Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

Chapter 1
Nuclear Radioactivity and Particle Physics

A- Nuclear Radioactivity
During the past century, applications of nuclear physics have had
enormous effects on humankind, some beneficial, some catastrophic.
Many people have strong opinions about applications such as bombs and
reactors. Ideally, those opinions should be based on understanding, not on
prejudice or emotion, and we hope this chapter will help you to reach that
ideal.
Every atom contains at its center an extremely dense, positively
charged nucleus, which is much smaller than the overall size of the atom
but contains most of its total mass. We will look at several important
general properties of nuclei and of the nuclear force that holds them
together. The stability or instability of a particular nucleus is determined
by the competition between the attractive nuclear force among the
protons and neutrons and the repulsive electrical interactions among the
protons. Unstable nuclei decay, transforming themselves spontaneously
into other nuclei by a variety of processes. Nuclear reactions can also be
induced by impact on a nucleus of a particle or another nucleus. Two
classes of reactions of special interest are fission and fusion. We could
not survive without the energy released by one nearby fusion reactor, our
sun.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

1- Some Nuclear Properties

Table 3-1 shows some properties of a few atomic nuclei. When we are
interested primarily in their properties as specific nuclear species (rather
than as parts of atoms), we call these particles nuclides.

Table 3-1
a For stable nuclides, the isotopic abundance is given; this is the fraction of atoms
of this type found in a typical sample of the element. For radioactive nuclides, the
half-life is given.
b Following standard practice, the reported mass is that of the neutral atom, not that

of the bare nucleus.

c Spin angular momentum in units of ℏ.

Nuclear Terminology
Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons. The number of protons in a
nucleus (called the atomic number or proton number of the nucleus) is
represented by the symbol Z; the number of neutrons (the neutron
number) is represented by the symbol N. The total number of neutrons
and protons in a nucleus is called its mass number A; thus
𝑨=𝒁+𝑵 (3 − 1)
Neutrons and protons, when considered collectively, are called nucleons.
We represent nuclides with symbols such as those displayed in the first
column of Table 3-1. Consider 197Au, for example. The superscript 197 is

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

the mass number A. The chemical symbol Au tells us that this element is
gold, whose atomic number is 79. From Eq. 3-1, the neutron number of
this nuclide is 197 - 79, or 118.
Nuclides with the same atomic number Z but different neutron numbers N
are called isotopes of one another. The element gold has 32 isotopes,
173 204
ranging from Au to Au. Only one of them (197Au) is stable; the
remaining 31 are radioactive. Such radio-nuclides undergo decay (or
disintegration) by emitting a particle and thereby transforming to a
different nuclide.
A single nuclear species having specific values of both Z and N is called
a nuclide. The electron structure of an atom, which is responsible for its
chemical properties, is determined by the charge Ze of the nucleus. Some
nuclides that have the same Z but different N, These nuclides are called
isotopes of that element; they have different masses because they have
different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. A familiar example is
chlorine (Cl, Z=17). About 76% of chlorine nuclei have N = 18; the other
24% have N = 20. Different isotopes of an element usually have slightly
different physical properties such as melting and boiling temperatures
and diffusion rates. The two common isotopes of uranium with A = 235
and 238 are usually separated industrially by taking advantage of the
different diffusion rates of gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF6)
containing the two isotopes.
• The atomic number Z, which equals the number of protons in the
nucleus (sometimes called the charge number)
• The neutron number N, which equals the number of neutrons in the
nucleus

