The Types, Properties,

and Applications of
Conductive Textiles
The Types, Properties,
and Applications of
Conductive Textiles
By

Sandra Varnaitė-Žuravliova
The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles

By Sandra Varnaitė-Žuravliova

This book first published 2020

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2020 by Sandra Varnaitė-Žuravliova

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-4175-4

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-4175-7
 CONTENTS

Abbreviations ........................................................................................... vii

Introduction ................................................................................................ 1

1. Electrostatic phenomenon....................................................................... 3

2. Electrostatic charge generation and charging of textiles ........................ 5

2.1. Contact charging mechanism and the Triboelectric Series ............ 5
2.2. Induction charging mechanism ...................................................... 7
2.3. Charging by ion or electro-bombardment mechanism ................... 8
2.4. The surface electrode charging mechanism ................................... 8
2.5. Electrokinetic or Zeta Potential mechanism................................... 9
2.6. Charge Decay mechanism .............................................................. 9

3. Charge dissipation or electrostatic discharge of textiles ....................... 11

4. Electrical conductivity and electrostatic shielding of textiles ............... 19

4.1. Influence of specific humidity on the electrostatic properties
of fabrics........................................................................................ 23

5. Evaluation methods of conductive textiles ........................................... 29

6. Limitations of resistance measurements for conductive textiles........... 39

7. Fabrics and clothing controlling the dissipation of electrostatic

charges ...................................................................................................... 43

8. Requirements for protective clothing with electrostatic properties ...... 47

9. Protection against electromagnetic phenomena .................................... 49

9.1. Electromagnetic compatibility ..................................................... 49
9.2. The main phenomena of electromagnetism ................................. 51
9.3. Electromagnetic shielding mechanism ......................................... 53
9.4. Shielding efficiency ..................................................................... 55
9.5. Evaluation of electromagnetic shielding properties for textile..... 61
vi Contents

10. Development of conductive textiles ................................................... 67

10.1. Special fibres and filaments ....................................................... 67
10.2 Conductive yarns and fabrics ...................................................... 68

11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles ...................................................... 85

11.1. The scheme of the electric circuit in the textiles ........................ 88
11.2. Wearable intelligent textiles systems ......................................... 96
11.3. Applications and functions of smart textiles ............................ 105

Conclusions ............................................................................................ 109

References .............................................................................................. 111

 ABBREVIATIONS

ESD – electrostatic discharge

PPE – Personal protective equipment

EMSE – electromagnetic shielding effectiveness

EMR – electromagnetic radiation

RFR – radio frequency radiation

EMC – electromagnetic compatibility

RF – radio frequency

AC – alternating current

DC – direct current

SE – shielding efficiency

EMS – electromagnetic shielding

ICP – inherently conductive polymers

EMI – electromagnetic interference

ITS – intelligent textile system

MPD – modal power distribution

 INTRODUCTION

The vertical resistance of humans as conductors is quite low, so

electrostatic charges can accumulate on the garments of humans, who are
insulated from the earth. Many electronic components can be damaged by
electrostatic discharge or accumulated electrostatic charges can be
transferred from the body to an electronic device by touching, thus
damaging it. Electrostatic charges can be accumulated on the surface of
the fabric due to tribo-phenomenon or due to induction charging. In both
cases, the process of charge accumulation is not stable. The process
depends on the intensity of the appropriate effect (rubbing or induction
charging treatment), atmospheric (especially moisture) conditions and
time factor.

Previous studies have shown that the electrostatic properties of each fibre
are different and resistance values also depend on atmospheric conditions.
The important characteristics of conductive fabrics are fibre content and
the structure of the fabric.

Therefore, it is particularly necessary to control undesired static electric

charge in those places, where a flammable or explosive medium might
exist. In such cases, humans have to be grounded directly or through
conductive footwear. Protective clothing is designed so as to prevent or
reduce skin burn from incendiary discharge. According to the field of
application, protective clothing must also fulfil specific requirements.

The application fields and forms of conductive textiles are very wide.
Conductive materials can help to avoid charge accumulation on a device
or humans, and also protect from incendiary discharge or electromagnetic
waves at frequencies that are potential hazards to health. Conductive
textiles are also utilized as sheet covers for equipment or to shield a space
from electromagnetic fields. They are also used to ensure the closed
current circuit needed for Smart or e-textiles.

