may be grades, prizes, or
They may or may not be extra recess. Some intrinsic motivators may be pride in a job well done, excitement about
tangible. For example, the topic, or a feeling of challenge. Coping skills that help students focus their attention
extrinsic rewards are those or work through overwhelming situations include drawing or doodling, chewing gum,
that are presented from the talking to a peer or counselor, and writing in a journal. Self-assessment and self-reflec-
outside, such as stickers, tion are difficult to develop. It is not easy to step back, look at ourselves objectively, and
money, grades, and praise. be honest and specific about how we are doing and how we can improve. Teachers can
intrinsicFactors inside or provide scaffolds that help students assess their own performance and reflect on ways
internal to a person. They to improve.
are intangible. For example,
intrinsic rewards are those
a person feels inside, such A UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING CLASSROOM
as pride, a sense of ac-
For a classroom to be universally designed for learning, the three principles and ideas
complishment, interested
engagement, and a sense
must be applied to both the curriculum and the physical space. Curriculum and space
of joy. are not the same thing, but they are closely related. Look at Figure 8.3. Universally de-
signed curriculum and universally designed classroom space overlap. They both are
steered by the principles guiding multiple inputs, outputs, and kinds of engagement.
Remember that a UDL curriculum includes what is learned, how it is learned, and why
it is learned. The physical classroom space—including assistive technology—is part of
how it is learned. It is the context, the format, the environment where it all takes place.
A space is universally designed if it usable to all people to the greatest extent pos-
sible without having to be modified or retrofitted (Connell et al., 1997). Consideration
of several elements can help accomplish this. First, the space should be designed so that
people with different abilities can all use the space equitably. Equipment should accom-
modate different physical needs; there should be provisions for privacy and safety for

UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING

Principle 1: Principle 2:
Provide multiple means Provide multiple means of
of representation. action and expression.

Universal
design of Universal
curriculum design of
classroom
Goals AT
space
Methods
Materials (7 principles)
Assessment

Principle 3:
Provide multiple means of engagement.
Figure 8.3.Universal design for learning.

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 Universal Design for Learning 153

all, so that no one is stigmatized or segregated. Think back to a scenario shared in Chap-
ter 3. The main entrance of a retail store was not wheelchair accessible and the wheel-
chair entrance was located in the back alley next to a smelly dumpster, where one had
to wait until the doorbell was answered. Even though all customers had physical access
to the store, it was not equitable. Second, the space should be flexible in use. Choice
should be available to all users, equipment should be both right- and left-handed, and
adaptability should be provided for each user’s pace. An example of this is an ATM
with visual, tactile, and auditory feedback, a tapered card slot, and a palm rest. Third,
the use of the space should be simple and intuitive. Use should not depend on special-
ized training or experience, language skills, or concentration level. A good example is a
set of instructions with drawings for each step. Fourth, information should be percep-
tible. Essential information should be presented in visual, auditory, and tactile modes.
A good example is a thermostat with visual, tactile, and auditory cues. Fifth, the space
should have tolerance for error. Warnings of hazards should be provided and equip-
ment should have fail-safe features. Good examples of this are double-cut car keys that
work either way they are inserted, and “undo” features on computer programs. Sixth,
the space should require low physical effort. Equipment should allow users to maintain
neutral body position and reasonable operating force. Lever handles on doors are an
example because they can be operated with minimal force by an open or closed hand.
Last, there should be size and space for all to approach and use equipment. Pathways
should be roomy, lines of sight should be clear, and equipment should be at heights that
allow everyone to use it. When spaces are designed with these elements in mind, they
respond to diverse academic, social-emotional, and sensory-physical needs (Peterson &
Hittie, 2010).