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

• The mass number A = Z + N, which equals the number of nucleons

(neutrons plus protons) in the nucleus
Nuclear Radii
A convenient unit for measuring distances on the scale of nuclei is the
femto-meter (= 10-15 m). This unit is often called the Fermi; the two
names share the same abbreviation. Thus,
𝟏 𝒇𝒆𝒎𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊 = 𝟏 𝒇𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝒎 (3 − 2)
The nucleus, like the atom, is not a solid object with a well-defined
surface. Furthermore, although most nuclides are spherical, some are
notably ellipsoidal. Nevertheless, electron-scattering experiments (as well
as experiments of other kinds) allow us to assign to each nuclide an
effective radius given by
𝒓 = 𝒓𝟎 𝑨𝟏⁄𝟑 (3 − 3)
in which A is the mass number and r0 = 1.2 fm. We see that the volume
of a nucleus, which is proportional to r3, is directly proportional to the
mass number A and is independent of the separate values of Z and N.
That is, we can treat most nuclei as being a sphere with a volume that
depends on the number of nucleons, regardless of their type.
Atomic Masses
Atomic masses are now measured to great precision, but usually
nuclear masses are not directly measurable because stripping off all the
electrons from an atom is difficult.
Atomic masses are often reported in atomic mass units, a system
in which the atomic mass of neutral 12C is defined to be exactly 12 u.
Precise atomic masses are available in tables on the Web and are usually
provided in homework problems. However, sometimes we need only an
approximation of the mass of either a nucleus alone or a neutral atom.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

The mass number A of a nuclide gives such an approximate mass in

atomic mass units. For example, the approximate mass of both the
197
nucleus and the neutral atom for Au is 197 u, which is close to the
actual atomic mass of 196.966552 u.
𝟏 𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟑𝟖𝟖𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈 (3 − 4)
As we shall now see, nuclear energies are often reported in multiples of 1
MeV. Thus, a convenient conversion between mass units and energy
units is provided by
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏. 𝟒𝟗𝟒𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝑴𝒆𝑽⁄𝒖 (3 − 5)
where we have used the conversion 1 eV = 1.602176 X 10-19 J.
Scientists and engineers working with atomic masses often prefer to
report the mass of an atom by means of the atom’s mass excess Δ,
defined as
∆=𝑴−𝑨 (𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔), (3 − 6)
where M is the actual mass of the atom in atomic mass units and A is the
mass number for that atom’s nucleus.
The masses of some particles and others important nuclei to the
phenomena discussed in this chapter are given in Table 3-2.

Table 3-2
Masses of Selected Particles in Various Units

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

2- Radioactive Decay
In 1896, Becquerel accidentally discovered that uranyl potassium
sulfate crystals emit an invisible radiation that can darken a photographic
plate even though the plate is covered to exclude light. After a series of
experiments, he concluded that the radiation emitted by the crystals was
of a new type, one that requires no external stimulation and was so
penetrating that it could darken protected photographic plates and ionize
gases. This process of spontaneous emission of radiation by uranium was
soon to be called radioactivity.
Subsequent experiments by other scientists showed that other substances
were more powerfully radioactive. The most significant early
investigations of this type were conducted by Marie and Pierre Curie
(1859–1906). After several years of careful and laborious chemical
separation processes on tons of pitchblende, a radioactive ore, the Curies
reported the discovery of two previously unknown elements, both
radioactive, named polonium and radium. Additional experiments,
including Rutherford’s famous work on alpha-particle scattering,
suggested that radioactivity is the result of the decay, or disintegration, of
unstable nuclei.
Three types of radioactive decay occur in radioactive substances:
alpha (α) decay, in which the emitted particles are 4He nuclei; beta (β)
decay, in which the emitted particles are either electrons or positrons;
and gamma (γ) decay, in which the emitted particles are high-energy
photons. A positron is a particle like the electron in all respects except
that the positron has a charge of +e. (The positron is the antiparticle of
the electron.) The symbol e- is used to designate an electron, and e+
designates a positron.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

Figure 3-1 The radiation from radioactive sources can be separated into three
components by using a magnetic field to deflect the charged particles. The detector
array at the right records the events.

We can distinguish among these three forms of radiation by using

the scheme described in Figure 3-1. The radiation from radioactive
samples that emit all three types of particles is directed into a region in
which there is a magnetic field. The radiation beam splits into three
components, two bending in opposite directions and the third
experiencing no change in direction. This simple observation shows that
the radiation of the un-deflected beam carries no charge (the gamma ray),
the component deflected upward corresponds to positively charged
particles (alpha particles), and the component deflected downward
corresponds to negatively charged particles (e-). If the beam includes a
positron (e+), it is deflected upward like the alpha particle, but it follows a
different trajectory due to its smaller mass. The three types of radiation
have quite different penetrating powers. Alpha particles barely penetrate
a sheet of paper, beta particles can penetrate a few millimeters of
aluminum, and gamma rays can penetrate several centimeters of lead.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

