Frédéric Sorrieu’s Print – 2.

Tricolour replaces old royal standard

3. Estates General – elected – National
1. 1848 – French artist – Four prints – “Democratic
Assembly (renamed)
and social Republics”
4. Hymns composed – Martyrs
2. People of Europe and America; various costumes
commemorated – Oaths taken – name of nation
and flags;
5. Centralised administrative system –
3. Statue of Liberty – Torch of enlightenment –
uniform laws
Charter of rights of man – personified (woman)
6. Internal customs and duties abolished;
4. Scene – Shattered absolutist symbols; USA and
Uniform weights and measures
Switzerland already crossed ahead, France just
7. Region dialects – discouraged; French – as
reached; Then, Germany – black and gold flag,
in Paris – Common language of nation
hope of unification; Then, people of Austria,
3. Mission and destiny to free people and help
Kingdom of two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland,
become nations.
England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia; Christ, saints
4. News – Students & educated middle class
and angels above – Fraternity;
people – Jacobin clubs; Activities & campaigns
 Absolutist – govt/ system of rule – no limit to
– French armies – Holland, Belgium,
power exercises; Monarchical govt – centralised,
Switzerland and Italy in 1790s; With wars –
militarised and repressive.
idea of nationalism carried abroad.
 Utopian – Vision of society – so ideal – unlikely to
 Andreas Rebmann in 1798 made the cover of a
exist;
German Almanac depicting the storming of
Nation-state and Modern-State – Bastille.