Assistive Technology
Assistive technology is part of a universally designed space as well as part of universally assistive technology
designed curriculum. Assistive technology (AT) can be described as tools, devices, (AT)Devices or prod-
or equipment that helps people accomplish functions or tasks. AT can be mechani- ucts that allow a person to
cal, electronic, electromagnetic, or hydraulic in nature, and the areas supported by AT perform in a way that they
include seating and positioning, mobility, hearing and sight, speech and communica- would not otherwise be
tion, prosthetics, academics, daily living tasks, sports, and recreation. able to do. Areas supported
IDEA 2004 requires that AT devices and services be considered for every child when by assistive technology
developing his or her IEP. IDEA 2004 defines AT as “any item, piece of equipment, or include mobility, commu-
product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, nication, computer access,
that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a hearing and sight, play and
recreation, and seating.
disability” (Sec. 602).

Low-Tech versus High-Tech Assistive Technology Assistive technology ranges in

its complexity from low tech to high tech. Factors considered in deciding the complexity
of AT are transparency of purpose, cost, and the time and effort required for its develop-
ment, training, and use. Low-tech AT is transparent; the purpose or reason for its use is
evident. The cost is reasonable, so most people could purchase these items for home or
school use without financial assistance. There is little to no training required to use these
items. Examples include pencil grips, lever door handles, push-button light switches,
and motion-sensor faucets. Medium- or middle-tech AT is a little less transparent in
its purposed use. The meaning is guessable, but some training or instruction would be
necessary to make full use of it. The cost is a little higher. Examples include DVD or VCR
players, digital watches, alarm clocks, and advanced calculators. High-tech AT is the
least transparent. Typically, AT of this level is so complex that its use requires special-
ized training and practice. The cost is high, so that financial assistance is almost always

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 154 Teaching Everyone

necessary. Examples include augmentative communication devices such as Dynavox or

Tango, digital hearing aids, and adapted computer hardware or software.

When Cost Is Prohibitive The more complex and specialized the assistive technol-
ogy, the higher the cost. Many teachers would like to outfit their classrooms with many
assistive devices, but the cost is prohibitive. Rather than going without, creative teachers
have found a way to recreate AT themselves to stretch their budget. Obviously, higher-
tech AT cannot be homemade, but much of the low-tech AT can be, so that budget dol-
lars can be used to purchase the high tech. The Oklahoma Assistive Technology Center
web site shows several homemade assistive devices, including a desktop display made
from a triangular potato chip can, a pencil grip crafted from the handle of a milk jug,
and foam core page “fluffers” (2011).

Assistive Technology Is an Investigation, Not Just a Product The most important

thing to remember about AT is that its usefulness is not inherent in the device, but rather
in the relationship between device and user; it is only helpful when it matches the per-
son using it. Since a user’s needs and abilities are ever-evolving, the best AT for that
person should evolve too. It is a lifelong process of investigating the most supportive
and liberating devices for individuals.

Assistive Technology Used to Increase Independence AT can be a wonderful

support if it allows a student to perform a task that he or she would otherwise not
be able to do. The AT becomes a dependency when a student could increasingly per-
form a skill, but depends on the AT to do it instead. An example from Rapp (2005) is
the use of an FM amplifier in the classroom. A student who is hard of hearing might
use the amplifier because he or she is not able to hear all classroom sounds without
it. Since the student is not able to improve his hearing, the device allows him to expe-
rience the classroom as equitably as possible, rather than impeding the development
of a skill. However, if the same FM amplifier is used by a student who has difficul-
ties with auditory processing, she may become overly dependent on the device to filter
out background noise, when she could be developing that skill on her own without
a device.
Universally designed curriculum and universally designed space—supported
by AT—combine as universal design for learning. When these are considered and
carefully planned, the result is a classroom proactively created with all students in
mind. The following case example highlights a fourth-grade teacher who exemplifies
UDL.