3- Radioactivity Law’s and Half Life

There is absolutely no way to predict whether any given nucleus in a
radioactive sample will be among the small number of nuclei that decay
during the next second. All have the same chance.
The decay process is probabilistic in nature and can be described with
statistical calculations for a radioactive substance of macroscopic size
containing a large number of radioactive nuclei. For such large numbers,
the rate at which a particular decay process occurs in a sample is
proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei present (that is, the
number of nuclei that have not yet decayed). If N is the number of un-
decayed radioactive nuclei present at some instant, the rate of change of
N with time is
𝒅𝑵
= −𝝀 𝑵 (3 − 7)
𝒅𝒕
where λ, called the decay constant, is the probability of decay per
nucleus per second. The negative sign indicates that dN/dt is negative;
that is, N decreases in time. Equation 3-7 can be written in the form
𝒅𝑵
= −𝝀 𝒅𝒕
𝑵
which, upon integration, gives
𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀 𝒕 (3 − 8)
where the constant N0 represents the number
of un-decayed radioactive nuclei at t = 0.
Equation 6.8 shows that the number of un-
decayed radioactive nuclei in a sample
decreases exponentially with time. The plot of
N versus t shown in Figure 3.2 illustrates the
Figure 3-2 Plot of the exponential decay of
exponential nature of the decay. radioactive nuclei. The vertical axis represents
the number of un-decayed radioactive nuclei
present at any time t, and the horizontal axis is
time.
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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

The decay rate R, which is the number of decays per second, can be
obtained by combining Equations 3.7 and 3.8:
𝒅𝑵
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑹 = | | = 𝝀 𝑵 = 𝝀𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀 𝒕 = 𝑹𝟎 𝒆−𝝀 𝒕 (3 − 9)
𝒅𝒕
where R0 = λN0 is the decay rate at t = 0. The decay rate R of a sample is
often referred to as its activity. Note that both N and R decrease
exponentially with time.
Another parameter useful in characterizing nuclear decay is the half-life
T1/2:
The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time interval during which
half of a given number of radioactive nuclei decay.
To find an expression for the half-life, we first set N = N0/2 and t = T1/2 in
Equation 4.8 to give
𝑵𝟎
= 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀 𝑻𝟏⁄𝟐
𝟐
Canceling the N0 factors and then taking the reciprocal of both sides, we
obtain 𝑒 𝜆 𝑇1⁄2 = 2. Taking the natural logarithm of both sides gives
𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝑻𝟏⁄𝟐 = = (3 − 10)
𝝀 𝝀
After a time interval equal to one half-life, there are N0/2 radioactive
nuclei remaining (by definition); after two half-lives, half of these
remaining nuclei have decayed and N0/4 radioactive nuclei are left; after
three half-lives, N0/8 are left; and so on. In general, after n half-lives, the
number of un-decayed radioactive nuclei remaining is
𝟏 𝒏
𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 ( ) (3 − 11)
𝟐
where n can be an integer or a non-integer.
The mean lifetime generally called the lifetime Tmean, of a nucleus
or unstable particle is proportional to the half-life T1/2.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

𝟏 𝑻𝟏⁄𝟐 𝑻𝟏⁄𝟐
𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = = = (3 − 12)
𝝀 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
In particle physics the life of an unstable particle is usually described by
the lifetime, not the half-life.
A frequently used unit of activity is the curie (Ci), defined as
𝟏 𝑪𝒊 ≡ 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚𝒔⁄𝒔
This value was originally selected because it is the approximate activity
of 1 g of radium. The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq):
𝟏 𝑩𝒒 ≡ 𝟏 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚𝒔⁄𝒔
Therefore, 𝟏 𝑪𝒊 ≡ 𝟑. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝑩𝒒. The curie is a rather large unit, and the
more frequently used activity units are the milli-curie and the micro-
curie.
Example (3-1):
The isotope carbon-14, 146C, is radioactive and has a half-life of 5730
years. If you start with a sample of 1000 carbon-14nuclei, how many
nuclei will still be un-decayed in 25000 years?
Solution
Divide the time interval by the half-life to determine the number of half-
lives:
25000 year
n= = 4.363
5730 year
Determine how many un-decayed nuclei are left after this many half-lives
using Equation 6.11:
1 𝑛 1 4.363
𝑁 = 𝑁0 ( ) = 1000 ( ) = 49
2 2