Although conductive textiles are typically produced not only as shields

against charge dissipation and EMI, they are also used in other specialist
applications such as sensors, antennas, flexible heaters and specialized
apparel. Electrically conductive woven or knitted fabrics with particular
2 Introduction

electrical properties offer an opportunity to achieve required EMI

shielding effectiveness in various frequency ranges. Moreover, these thin
shielding materials can provide the additional benefits of being user-
friendly, and able to be used on surfaces of all shapes because of their
structural order and ability to flex.

Various techniques are used to improve the conductivity of textiles:

introduction of electrically conductive yarns (carbon fibres, metal fibre);
metallization of fabrics or yarns (voltaic, vacuum vaporization);
lamination or coating of conductive layers onto the fabric surface with
metal particles, transparent organic metal oxides, carbon or intrinsically
conductive polymers (ICPs).

The different chapters in this book provide basic knowledge about the
principles, roles, types and evaluation methods of anti-static and
conductive textile materials, which are used for protection against charge
dissipation, incendiary discharge, intense electrostatic field and
electromagnetic interference (EMI) at specific frequencies. The basic
properties of different types of conductive fibres/filaments and the
manufacturing processes of conductive textile products will also be
discussed.
 1. ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENON

Humans face static electricity every day in various surroundings. Most

people are mainly affected by an extremely low-frequency (50–60 Hz)
electromagnetic field. Many electrical effects are harmless and imperceptible,
but static electricity can also lead to very dangerous situations: ignition
and explosion, electric shock, when there are other hazardous substances
in the environment that can cause injury or death to a person (Nurmi et al.,
2007; Kowalski and Wróblewska, 2006; Lerner, 1985; Lambrozo, 2001).

Static electricity is treated as a set of phenomena associated with the

formation and accumulation of electrostatic charges on materials with low
electrical conductivity and on conductive objects isolated from the ground.
Electrostatic charges are created as excess electrical charges.

Many electronic components are damaged from electrostatic discharge

(ESD). This discharge can be avoided if components are handled in an
ESD-protected area (EPA). Electrostatic fields and sources of ESD are
controlled in the EPA in order to keep ESD risks to an insignificant level.
Static electricity also causes operational problems during the production
and transportation of materials, e.g. by causing fabric pieces to adhere to
each other or by attracting dust (Nurmi et al., 2007).

An operating device can be damaged by the transfer of an accumulated

electrostatic charge from the human body to the electronic device; the
device does not have to actually touched. The presence of a charged
human body near a functioning device may be sufficient to create a
voltage potential that can damage the device. It has been found that a
person does not feel ESD when the voltage potential is up to 3000–4000 V
and over 5000 V ESD can cause malfunctions in semi-conductor devices
(Lerner, 1985; Sweet et al., 1986).

There are three main sources of electric charge that can lead to damaging
effects of the ESD (Lerner, 1985):

1. An electrified person touches the device and transfers the

accumulated charge to/through the device to the ground.
4 1. Electrostatic phenomenon

2. The device is a solid capacitor plane that can accumulate an electric

charge, i.e. to charge triboelectrically. The ESD pulse can cause a
malfunction when in contact with the ground.
3. The device is located in an electrostatic field that is generated by an
electrostatically charged object that can cause potential charge
through the device and damage the device.

All electrostatic effects are caused by forces between the electric charges
(Nurmi et al., 2007).
 2. ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE GENERATION
AND CHARGING OF TEXTILES

The effects of static charges are familiar to most people because we can
feel, hear and even see the sparks as excess charges are neutralized when
brought close to a grounded conductor, or a region with excess charges of
the opposite polarity. The familiar phenomenon of a static “shock” is
caused by the neutralization of charges. However, in the real world, there
are actually many mechanisms that can lead to the formation of static
charges, and some of the more common ones are listed below. Any one of
these mechanisms can lead to static charging on textile materials, but in
many cases, more than one mechanism may work together to generate
static charges (Zhang, 2011).