Case Example It is a bright, sunny day in July. School has been out for about a
month, and the next school year is still 6 weeks away. The past month has been very
relaxing for Beth Jackelen, a fourth-grade teacher at French Road Elementary School in
Rochester, New York. She had a great time at her son’s high school graduation party.
She has been to Boston to visit her daughter, and she has found a lot of time for reading
and taking long walks. Even though the summer is only half over, Beth begins to think
forward to the new school year. It is time to get to know her students and for them to
start to get to know her.
Beth begins with an introductory letter to her students and their families. The
letter introduces herself as a teacher, mom, and lifelong learner. It lets them know what
to expect the first few days of school and during the whole school year—the friends they
will make, field trips they will take, and goals they will accomplish together. Finally, the
letter invites the students and their families to visit the classroom in mid-August, before
the year begins. Then, Beth makes copies of the letter in every language spoken in the

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 Universal Design for Learning 155

homes of students in her district. She uses Google Translate to make versions in Spanish
and Turkish, because she knows that there are students in her building who speak those
languages.
Beth knows that some students need to be prepared ahead of time. They need to
know what the classroom looks like, what she is like, and where they will sit the first
day. Doing her part to relieve that anxiety is just one way that she creates an accessible
classroom for all of her students. Plus, those initial visits contribute to the year-long
process of gathering valuable information about her students.
Beth takes a look at the roster for the upcoming school year. She has just received
it, because a great deal of schoolwide planning has taken place to create each roster.
Beth notices she has a diverse class in many ways1—10 boys and 11 girls; seven students
have IEPs, two have Section 504 plans, four students have two households listed due to
joint custody arrangements, one student lives with grandparents, three students have
same-sex parents, and one student speaks Russian as her first language with English as
her second language. Beth practices saying each name aloud. She gets to Marjika Fields.
She is not sure how to pronounce it and makes a note to ask Marjika. The other note
she makes is to ask Jameson Claremont if he has a preferred nickname. He is new to the
school this year, so one was not listed on the roster.
Next, Beth looks at each student’s folder, reading last year’s report cards, as well
as each IEP and 504 plan. Beth thinks about the mixed feelings other teachers have
expressed about this. Some say they like to read as much as they can so they know
everything there is to know about the students before they arrive. Others prefer to steer
clear of the cumulative files until they have met the students so they aren’t tainted by
others’ opinions. On reflection, Beth agrees they have valid points, but she thinks about
it differently. She likes to read the information so she can be prepared, but she does not
believe the files could ever tell her everything there is to know about her students. Even
after a whole school year of getting to know them, there will be still more to know. This
year, the files provide her with enough information to determine an initial classroom
arrangement that will respond to many different learning needs. She knows she will
need to adjust as needs change and more information comes to light, but what she starts
with can be seen in Figure 8.4.
Beth has decided to arrange the student desks into pods of six, in direct line with
the Smart Board that she uses for direct instruction. The pods are situated so that no
student’s back is to the Smart Board. The roster includes 21 students, so three of the
pods will start with an empty seat. If she receives a new student during the year, there
will be some choice for the best place for the new student. The pods are also conducive
to variable grouping. It will be easy for students to work in small groups, individually,
or break off into pairs. She has room to converse with each student at his or her desk
without disturbing the others in the pod.
Beth thinks about her “wish list” of classroom supplies. When budget allows, the
first thing on the list is various seating alternatives. She would love to have a few ex-
ercise balls for kids who wiggle while they work, and she can think of a few students
who would benefit from swivel chairs so they can see any wall in the classroom without
changing how they are seated in the chair. Also, she wishes the desks could be better
adjusted for size. The current desks have one or two height settings in the legs, but the
width and depth should vary, too.
Beth places the teacher desk near the Smart Board so she can access teaching mate-
rials quickly during direct instruction, but it is out of the way of most classroom traffic,
because she rarely sits down there when class is in session. There is an extra student

1
Information about Beth’s class is not reflective of any one class. It reflects a conglomera-
tion that is representative of a typical roster for any teacher in the school. All student names
are fictitious.