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

Example (3-2):
11
At time t = 0, a radioactive sample contains 3.50 mg of pure 6C, which
has a half-life of 20.4 min.
(A) Determine the number N0 of nuclei in the sample at t = 0.
(B) What is the activity of the sample initially and after 8.00 h?
Solution
a- Find the number of moles in 3.50 mg of pure 116C:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 3.5 × 10−6 𝑔
𝑛= = = 3.18 × 10−7 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 11 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙
Find the number of un-decayed nuclei in this amount of pure 116C:
𝑁0 = (3.18 × 10−7 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(6.02 × 1023 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
= 1.92 × 1017 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖
b- Find the initial activity of the sample using Equation R0 = λN0:
0.693 0.693 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅0 = 𝜆 𝑁0 = 𝑁0 = ( ) (1.92 × 1017 )
𝑇1⁄2 20.4 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠
= (5.66 × 10−4 𝑠 −1 )(1.92 × 1017 ) = 1.09 × 1014 𝐵𝑞
Use Equation 6.9 to find the activity at t = 8.00 h = 2.88 X 104 s:
−4 𝑠−1 )(2.88×104 𝑠)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆 𝑡 = (1.09 × 1014 𝐵𝑞)𝑒 −(5.66×10
= 8.96 × 106 𝐵𝑞
Example (3-3):
131
A sample of the isotope I, which has a half-life of 8.04 days, has an
activity of 5.0 mCi at the time of shipment. Upon receipt of the sample at
a medical laboratory, the activity is 2.1 mCi. How much time has elapsed
between the two measurements?
Solution
Solve Equation 6.9 for the ratio of the final activity to the initial activity:

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

𝑅
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑅0
Take the natural logarithm of both sides:
𝑅
ln ( ) = −𝜆𝑡
𝑅0
Solve for the time t :
1 𝑅
𝑡 = − ln ( )
𝜆 𝑅0
Use Equation 6.10 to substitute for λ:
𝑇1⁄2 𝑅
𝑡=− ln ( )
ln 2 𝑅0
Substitute numerical values:
8.04 𝑑𝑎𝑦 2.1 𝑚𝐶𝑖
𝑡=− ln ( ) = 10 𝑑𝑎𝑦
ln 2 5 𝑚𝐶𝑖

4- The Decay Processes

A radioactive nucleus spontaneously
decays by one of three processes:
alpha decay, beta decay, or gamma
decay.
The black circles are the stable nuclei
seen in Figure 3.3. In addition,
unstable nuclei above and below the
line of stability for each value of Z are
shown. Above the line of stability, the
blue circles show unstable nuclei that
are neutron-rich and undergo a beta Figure 3-3 Neutron number N versus
atomic number Z for stable nuclei
decay process in which an electron is (black dots).

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

emitted. Below the black circles are red circles corresponding to proton-
rich unstable nuclei that primarily undergo a beta-decay process in which
a positron is emitted or a competing process called electron capture. Beta
decay and electron capture are described in more detail below. Further
below the line of stability (with a few exceptions) are tan circles that
represent very proton-rich nuclei for which the primary decay mechanism
is alpha decay, which we discuss first.
Alpha Decay
When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay, it transforms to a different
nuclide by emitting an alpha particle (a helium nucleus, 4He). For
238
example, when uranium U undergoes alpha decay, it transforms to
thorium 234Th:
238
U → 234Th + 4He (3-13)
238
This alpha decay of U can occur spontaneously (without an external
234
source of energy) because the total mass of the decay products Th and
4
He is less than the mass of the original 238U. Thus, the total mass energy
of the decay products is less than the mass energy of the original nuclide.
In general, a nucleus emitting an alpha particle ( 42𝐻𝑒) loses two protons
and two neutrons. Therefore, the atomic number Z decreases by 2, the
mass number A decreases by 4, and the neutron number decreases by 2.
The decay can be written
𝑨 𝑨−𝟒 𝟒
𝒁𝑿 ⟶ 𝒁−𝟐𝒀 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆 (3 − 14)
where X is called the parent nucleus and Y the daughter nucleus. As a
general rule in any decay expression such as this one, (1) the sum of the
mass numbers A must be the same on both sides of the decay and (2) the
sum of the atomic numbers Z must be the same on both sides of the
decay.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

(Q = ΔM c2), in such a process the difference between the initial mass

energy and the total final mass energy is called the Q of the process. For
a nuclear decay, we say that the difference in mass energy is the decay’s
disintegration energy Q.