2.1. Contact charging mechanism and the Triboelectric

Series
The main source of electrostatic charge is the electrification of particles
during contact, i.e. the electric charge is generated by rubbing two closed
fabrics against each other and then separating them (triboelectric charging)
(Nurmi et al., 2007; Lerner, 1985). Electrons can be exchanged between
textile materials on contact: materials with sparsely filled outer orbital
shells tend to gain excess electrons, while materials with weakly bound
electrons tend to lose them. This can cause one material to be negatively
charged and the other—positively charged (Zhang, 2011). If in the system
of contacting materials, one of them is a grounded conductor, then the
charge remains on the non-conductive material only. Due to the limited
mobility of this type of charge, it is referred to as an “electrostatic” charge
(Nurmi et al., 2007; Kowalski and Wróblewska, 2006; Lerner, 1985).

In addition to electrons, other elements or ions can also be exchanged

between materials, e.g. in textiles made of acidic or basic polymers, or
polymers with space charge layers, ions can be exchanged at the interface
of two textile materials that are in contact. In this case, charges redistribute
according to Boltzmann statics, i.e. charges move between the two contact
materials in numbers (n) that depend on the activation energy ¨G (Zhang,
2011):
6 2. Electrostatic charge generation and charging of textiles

ିοீ
݊ = ݊଴ exp ( ) (1)
௞்

where: n0– the pre-exponential constant, k– the Boltzmann’s constant, T–

the absolute temperature.

The size and the sign of the resulting electrostatic charge on textiles
depends on such factors as the chemical composition, the physical state
and structure of the material, the type and amount of admixtures of foreign
substances in the electrifying bodies and the electrical conductivity of the
material (Nurmi et al., 2007; Kowalski and Wróblewska, 2006; Lerner,
1985).

In the contact-induced charge separation mechanism, the polarity of static

charges generated on the materials depends on their relative positions in
the triboelectric series. The triboelectric series is an empirically compiled
list where materials are arranged from top to bottom depending on their
relative ability to lose or gain electrons, beginning with the most positively
charged material and ending with the material carrying the most negative
charge (see Table 2.1.1) (Welsher et al., 1990).

According to the triboelectric series shown in Table 2.1.1 the polarity of

static charge generated on a material can be predicted, e.g. when wool
fibres contact with cotton fibres, wool acquires a positive charge and
cotton acquires a negative charge because cotton has a better ability to
gain electrons than wool. In contrast, the same cotton fibres acquire a
positive charge when in contact with polyethylene fibres because cotton
has a greater tendency to lose electrons compared to polyethylene (Zhang,
2011).

In many cases, rubbing two textile materials produces temperature

gradients, and charges can move from a hot spot to a cold surrounding
area due to the thermoelectric effect. Heating can also generate a
separation of charge in the atoms or molecules of certain materials. This is
so-called heat-induced charge separation (i.e. pyroelectric effect). The
atomic or molecular properties of warmth and pressure response are
closely connected. All pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectrics
(Zhang, 2011).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 7

Table 2.1.1. Triboelectric series of textile fibres

Other static charge generation mechanisms, such as pressure-induced

charge separation (i.e. piezoelectric effect), also play important roles. It is
determined by the ability of textile materials to generate static charges in
response to applied mechanical stress or strain. The nature of the pressure-
induced charge separation is closely related to the formation of electric
dipole moments in materials. Such separation is often observed in natural
fibres, such as wool and silk (Zhang, 2011).

2.2. Induction charging mechanism

Charge-induced charge separation (i.e. electrostatic induction) is another
mechanism for static charge generation (Zhang, 2011). During induction
charging, an uncharged isolator is placed in the electrical field of the
object (positively charged isolator), where the voltage of the uncharged
insulator changes due to the nearby electrically charged insulator and its
8 2. Electrostatic charge generation and charging of textiles

generated electric field (Nurmi et al., 2007). The induced charge is

opposite in sign from the inducing charge (Holme et al., 1998). In non-
conductive textile materials, although the electrons are bound to atoms and
are not free to flow between atoms, they can move within the atoms
(Zhang, 2011). Charge induction is not usually considered to be of major
importance as a means of charging textiles, but it is important as a means
of transferring charge from textiles to relatively conducting surfaces, such
as the human body or charge-dissipating fibres (Holme et al., 1998;
Jonassen, 2013).