1. During 19th Century, nationalism brought changes The Civil Code of 1804 –
to the political and mental world Europe. Result –
1. Return to monarchy destroys democracy –
Nation state replacing Multi-national Dynastic
administrative system – more efficient and
Empires.
rational;
2. Modern-state – centralised power – sovereign
2. Napoleonic Code
control – defined territory
1. Privileges of birth – Removed
3. Nation-state – Citizens – sense of common identity
2. Equality before law
– shared history or descent – forged through
3. Right to Property
struggles and decisions of the leaders and people.
4. In Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and
Ernst Renan – What is a nation? Germany – 1. Administrative divisions simplified; 2.
Abolished feudal system; 3. Freed peasant –
University of Sorbonne 1882 – Lecture – Ernst Renan( 1823 serfdom & manorial dues;
– 92) – French philosopher – what makes a nation; “Qu’est 3. Guild restrictions removed
ce qu’une nation”; Nation is not formed by common 4. Transport and communications improved.
territory, race, language, religion, etc; Culmination – 5. New found freedom; Uniform laws, weights,
endeavours, sacrifice, devotion; Great men, glory, etc – measures and common national currency –
social capital which is the base; Common glories in the facilitate movement of goods and capital.
part, Common will in the present, performed great deeds,
to wish to perform still more – makes up a people; Large – Reactions of Cities outside France –
scale solidarity – a daily plebiscite – province is the
1. Mixed reactions; Holland, Switzerland,
inhabitant; no interest in annexing or holding on – against
Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, armies
will; nations – necessary; Guarantee of liberty;
welcomed;
 Plebiscite – Direct vote – people of a region – 2. Hostility – new administrative arrangements;
accept or reject proposal; 3. Increased taxation, censorship and forced
conscription into the French armies;
French Revolution –  Planting of the Tree of Liberty – Zweibruken –
1. 1789 – transfer sovereign from monarch to the Germany – Karl Kasper Fritz.
people – people would henceforth constitute  Courier of Rhineland loses all letters – Leipzig 1813
and shape the destiny of the nation. – names of territories he lost;
2. Measures and practices for sense of collective Europe in the Mid – 18th Century –
identity –
1. La patrie and Le citoyen – equal rights in 1. Kingdoms, Duchies and Cantons; Autonomous;
community under constitution
 2. Eastern and Central Europe – monarchs – 2. German states – Confederation of 39 states by
diversity; No common identity or culture Napoleon – own currency, weights and
3. Habsburg Empire – Austria – Hungary; Tyrol, measures;
Austria and Sudetenland; Bohemia – German 3. Merchant – Hamburg to Nuremburg – 1833 –
speaking; Lombardy and Venetia – Italian 11 custom barriers – 5 % customs duties at
Speaking; Hungary – Half Magyar Half regional each;
dialects; Galicia – Polish speaking; Bohemians 4. Duties – weights and measures of goods; time-
and Slovaks – North; Slovens – Carolina; Croats consuming calulcation;
– South; Roumans – East – Transylvania; No 5. Elle stood for different length in every region.
Political unity; Only common allegiance to the
Zollverein –
Emperor;
1. New commercial classes – unified economic
Aristocracy –
territory – unhindered movement of goods, capital
Dominant class; common way of life – cut regional and people;
divisions; Estates and town-houses (owned); French – 2. 1834, - Zollverein – Prussia – German states;
diplomacy & high society; Ties of marriage; Small group; Removed Tariff barriers & currencies 30 -> 2;
3. Network of railways – mobility.
Difference between Western and Eastern Europe –
4. Economic nationalism strengthened the main
1. Population – Majorly Peasants; West – Land nationalism.
farmed by tenants and small owners; East &
Conservatism –
Centre – Vast estates by serfs;
2. West and parts of Centre – Industrial 1. European govts – Conservatism – after 1815.
productions – towns and commercial classes; 2. Established, traditional institutions of state and
Industrialisation – England – Later half of 18 th society – monarchy, church, property, etc –
century; France & Germany – 19th Century; preserved.
Working-class population, middle classes – 3. Changes by Napoleon – state power – more
industrialists, businessmen, professionals. effective and stronger.
Centre & East – Smaller groups until late 19 th 4. A modern army, efficient bureaucracy, dynamic
century; It was among these middle classes economy and abolition of feudalism and serfdom –
that ideas of abolishing aristocratic privileges strengthen monarchies.
gained popularity; 5. Autocratic; No criticism and dissent; No activities
that questioned legitimacy; Censorship
Political Sphere of Liberalism –
laws( liberty & freedom); Inspiration – French
1. National unity = liberalism; Latin ‘liber” = free. Revolution; Freedom of Press;
2. New Middle classes – freedom for the
Friedrich List –
individual & equality before law;
3. Politically – Concept of govt by consent; 1. Economists – nation economy; Nation’s
4. Since French Revolution – End of autocracy, development & economic measures – forge nation;
clerical privileges, constitution, representative 2. Friedrich List – Professor of Economics – University
govt; Inviolability of private property; og Tubingen, Germany – 1834 –
3. Zollverein: Aim – Bind Germans into nation;
Social Sphere of Liberalism –
strengthen nation – protecting its interests
1. Right to vote – only property-owning men; externally - stimulating internal productivity;
Others – no political rights; National sentiment – fusion of individuals and
2. Under Jacobins – all males – suffrage; provincial interests; Free economic system –
3. Napoleonic Code – limited suffrage – women – engender national feeling;
minors – authority of fathers and husbands;
Treaty of Vienna –
4. 19th to early 20th century – movements
demanding equal political rights; 1. 1815 – Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria – Vienna
– settlement for Europe. Austrian Chancellor Duke
Economic Sphere of Liberalism –
Metternich – Host; Treaty of Vienna – 1815 –
1. Freedom of markets, abolition of state- undoing Napoleonic changes –
imposed restrictions on movement of goods 1. Bourbon dynasty empowered; France lost