Example (3-4):
226
The Ra nucleus undergoes alpha decay according to Equation 6.14.
Calculate the Q value for this process. The masses are 226.025410 u for
226
Ra, 222.017578 u for 222Rn, and 4.002603 u for
4
He.
226 222
88𝑅𝑎 ⟶ 86𝑅𝑛 + 42𝐻𝑒
Solution
𝑄 = ∆𝑀 𝑐 2 = (𝑀𝑋 − 𝑀𝑌 − 𝑀𝛼 )𝑐 2
𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑄 = (226.025410 𝑢 − 222.017578 𝑢 − 4.002603 𝑢) × 931.494
𝑢
𝑀𝑒𝑉
= (0.005229 𝑢) (931.494 ) = 4.87 𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑢
Beta Decay
When a radioactive nucleus undergoes beta decay, the daughter nucleus
contains the same number of nucleons as the parent nucleus but the
atomic number is changed by 1, which means that the number of protons
changes:
𝑨 𝑨
𝒁𝑿 ⟶ 𝒁+𝟏𝒀 + 𝒆− (𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) (3 − 15)
𝑨 𝑨
𝒁𝑿 ⟶ 𝒁−𝟏𝒀 + 𝒆+ (𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) (3 − 16)
where, e- designates an electron and e+ designates a positron, with beta
particle being the general term referring to either. Beta decay is not
described completely by these expressions. We shall give reasons for this
statement shortly.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

As with alpha decay, the nucleon number and total charge are
both conserved in beta decays. Because A does not change but Z does, we
conclude that in beta decay, either a neutron changes to a proton (Eq.
3.15) or a proton changes to a neutron (Eq. 3.16). Note that the electron
or positron emitted in these decays is not present beforehand in the
nucleus; it is created in the process of
the decay from the rest energy of the
decaying nucleus.
Because all decaying nuclei in the
sample have the same initial mass,
however, the Q value must be the same
for each decay. So, why do the emitted
particles have the range of kinetic
energies shown in Figure 3.4? The law
of conservation of energy seems to be
Figure 3-4 Distribution of beta-
violated! It becomes worse: further particle energies in a typical beta
decay.
analysis of the decay processes described
by Equations 3.15 and 3.16 shows that the laws of conservation of
angular momentum (spin) and linear momentum are also violated!
After a great deal of experimental and theoretical study, Pauli in 1930
proposed that a third particle must be present in the decay products to
carry away the “missing” energy and momentum. Fermi later named this
particle the neutrino (little neutral one) because it had to be electrically
neutral and have little or no mass. Although it eluded detection for many
years, the neutrino (symbol ν, Greek nu)

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

was finally detected experimentally in 1956 by Frederick Reines (1918–

1998), who received the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work in 1995.
The neutrino has the following properties:
• It has zero electric charge.
• Its mass is either zero (in which case it travels at the speed of light) or
very small; much recent persuasive experimental evidence suggests that
the neutrino mass is not zero. Current experiments place the upper bound
of the mass of the neutrino at approximately 7 eV/c2.
• It has a spin of 12, which allows the law of conservation of angular
momentum to be satisfied in beta decay.
• It interacts very weakly with matter and is therefore very difficult to
detect.
We can now write the beta-decay processes (Eqs. 3.15 and 3.16) in their
correct and complete form:
𝑨 𝑨
𝒁𝑿 ⟶ 𝒁+𝟏𝒀 + 𝒆− + 𝝊
̅ (𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) (3 − 17)
𝑨 𝑨
𝒁𝑿 ⟶ 𝒁−𝟏𝒀 + 𝒆+ + 𝝊 (𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) (3 − 18)
where the symbol 𝜐̅ represents the antineutrino, the antiparticle to the
neutrino
5- Radioactive Dating
If you know the half-life of a given radionuclide, you can in principle use
the decay of that radionuclide as a clock to measure time intervals. The
decay of very long-lived nuclides, for example, can be used to measure
the age of rocks—that is, the time that has elapsed since they were
formed. Such measurements for rocks from Earth and the Moon, and for
meteorites, yield a consistent maximum age of about 4.5 X 109 y for
these bodies.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