The integrated study of Stankute et al. on electrostatic charge accumulation

and kinetics on the surface of five fibre-forming polymers influenced by
friction and induction charging has shown that the most significant
parameters of tribocharge were determined during the contact of investigated
objects with plexiglass pads. However, the values of the dynamic friction
coefficient obtained using these pads were the lowest. The authors
concluded that according to the results of electrostatic charge alteration
(charge decay time) applying the induction charge method, all objects of
investigation might be grouped into several groups: polylactide, soybean
protein, cotton–Tencel–bamboo (Stankute et al., 2010).

2.3. Charging by ion or electro-bombardment mechanism

This method of charging is usually affected by creating a corona
discharge, which results from raising fine points or fine wires of a
conductive material, usually metallic, to a high enough electric potential to
cause an electric breakdown of the local atmosphere. The lower the radius
of curvature of the point or wire, the lower the potential needed for
electrical breakdown to occur. If the discharging electrode is positively
charged, positive ions are repelled and negative ions and electrons are
attached, and vice versa. Consequently, a textile brought into the vicinity
of the discharging electrode accumulates charge of the same sign as the
electrode (Holme et al., 1998; Jonassen, 2013).

2.4. The surface electrode charging mechanism

Electrostatic charge can be produced on a sample by direct contact with a
highly charged conductive electrode. This principle is used both as a
means of charging a sample in a region directly in contact with the
electrode whose charge acceptance and decay rate will be measured, and
also as a means of charging a sample in a neighbouring region, not directly
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 9

in contact with the electrode, to which the charge diffusion rate and/or
from which the charge decay rate will be measured (Holme et al., 1998).

2.5. Electrokinetic or Zeta Potential mechanism

At a solid-liquid interface, an electrical double layer consisting of positive
and negative charges is formed; one set of charges is associated with the
solid phase and is fixed, the other is associated with the liquid and is
mobile. As a result, there is a difference in potential between the locus of
separation between the fixed charge and the mobile charge on the one
hand and the bulk of the liquid on the other hand, which is known as the
electrokinetic or zeta potential. Electrophoresis is the displacement of the
oppositely charged layers relative to one another under the influence of an
applied electrical field; the electrokinetic potential can be calculated from
the electrophoretic mobility of a particle in a field of known strength. For
fibres, the most important phenomenon is the streaming potential, which is
the potential difference produced when a liquid is forced through a porous
membrane such as a plug of fibres, or through a capillary tube. The
streaming potential has been most widely used for calculating zeta
potential values of fibres for use as an analytical tool for comparing the
charging properties of fibre surfaces, including modified fibre surfaces,
and for fundamental investigation of the effect of charging properties on
dyeing processes. However, the establishment of a streaming potential
between fibres and a liquid, the separation of the two phases, is a means of
producing an electrostatic charge on the fibres, and extrusion of fibres
through a capillary during manufacture can lead to freezing-in of the
mobile charge during solidification (Holme et al., 1998).

2.6. Charge Decay mechanism

In taking steps to minimise the accumulation of charge on textiles it is
sometimes possible to prevent the charging process, but often it is
necessary either to shield the charge formed from locations where its
influence would be deleterious, or to arrange local neutralisation of the
charge within the structure, or to accelerate the processes of charge
dissipation, thus reducing the maximum charge attained (Holme et al.,
1998).
 3. CHARGE DISSIPATION OR ELECTROSTATIC
DISCHARGE OF TEXTILES

Air is a good insulator under normal environmental conditions. However,

if the electrostatic field strength reaches about 3 MV/m, the insulating
property of air weakens and electrostatic discharge occurs. The type of
discharge depends on different factors, among others the nature and
geometry of the material in which it develops (Nurmi et al., 2007).

The corona discharge usually happens on conductors with pointed edges.

The electric field increases above the breakdown field locally at the sharp
surface and charge will discharge. The strength at the edge is typically
about 3 MV/m (Nurmi et al., 2007).

If single polarity charges are not accumulated on a single layer of a non-

conductive surface, but charges of different polarity are accumulated on
two surfaces of non-conductive fabric layers of opposite charge, it is likely
that a glow discharge will occur. The density of energy during glow
discharge is higher than during corona discharge and may be sufficient to
ignite flammable gases, liquids or powders (Nurmi et al., 2007).

Spark discharge is the best-known type of electric discharge. It happens

between two conductors which have a high voltage difference between
them. The best-known electrical spark discharge is lightning (Nurmi et al.,
2007).