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 156

Door Bulletin Boards

Smart Board Shelves Shelves
Shelves

Shelves
Teacher
desk
Shelves

Desk
Storage

Chair
Chair

Chair
Chair

Student

Student

Shelves
table

table
Over- Beanbag
Chair

Chair
Chair
head

Chair
Chair
chair
shelves
Square rug

with Chair Chair

reading Round
nook
Student Student table
table table
under- Chair Chair
Beanbag
neath
chair Chair Chair Chair Chair
Chair

Shelves
Shelves

Storage

Chair
Chair

Chair
Chair

Student
Student
Chair
Over-

table
table

Chair
head

Chair
Chair

Chair
Chair

shelves

Chair
Kidney

Shelves
with

table
Chair
sink
below Student Student
table table
Chair
Shelves

Chair Chair Chair Chair

Overhead
Storage
TV

Counter with shelves below Counter with shelves below

Computer Computer
windows

Figure 8.4.Classroom map. (Adapted from Classroom Architect at http://classroom.4teachers.org/.)

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 Universal Design for Learning 157

desk. Rather than have it returned to storage, she decides to keep it and places it in a
light traffic area near her own desk. Along with the round table, it offers another place
for students to choose to complete independent work. She knows that some students
need to find an isolated spot, while others may need a breakout area to use with a class-
mate who is not in the same pod. The kidney-shaped table will be used primarily for
guided reading groups and is surrounded by teacher and student materials used for
this purpose. When guided reading groups are not taking place, it offers yet another
breakout workspace.
Beth’s favorite spot is the quiet area. Partially nestled in a nook under overhead
storage shelves, the quiet area includes a soft rug, giant pillows, beanbag chairs, and
upright chairs. The area is surrounded by bookcases that hold a vast range of books
and isolate the area from much of the classroom stimuli. There are books at all read-
ing levels. Beth knows it is important for students to have a choice of books that are at,
below, and above their current reading levels. She makes sure there are books on many
different topics that reflect the interests of her students, as well as culturally relevant
books that respond to a range of experiences. Beth arranges a few more storage shelves
near the sink and surveys the room from the Smart Board. She can see every area clearly,
and has an accessible place for everything she needs during the school day. Beth walks
around the classroom several times, taking a different path each time. There is plenty of
room among the pods and other furniture for comfortable mobility. This arrangement
will certainly change once students enter and Beth sorts out what this particular group
of students needs, but this is a great starting point.
Time to think about sensory needs. Because a few of her students have experienced
sensory processing difficulties with respect to lighting, over this area and the nearest
pod of desks, Beth has the fluorescent light bulbs removed. There is still enough light to
read by, but the glare and harsh contrasts are much reduced, as is the hum of the lights.
Beth has heard of a product called Classroom Light Filters by Educational Insights. They
are flame-retardant, tranquil-colored cloths that stretch over classroom lights and are
held in place with Velcro. She adds this to her wish list. Each chair leg in the classroom
is already equipped with a tennis ball fitted over the end. She carefully inspects each
one. Only a few are worn through or too loose. She pulls out her bin of tennis balls, care-
fully slits an X on a few with an X-Acto knife, and fits them in place. She makes a note to
revisit the nearby tennis club to see if they have another used batch of balls for her. Next,
she cleans her box of fidget toys. These are handheld items with many different textures
or movements—a sand-filled balloon, a Rubik’s Cube, a hacky sack, a golf ball. She has
found that many students can sustain attention longer if they handle a fidget toy during
class. Some students stick with their favorites and others rotate through them. Funny,
she thinks, that some teachers won’t use them because of the potential distraction, but
she has found that students are less distracted when they are available.
Phew! All ready for the mid-August visits. Beth can’t wait to meet her new fourth
graders!
Marjika Fields peeks hesitantly around the doorway into her new classroom. Her
neighbor had Mrs. Jackelen last year and said she was very nice, but sometimes tough.
Excitement and nervousness mix together into a familiar feeling that Marjika associates
with the first day of school. Mrs. Jackelen is talking to another boy and his parents, so
Marjika and her mom start to look around. Marjika smiles at all the books in the quiet
area. She loves to read! It will be fun to lie in a bean bag chair and pick a new book. Next,
she sees the sink. Two coffee makers are set up on the counter near a sign that reads,
“These pots will always be full of hot water. Be sure to bring in a supply of cocoa or soup
mix for a hot treat on cold winter days!” Marjika’s mom smiles and pulls out her grocery
list to add cocoa mix and soup packets.