The radionuclide 40K, for example, decays to 40Ar, a stable isotope of the
noble gas argon. The half-life for this decay is 1.25 X 109 y. A
measurement of the ratio of 40K to 40Ar, as found in the rock in question,
can be used to calculate the age of that rock. Other long-lived decays,
such as that of 235U to 207Pb (involving a number of intermediate stages of
unstable nuclei), can be used to verify this calculation. For measuring
shorter time intervals, in the range of historical interest, radiocarbon
dating has proved invaluable. The radionuclide 14C (with T1/2 = 5730 y) is
produced at a constant rate in the upper atmosphere as atmospheric
nitrogen is bombarded by cosmic rays. This radiocarbon mixes with the
carbon that is normally present in the atmosphere (as CO2) so that there is
14
about one atom of C for every 1013 atoms of ordinary stable 12
C.
Through biological activity such as photosynthesis and breathing, the
atoms of atmospheric carbon trade places randomly, one atom at a time,
with the atoms of carbon in every living thing, including broccoli,
mushrooms, penguins, and humans. Eventually an exchange equilibrium
is reached at which the carbon atoms of every living thing contain a fixed
small fraction of the radioactive nuclide 14C. This equilibrium persists as
long as the organism is alive. When the organism dies, the exchange with
the atmosphere stops and the amount of radiocarbon trapped in the
organism, since it is no longer being replenished, dwindles away with a
half-life of 5730 y. By measuring the amount of radiocarbon per gram of
organic matter, it is possible to measure the time that has elapsed since
the organism died. Charcoal from ancient campfires, the Dead Sea scrolls
(actually, the cloth used to plug the jars holding the scrolls), and many
prehistoric artifacts have been dated in this way.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

Example (3-5):
40
In a Moon rock sample, the ratio of the number of (stable) Ar atoms
present to the number of (radioactive) 40K atoms is 10.3. Assume that all
the argon atoms were produced by the decay of potassium atoms, with a
half-life of 1.25 X 109 y. How old is the rock?
Solution
(1) If N0 potassium atoms were present at the time the rock was formed
by solidification from a molten form, the number of potassium atoms
now remaining at the time of analysis is
𝑁𝐾 = 𝑁0 𝑒 − 𝜆𝑡
in which t is the age of the rock. (2) For every potassium atom that
decays, an argon atom is produced. Thus, the number of argon atoms
present at the time of the analysis is
𝑁𝐴𝑟 = 𝑁0 − 𝑁𝐾
We cannot measure N0; so let’s eliminate it from both equations,
𝑁𝐴𝑟
𝜆 𝑡 = ln (1 + )
𝑁𝐾
in which NAr /NK can be measured. Solving for t and using to replace λ
with (ln 2)/T1/2 yield
𝑇1⁄2 ln(1 + 𝑁𝐴𝑟 ⁄𝑁𝐾 ) (1.25 × 109 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟)[ln(1 + 10.3)]
𝑡= =
ln 2 ln 2
= 4.37 × 109 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Lesser ages may be found for other lunar or terrestrial rock samples, but
no substantially greater ones. Thus, the oldest rocks were formed soon
after the solar system formed, and the solar system must be about 4
billion years old.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

6- Radiation in the Home

A serious health hazard in some areas is the accumulation in houses of
222 238
Rn an inert, colorless, odorless radioactive gas. Looking at the U
decay chain, we see that the half-life of 222Rn is 3.82 days. If so, why not
just move out of the house for a while and let it decay away? The answer
is that 222Rn is continuously being produced by the decay of 226Ra, which
is found in minute quantities in the rocks and soil on which some houses
are built. It’s a dynamic equilibrium situation, in which the rate of
222
production equals the rate of decay. The reason Rn is a bigger hazard
than the other elements in the 238
U decay series is that it’s a gas. During
its short half-life of 3.82 days it can migrate from the soil into your
222
house. If a Rn nucleus decays in your lungs, it emits a damaging
218
particle and its daughter nucleus Po, which is not chemically inert and
is likely to stay in your lungs until it decays, emits another damaging
particle and so on down the 238U decay series.
How much of a hazard is radon? Although reports indicate values as high
as 3500 pCi/L, the average activity per volume in the air inside American
222
homes due to Rn is about 1.5 pCi/L (over a thousand decays each
second in an average-sized room). If your environment has this level of
activity, it has been estimated that a lifetime exposure would reduce your
life expectancy by about 40 days. For comparison, smoking one pack of
cigarettes per day reduces life expectancy by 6 years, and it is estimated
that the average emission from all the nuclear power plants in the world
reduces life expectancy by anywhere from 0.01 day to 5 days. These
figures include catastrophes such as the 1986 nuclear reactor disaster at
Chernobyl, for which the local effect on life expectancy is much greater.