If the charges are not arranged in the form of one single layer of one
polarity on a non-conducting surface but in the form of a double layer of
charges of opposite polarity on the opposite surfaces of a non-conducting
material in the form of a sheet, propagating brush discharges may occur.
The energy density in a brush discharge is higher than in corona discharge
and it may be enough to ignite flammable gases, liquids or powders
(Nurmi et al., 2007).

Insulating fabrics with extremely conductive fibres are able to dissipate

static charges even without grounding. Research has shown that fibres
cause corona charge dissipation when highly charged. The ions thus
created neutralize fabrics until their electrical potential becomes less than
12 3. Charge dissipation or electrostatic discharge of textiles

the corona electric charge potential at the beginning, which is a function of

the conductive fibre diameter. Such fabrics (with metal fibres) are not
capable of causing the spreading of combustible charge. Some fibres are
designed with a trilobal core, the structure of which is designed so that
corona charge dissipation occurs faster with high surface potential when
high surface resistance is maintained at low voltages. This makes the
fabrics safe to use in situations where there are high voltage and low
surface resistances and where such environmental conditions pose a risk.
However, it seems that textiles that incorporate a highly conductive mesh,
formed by inserted conductive yarns, are capable of carrying the entire
network charge, similar to spark charge dissipation—and therefore, for
such materials, the entire surface charge—just like the charge density—is
critical (Kathirgamanathan et al., 2000; Kessler and Fisher, 1997; Nelson
et al., 1993; Kalliohaka et al., 2005).

If the fabric is conductive, it will retain the electrical charge until the
fabric is grounded. This charge is called a mobile charge. When the
electric field is created in the fabric, mobile charge carriers, i. e. positive
charges will move in the field direction and negative charges in the
opposite direction. If the fabric is an insulator, the electrical charge is
stationary and remains until it will be somehow neutralized (Nurmi et al.,
2007; Lerner, 1985).

Two types of electrostatic forces can act in particle motion: Coulomb and
reflection forces. The Coulomb effect occurs when an electrified particle is
carried by an electric field, and the reflection force is a polarization
phenomenon that occurs when the electrically-driven particle is carried to
the conductive surface. The Coulomb effect can be attractive or repulsive,
and the reflection effect is always attractive (Lai, 2006).

The electric charges act on each other with forces that create an electric
field. If the force acting on the charge q is F, the field strength E is defined
by (Nurmi et al., 2007):

‫ܧݍ = ܨ‬ (2)

In the electric fields, charges of the same polarity repel each other and
charges of opposite polarity attract each other. If the charge q is a point
charge at distance r, it will create an electric field E (V/m) which can be
calculated using the formula (Nurmi et al., 2007; Jonassen, 2013):
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 13

q
E
4SH r 2 (3)

From a small charged object the electric field strength often decreases with
distance r (Nurmi et al., 2007).

For most materials, including the majority of textile fibres, Ohm's law of
current density is valid, which describes the linear relationship between
the current density j flowing through the fabric and the electric field
strength E (Jonassen, 2013; Matukonis et al., 1976):

j JE (4)

The coefficient Ȗ, which is different for various materials, is called the

specific electrical conductivity. The parameter ȡ, which is inversely
related to the specific electrical conductivity, is called the specific
resistivity of the fabric (Jonassen, 2013, Matukonis et al., 1976) and vice
versa—the parameter, inverse to the resistivity of the fabric, is called the
specific electrical conductivity of the material:
ଵ
ߩ= (5)
ஓ

In total, Ohm’s law states that the current I (A) between two points of the
conductor is proportional to the voltage or potential difference U (V),
between the two points and reciprocally proportional to the resistance of
the conductor:
୙
‫=ܫ‬ (6)
ୖ

For a metallic conductor, R is independent of the applied voltage, which

means that the electrical characteristic (I as a function of U) is linear. This
characteristic makes it possible to distinguish conductors from
semiconductors.