and capital; annexed territories;
 2. States set up on boundaries; Belgium + 1. German Philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder
Netherlands – North; Genoa + Piedmont – (1744-1803) – german culture among people – das
South; (+ means added to) Prussia – volk; Folk songs, poetry and dances – true spirit of
important territories on Western Frontier; nation – volksgeist; Collection & recording;
Austria – Northern Italy; Russia – Part of 2. Vernacular language & collection of local folklore–
Poland; Prussia – Part of Saxony; Aim – large audiences – illiterate;
Restore monarchies; Conservative order in 3. Poland partitioned- end of 18th century – national
Europe; feelings kept – music and language – Karol
3. German confederation – Untouched; Kurpinski – celebrated national struggle - operas
and music – polonaise & mazurka (nationalist
Situation for Revolutionaries in the years following 1815 –
symbols);
Repression – underground; Secret societies – train & 4. Language – Russian forced everywhere – 1831,
spread ideas; Revolutionary - oppose monarchical forms, rebellion crushed; Clergy – Polish in church
liberty and freedom; Creation of nation-states necessary; gatherings and religious instruction; jail – Sent to
Siberia; Use of polish – struggle against Russian
Giuseppe Mazzini – dominance;
Italian revolutionary; Genoa – 1807; Carbonari society; Age Hunger, Hardship and Revolt –
24 – 1831 – exile – Liguria; Young Italy – Marseilles; Young
Europe – Berne; Poland, France, Italy and German states; 1830s – hardships;
Nations – natural units; Unification – necessary – Italy;
1. First half of 19th century – increase in population
Inspired – secret societies – Germany, France, Switzerland
2. Unemployment
and Poland; He frightened conservatives; “the most
3. Migration to cities; Over-crowded slums;
dangerous enemy of our social order”;
4. Stiff competition to small producers – cheap
The age of Revolutions: machine-made goods from England; Eg: Textile
production – small houses /workshops;
Conservative regimes – consolidate power; revolutions in 5. Aristocratic areas – Feudal dues and obligations
Italian states and German states, Ottoman empire, Ireland, 6. Food price rise/ year of bad harvest – Poverty
Poland – educated middle class people – teachers,
students, members of commercial middle classes, clerks; In 1848, Food shortages & unemployment – people revolt
and erect barricades; Louis Philippe flees; National
July Revolution – Assembly proclaims Republic – suffrage to all males (above
1. First revolution in France 21) – right to work; Workshops for employment;
2. Bourbon kings overthrown; Louis Phillipe Weavers in Silesia –
appointed;
3. “When France sneezes, entire Europe catches  1845 – against contractors – raw material –
cold.” Uprising – Brussels; Belgium – Netherlands; finished goods – reduced payment; Wilhelm Wolff
–
Greek War of Independence –
 18000 inhabitants – cotton weaving; desperation
th
1. Ottoman Empire – 15 century exploited by contractors – reduce price of goods; 4
2. 1821; Support – Greeks in Exile, West Europeans – June – Mansion of contractor – higher wages;
sympathies for Greek culture, Poets & artists – Scorned and threatened; Forced in – smashed
cradle of European civilisation – public opinion; furniture, windows, etc – storehouse with cloth
Lord Bryon – funds – Fight in war – died of fever in destroyed; Contractor refused shelter; 24 hours –
1824; army brought; 11 weavers shot;
3. Treaty of Constantinople – 1832
Revolution of the Liberals –
Romantic Imagination –
1. Revolts of poor peasants + revolts of educated
1. Culture – shape nationalist feelings; middle classes.
2. Criticises – Reason & science; Focused on – 2. Abdication of Monarch + universal male suffrage –
Emotions, intuition and mystical feelings; 1848 – France;
3. Sharded collective heritage – Common Cultural 3. Men and women combine demands in Germany,
Past – Base of nation Italy, Poland and Austro-Hungarian Empire for
unification; Used unrest to push demands for a
Ways of building national feeling – constitution, freedom of press and freedom of
association;
German Frankfurt Parliament – 2. 6 years – noting fairy tales from people; 1812, first
collection;
1. Professionals, businessmen & artisans – Frankfurt
3. Liberal politics – freedom of press;
– vote for German National Assembly; 18 May
4. 33-volume dictionary of German;
1848 – 831 elected representatives – Church St.
5. French domination – threat; folktales – authentic
Paul – festivity;
German spirit; Collecting folktales – effort to create
2. Constitution + Monarch subject to parliament –
German national Identity and oppose the French;
German nation; Friedrich Wilhelm IV – Prussia –
declined crown – joined monarchs; Sources based on equality for women –
3. Aristocratic & military power + social basis of
1. Liberal politician – Carl Welcker – part of German
Parliament eroding + lost support of working class
Frankfurt Parliament: Man and Women – different
+ troops called in – Forced to disband;
functions; Man – stronger, bolder, protector,
Political Rights of Women – provider, is meant for public tasks; Women –
weaker, dependent, requires protection, home and
1. Controversial – Rights to women – participated in
children; Equality between genders would
revolts;
endanger harmony and destroy dignity;
2. Own political associations, newspapers, political
2. Louise Otto-Peters (1819 – 95) – political activist –
meetings and demonstrations;
women’s journal – feminist political association.
3. Denied political rights; German Frankfurt
First issue of her newspaper: All man will willingly
Parliament – women – observers.
die for liberty and freedom of all humans. But only
Result – one gender is benefited by their efforts; Free men
should think about the unfree women.
Suppression successful; old order – lost; Stopping 3. Anonymous Writer – Denying them political rights
revolutions – concession to revolutionaries; After 1848, when giving them property rights. Functions and
Centre and East – follow changes – West before 1815; responsibilities fulfilled without the benefits.
1. Serfdom and bonded labour abolished – Habsburg Women who contribute so much to state are not
dominions & Russia given right to vote which is given even to stupid
2. Hungarians granted more autonomy – 1867 cattle herders just because they are men.