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

Sheet 3

A- Conceptual Questions
95
1- When the 36𝐾𝑟 nucleus undergoes beta decay by emitting an electron
and an antineutrino, does the daughter nucleus (Rb) contain (a) 58
neutrons and 37 protons, (b) 58 protons and 37 neutrons, (c) 54 neutrons
and 41 protons, or (d) 55 neutrons and 40 protons?

32 32
2- When 15𝑃 decays to 16𝑆, which of the following particles is emitted?
(a) a proton (b) an alpha particle (c) an electron (d) a gamma ray (e) an
antineutrino

3- If a radioactive nuclide 𝐴𝑍𝑋decays by emitting a gamma ray, what

happens? (a) The resulting nuclide has a different Z value. (b) The
resulting nuclide has the same A and Z values. (c) The resulting nuclide
has a different A value. (d) Both A and Z decrease by one. (e) None of
those statements is correct.

4- The half-life of radium-224 is about 3.6 days. What approximate

fraction of a sample remains undecayed after two weeks? (a) 1/2 (b) 1/4
(c) 1/8 (d) 1/ 16 (e) 1/32

5- A free neutron has a half-life of 614 s. It undergoes beta decay by

emitting an electron. Can a free proton undergo a similar decay? (a) yes,
the same decay (b) yes, but by emitting a positron (c) yes, but with a very
different half-life (d) no

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

6- What fraction of a radioactive sample has decayed after two half-lives

have elapsed?

7- Two of the naturally occurring radioactive decay sequences start

with 232 235
90Th, and 92U. The first five decays of these two sequences are:

α, β, β, α, α and α, β, α, β, α
Determine the resulting intermediate daughter nuclei in each case.

B- Problems
1- What is the mass excess Δ1 of 1H (actual mass is 1.007 825 u) in (a)
atomic mass units and (b) MeV/c2? What is the mass excess Δn of a
neutron (actual mass is 1.008 665 u) in (c) atomic mass units and (d)
MeV/c2? What is the mass excess 120 of 120Sn (actual mass is 119.902
197 u) in (e) atomic mass units and (f) MeV/c2?

2- The half-life of a radioactive isotope is 140 d. How many days would

it take for the decay rate of a sample of this isotope to fall to one-fourth
of its initial value?

3- A radioactive nuclide has a half-life of 30.0 y. What fraction of an

initially pure sample of this nuclide will remain undecayed at the end of
(a) 60.0 y and (b) 90.0 y?

4- A radioactive isotope of mercury, 197Hg, decays to gold, 197Au, with

a disintegration constant of 0.0108 h_1. (a) Calculate the half-life of the
197Hg.What fraction of a sample will remain at the end of (b) three half-
lives and (c) 10.0 days?

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Chapter 1 Nuclear Radioactivity and particle physics

5- A freshly prepared sample of a certain radioactive isotope has an

activity of 10.0 mCi. After 4.00 h, its activity is 8.00 mCi. Find (a) the
decay constant and (b) the half-life. (c) How many atoms of the isotope
were contained in the freshly prepared sample? (d) What is the sample’s
activity 30.0 h after it is prepared?

131
6- The half-life of I is 8.04 days. (a) Calculate the decay constant for
131
this nuclide. (b) Find the number of I nuclei necessary to produce a
131
sample with an activity of 6.40 mCi. (c) A sample of I with this initial
activity decays for 40.2 d. What is the activity at the end of that period?

7- Find the energy released in the alpha decay:

238
92𝑈 → 234 4
90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒

66