If the electrical resistance of the fabric is low enough, any charge

accumulated on the surface of the fabric can be dissipated through the
fabric surface or perpendicularly through the fabric, thereby reducing the
density of the existing charge, or grounding through a particular
connection. Some materials used to control static charge (electrification)
have inherent conductive properties. There are three phenomena that can
cause static discharge and the charge on heterogeneous dissipating fabrics
14 3. Charge dissipation or electrostatic discharge of textiles

is neutralized (Nurmi et al., 2007; Tappura and Nurmi, 2003; Gasana et

al., 2006; Jonassen, 2013):

1) If the material is grounded, the conductive charge on or near the

conductive element will be brought to the ground.
2) The charge on the insulating substrate induces a charge of opposite
polarity on the grounded conductive yarn leading to partial
neutralization of the whole charge. This phenomenon can also be
understood as an increase in the vertical resistance caused by the
grounded yarns which charge potential is lower. The charge of one
polarity (in contrast to the base fabric) stays on the conductive
yarn, while the charge of the opposite polarity is brought to the
ground. In other words, by bringing a grounded conductor closer to
the charge on the substrate fabric, its conductivity increases, and
hence its potential decreases. The inner structure of the fabric,
especially the distances between the grounded conductive yarns,
has the greatest influence on the potential of the fabric during
induction.
3) Partial neutralization of charges on the substrate fabric may also
occur due to air ions formed during corona discharge when the
large corona field strength is created in one place. Density and
shape of the thread diameter will have a major impact on the high
corona field strength. The corona mechanism does not require
grounded yarns, but the surface charge density must be large
enough to initiate the corona discharge.

The only phenomenon out of three, associated with the specific resistance
of the fabric is conductivity. Conductivity and induction depend on the
grounding of conductive yarns.

The electrostatic properties of the materials determine the following

parameters to the greatest extent (Jachowicz, 2013):

1) Leakage resistance Ru, i. e. the resistance of the path over which

leakage current flows, which primarily determines the possibility
for the accumulation of an electrostatic charge on the material. This
refers to the total electrical resistance, measured between the
surface of the object and the ground. It is, therefore, a transition
resistance to the ground, the value of which, in addition to the
conductivity of the material, is also affected by the resistance of
separating it from ground construction materials. An electrostatic
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 15

charge cannot be accumulated on objects where leakage resistance

fulfils the condition Ru<106 ȍ.
2) Permittivity – the ability of a material to produce and maintain an
electrostatic charge. Knowledge of the relative permittivity İ
facilitates an approximate assessment of the expected electrification
of a given material. In particular, the degree of its static electricity
charge, achieved in contact with different materials, is greater the
bigger the difference between the electrical permeability of this
material and the permeability of the material in contact with it.
3) The relaxation time of an electrostatic charge IJ determines the rate
of removal of the electrified material or object. This is the time
during which the degree of static electricity in the material is
reduced to about 27 % of the initial value of the generated charge.
It can be expressed as the product of the permittivity İ0İ and
vertical resistance RȞ of a material (IJ=İ0İȢȞ) or the product of
leakage resistance Ru and electric capacity C if the electrostatic
charge is accumulated in the isolated form with a ground
conductive object (IJ=RuC). The above takes place when a loss of
charge takes place through leakage resistance Ru, a situation which
is not taken into account when the process of discharging
conditions plays a dominant role e.g. by the depolarization of a
material or the desorption of ions. It is accepted, that the total
disappearance of electrostatic charge takes place after the passage
of the so-called time of complete discharge tw (tw=5IJ).

The electrical conductivity of materials, which plays a decisive part in

maintaining the electrified state of an object, is expressed by the value of
vertical resistance RȞ and surface resistance Rs.

The surface resistivity (ȡ) of a fabric is the surface resistance (Rs) (Ÿ)
between the opposite edges along the fabric surface (EN 1149-1: 2006).
The vertical resistance (Rv) (Ÿ) is the electrical resistance perpendicular to
the surface of the material (EN 1149-2: 2000).

The electrical resistance of a piece of material is commonly measured with

an Ohmmeter.

The electrical resistance R (Ÿ) of a conductor of length L (m) with cross

section A (m2) made out of a conductive material with electrical resistivity
ȡ is expressed by Pouillet’s Law.
ୖ୅
ߩ= (7)
୐
16 3. Charge dissipation or electrostatic discharge of textiles

The cross section of yarn is considered as the sum of the cross sections of
the electroconductive filaments or fibres. Therefore, the conductivity of
conductive yarns is expressed as a resistance for a given length expressed
as a linear resistance (Ÿ/m). This value is obtained by measuring the
resistance of a certain length of yarn, without taking the cross section into
consideration.