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 158 Teaching Everyone

Beth bids good-bye to the other student and welcomes the Fields to her classroom.
Marjika shakes her hand and says her name (mar-yee’-ka) so Beth is now sure of the
pronunciation. Beth shows them around the room, asking Marjika questions about her
summer and her favorite things to do in school—important information for getting to
know each student. Beth also shows them materials to take home with them. Some of
the sheets are school information for them to keep at home and some are question-
naires for them to complete and return the first day of school—”What’s the scoop?”—
with questions all about themselves and a reading-interest survey. Also, Marjika should
bring in a new white t-shirt for their first project—decorating their own class shirt. The
last sheet is a list of supplies for the school year. Ms. Fields asks why the folders have
to be five different colors, as listed. Beth explains that the students’ work will be color-
coded to help students who struggle with planning and organization. It is just one way
that she has found that helps them remember where everything is and where to keep it
when it’s done. She also welcomes Marjika to decorate her colored folders if she would
like them to be unique. Beth also uses a reminder bulletin board. For the first month,
reminders are posted and student work with no name is hung to be claimed. After that,
she gradually weans the students off the reminders to help them form planning habits
of their own. Although Marjika does not need help in that area, Ms. Fields agrees it is a
good idea to have a predictable routine like that for everyone.
The theme of the room is a lily pond. There are lots of frogs and lily pads for decora-
tion. Marjika has written her name on a frog-shaped Post-It note and stuck it to the seat
she chose, so she already feels like a frog in the pond. Before she leaves, Marjika takes
one more look around the classroom. There are many bulletin boards covered in bright
paper ready to be decorated. There are a few things on the walls, but most everything is
hanging neatly on a bulletin board within a bold border. Marjika likes this. It is easier to
scan everything without feeling overwhelmed or too distracted. Marjika can’t wait for
fourth grade to start!
After the Fields leave, Beth has a few minutes to herself, so she reviews the test
modifications listed on her students’ IEPs and 504 plans. She begins to create her “Test
Day” chart. She lists all 21 of her students’ names down one side and several different
testing accommodations across the top. She starts by checking off the accommodations
officially listed for students (see Figure 8.5). Having them at-a-glance like this will en-
sure she doesn’t overlook anything for a test or quiz. As the school year progresses
and she has an opportunity to get to know her students and observe their performance
during assessments, Beth knows she will be checking off additional accommodations
for additional students. There is no reason why she can’t make all of her students more
comfortable during a test. Plus, they will all benefit from the classwide exercises they do
on test days—yoga and Brain Gym!
Suddenly, a boy comes bounding into the room. “Hi! I’m Jamie. Jamie Claremont.
Jameson Claremont, but I’m Jamie. Just Jamie. Hi! Wow, look at all these frogs. I love
frogs!” Beth tells Jamie that she loves frogs too, so they already have something in com-
mon. While Jamie travels around the room, checking everything out, Beth speaks to
his parents. “As you can see, Jamie is a lot of boy,” they begin. “He has been diagnosed
ADHD, but we have chosen not to medicate him. We have changed districts, hoping
that he can get the support he needs to be successful in school without medication. That
just didn’t happen in our last district. It’s a tall order.” Beth has never shied away from
tall orders before and doesn’t intend to with Jamie, though she does make a mental note
that she may need some help with new strategies this year. She spends the next several
minutes talking to Jamie’s parents about ways to maintain open and frequent communi-
cation in addition to the weekly class newsletters that include each student’s reflections
on the week. They decide right away to set up a journal for Jamie to carry back and forth
with updates on home and school happenings, and they set up a date to meet during

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 Universal Design for Learning 159

Stand up Bean
Alternate and move as bags and
Extra time location Refocus Short breaks needed clipboard
Jamie
Marjika
Seth
Julie
Michael
Bethany
Chris
Jose
Zoe P.
Zoe R.
Daniel
Gia
Noel
Matt
Grace
Heath
Noah
Lauren
Svetlana
Li