Unification of Germany –

 Giuseppe Mazzini and the founding of Young 1. After 1848, conservatives – nation states –
Europe In Italy – 1833 – Print by Giacomo promoting state power & political dominance over
Mentagazza Europe
 The Massacre at Chios, Eugene Delacroix – 1824 2. German Frankfurt Parliament - repression –
 Suffrage – Right to vote Monarchy + Military + large landowners of Prussia
 Conservatism – Political philosophy – Importance (Junkers)
of tradition, established institutions and customs 3. Prussia – chief minister Otto Von Bismarck –
and wanted gradual development rather than architect of unification – 3 wars – 7 years – Austria,
quick change Denmark and France – unification complete;
 Feminist – Awareness – women’s rights and 4. 18th January 1871, princes of German state –
interests – based on social, economic and political Representatives of the army, important Prussian
equality of all genders. ministers including Otto Von Bismarck – unheated
 Ideology – System of ideas – particular social and Hall of Mirrors – Palace of Versailles – Kaiser
political vision. William I of Prussia
5. New state – modernising currency, banking and
 Anton Von Werner – Print for the hall of Mirrors on
legal and judicial systems;
18th Jan – Centre – King Kaiser and commander of
army General Von Roon, nearby Bismarck. Situation of Italy –
 Allegory – Abstract idea – person or thing;
Allegorical story – two meanings – literal and Seven states; Sardinia – Piedmont – Italian royalty; North –
symbolic; Habsburgs; Centre – Pope; South – Bourbon kings of Spain;
Italian language had many variations;
Grimm Brothers –
Unification of Italy –
1. Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm – German – city Hanau –
1785 and 1786; Studied law – interest – folktales; 1. Failure of 1831 and 1848 revolutions of Young Italy
society – responsibility on Victor Emmanuel II;
 Unification – economic development & political 3. Germany – Germania – wears crown of oak leaves;
dominance; Britain – Britannia; France – Marianne – from
2. Chief Minister Cavour – Italian Elite – Fluent French Liberty and Republic – red cap, tricolour, cockade;
– diplomatic alliance with France – Austrian Forces Statues in public squares – remind people of unity
defeated – 1859; and asking them to identify with it; images on coins
3. Giuseppe Garibaldi – armed volunteers joined the and stamps;
army; 1860 – South Italy and Kingdom of Two
Meanings of Symbols – Refer table in book
Sicilies – Spanish kings defeated – help of local
peasants; Timeline - Refer table in book
4. 1861 – Victor Emmanuel II – king of united Italy;
illiterate peasants unaware of nationalist ideology; Imperialism –
Garibaldi’s helpers – “La Talia” – Wife of the king; 1. Last quarter of 19th century – liberalism – narrow
Unification of Britain – creed with limited ends – nationalist groups –
intolerant of each other – European majors
1. Long-drawn process: No revolt; manipulated nationalist aspirations to meet their
2. British Isles – Ethnic Identities – English, Welsh, own needs;
Scot or Irish – own culture and traditions; English – 2. After 1871 – tension – Balkans; Variation –
more power – more influence on other nations; Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia,
3. 1688 – English parliament seizes power after Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia,
conflict; Act of Union – 1707 – b/w England and Montenegro, Serbia – Slavs – Large control –
Scotland – influence Scotland; Ottoman empire;
4. Parliament – dominated by English; Scotland’s 3. Disintegration of Ottoman empire + Romantic
culture and political intuitions suppressed; Catholic ideas – Explosive region; Empire – failed to
clans – Scottish Highlands – repression – strengthen itself – 19th Century;
independence; Scottish Highlanders – no Gaelic 4. Countries broke away one by one from the Empire
allowed – no national dress – driven out; – declaring independence;
5. Ireland – Protestants and Catholics – English help 5. People – History – Independence before foreign
Protestants dominate the Catholics; Suppress invaders – wants for political rights/independence
Catholic revolts; Wolfe Tone and United Irishmen – thought of it as an attempt to win back their old
(1798). independence – confusion in identity;
6. Ireland forced into UK – 1801; 6. Jealous – Wanted more area than others; Big
7. “British Nation” forged – propagation – English power rivalry – Trade and colonies & naval and
culture and British symbols – Flag (Union Jack), military might; Russia, Germany, England & Austro-
Anthem (God save Our Noble King), English Hungary – getting control of Balkans; World War 1
language; caused;
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807 – 82) – Impact on Colonised countries –
1. Family – Coastal trade; Sailor in merchant navy. Opposing Imperial dominance; Nationalist struggles –
2. 1833 – Mazzini – Young Italy – Piedmont uprising – inspired – collective national unity – confrontation with
1834 – suppressed Garibaldi – South America – till imperialism;
1848;
3. 1854 – Victor Emmanuel II – unify Italy;
4. 1860 – Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy;
Volunteers joined on the way – 30,000 men - Red
shits; 1867 – Rome – Red shirts – papal states;
French Garrison + papal troops – defeated them;
1870 – war with Prussia – Papal states join Italy;

Allegories –

1. 18th and 19th Century - Personify a nation – female

figures – not any particular person – just a form to
the abstract idea of a nation;
2. Liberty, Justice & Republic – objects/ symbols –
Liberty – Red cap/ Broken chain; Justice – Blind
woman carrying a pair of weighing scales;