Figure 8.5.Test day accommodations chart.

the third week of school, right after Meet the Teacher Night. That night, she will have
families complete questionnaires about their children and their new school year experi-
ences. It will be helpful to follow up on the Claremonts’ responses.
Beth spends the rest of the day meeting several more students and their families.
She straightens up the room and heads home. She will do this for the rest of the week so
that most, if not all, of the families have a chance to come in. And so begins a new year.
The first few months are fun, but very tiring, as they should be. By November, the
community in the classroom has developed. The class has signed a class constitution
and engages in several discussions about its implementation, completed buddy projects
around the character-education qualities promoted by the whole school, collaboratively
built toothpick and marshmallow towers to see how different groups come up with
different processes and products, formed bonds with their homework buddies, and put
together a time capsule of their favorite things to revisit at year’s end.
Also by this time of the year, the students have mastered many different ways of
showing what they know. They have given oral reports, written papers and poems, cre-
ated artifacts, and used various software programs (Jamie likes Raz-Kids the best). All
of the students have become comfortable supervising morning business tasks, using the
Smart Board for writing and printing notes and running video clips, and making use
of the breakout areas in the room. Although some still need support, most of the stu-
dents are independent in making choices about completing projects, homework menus,

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 160 Teaching Everyone

and their weekly reflections. They are familiar and comfortable with seating changes,
because they know some students need to try different places for learning and it helps
them get to know new friends.
Beth has learned a lot, too. In the beginning of the year, she proactively planned
for as much as she could, but has remained flexible to try new things as the need arose.
She has used many different strategies for several of her students. Jamie is making good
use of his desktop checklist so he gets through his work each day. She has added new
fidgets, locker checklists, and folder labels for Chris, who is color-blind. Everything in
the room is labeled for Svetlana, whose English is growing in leaps and bounds. Music
is played at transition time while the Smart Board displays a visual timer. A few minutes
of daily yoga has resulted in increased focus and time on-task.
The rest of the school year progresses successfully. All of Beth’s lessons have been
auditory, visual, and hands-on in some way. Student work groups have changed regu-
larly. Beth’s parent-teacher binder grows thicker as she records notes at each meeting.
Teaching assistants, push-in special education teachers, autism spectrum–disorder con-
sultants, and college teacher-education students have become important members of
the classroom community. The classroom AT repertoire now also includes Fusion lap-
top computers for students who type instead of write by hand, Flip video cameras for
creating motion pictures or capturing field trips, and tape recorders for creating books
on tape. Community connections have been established with high school students in a
homework club and guest speakers who come to the classroom to talk about the impor-
tance of education in various careers. Sometimes problems arose, but Beth always found
time to collaborate with teachers, administrators, and families to brainstorm solutions.
One example is finding a way to increase travel time through the school for a student
with limited mobility.
Beth’s classroom is a great example of one that is universally designed for learn-
ing. All three principles are exemplified—multiple means of representation, action and
expression, and engagement. Many of the things she does apply to more than one of the
principles. For example, the use of the Smart Board provides an effective way to rep-
resent new learning to the students, provides an effective way for students to express
their learning, and provides an effective way to engage students with many different
learning styles. Infused throughout all of these is a strong classroom community where
students are valued for their uniqueness, strengths, and weaknesses. It is a place where
they felt welcome right at the start, where they are safe taking risks and making mis-
takes, and where they are secure in knowing they have a teacher who is dedicated to
finding solutions to problems if they arise.

SUMMARY
This chapter introduced the concept and principles of universal design for learning.
The importance of doing this is to make sure that every classroom is designed with
every student in mind. UDL encompasses many aspects of the classroom, including
space, curriculum, socialization and community building, communication with fami-
lies, teaching methods, materials, and assessments. The case example of Beth’s class-
room and the narrative by Tina Calabro illustrate the success students can experience if
they are in a setting where they are full citizens.

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