In general, materials that become electrified share the following

characteristics (Jachowicz, 2013):

- small electrical conductivity, for which vertical resistance is RȞ>104

ȍm or surface resistance is Rs>107 ȍ,
- conductivity, for which vertical resistance RȞ”104 ȍm or surface
resistance is Rs”107 ȍ, and materials are isolated from the ground
with a non-conductive material, for which vertical resistance is
Rv>107 ȍm or surface resistance is Rs>1010 ȍ.

For permanent electrification to occur, vertical resistance of RȞ>107 ȍm or

surface resistance Rs>1010 ȍ must be present; the electrification of such
materials generally results in disturbances in the surrounding environment
or production processes have been carried out with their participation
(Jachowicz, 2013).

Materials of vertical resistance 104 ȍm<RȞ”107–108 ȍm or surface

resistance 107 ȍ<Rs”1010 ȍ generally show a slight capability of
electrification and in contact with the grounded, conductive elements of
the production equipment, quickly lose their generated charge (Jachowicz,
2013).

Materials with vertical resistance RȞ”104 ȍm and surface resistance

Rs”107 ȍ are considered to be conductive, i. e. unable to accumulate an
electrostatic charge, under the condition that they are not isolated from the
ground with non-conductive materials (Jachowicz, 2013).

Electrostatic discharge is dangerous, when its energy Ww reaches the value

of the so-called minimum energy of ignition Wzmin of combustible
material. It is possible to be within the range of this discharge, i. e. when
Ww•Wzmin, where Wzmin is understood as the lowest energy of electrostatic
discharge, which in determined conditions is still sufficient to cause
ignition of a given combustible or explosive medium (Jachowicz, 2013;
Jonassen, 2013).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 17

Energy W, which occurs during the charge dissipation from the non-
conductive fabric surface, depends on the total amount of charge carried
by the electric current during the charge dissipation and from the
electrostatic material, and the arrangement of the dissipation system
(adjacent grounded objects). The energy generated by the dissipation of
the charge can be calculated by the formula (Kacprzyk and Mista, 2006):

W
V A
 VB  Q
2 ; (8)

where: Q– charge, carried during the dissipation; VA and VB– mean surface
potential before and after charge dissipation, respectively.

Where the fabric is laid on a conductive and grounded surface, formula (8)
can be rewritten as follows (Kacprzyk and Mista, 2006):

H 0H S 2
W VA
2d ; (9)

where: İ0– electrical conductivity of the free environment (8.855×108

F/m); İ– specific electrical conductivity of the fabric; d– thickness of the
fabric; and S– the surface area of the fabric where the charge dissipation
occurred.

This formula is derived for flat fabrics, assuming there is no air gap
between the fabric and the grounded conductive surface, and that the
surface potential after charge dissipation VB is zero (Kacprzyk and Mista,
2006).

D. Montgomery and colleagues have investigated the influence of filament

diameter on charge transfer among filaments during rubbing when the
environment and rubbing conditions were controlled. Filaments of various
diameters and mean specific resistivity (polyamide, about 1012 ȍ/cm) were
rubbed with filaments with lower specific resistivity values (tantalum,
about 10-5 ȍ/cm), and with filaments with higher specific resistivity values
(polyethylene, about 1015 ȍ/cm), under different perpendicular rubbing
forces. When the polyamide was rubbed with tantalum, the transferred
charge was proportional to the square root of the filament diameter and
perpendicular to the rubbing force between the filaments. When the
polyamide was rubbed with polyethylene, the transferred charge was
proportional to the square of the perpendicular rubbing force and was
18 3. Charge dissipation or electrostatic discharge of textiles

almost independent of the diameter. These findings formed part of the

hypothesis that the transferred charge accumulates only at the point of
filaments contact (i. e. at the point of the material above which the
molecules penetrate deep into the material during the rubbing), on the low
conductivity object (Montgomery et al., 1961).

Hersh and Montgomery, (1956), noted that when the rubbing speed
between the yarns increases, two factors were noticed: the time of charge
flow through the spacing between yarns and leakage from the point of
contact decreases; the temperature at the rubbing point increases
significantly, but it did not affect the results of the study.
 4. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AND
ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING OF TEXTILES

The electric conductivity scale of solid materials in Figure 4.1

demonstrates that the conductivity values of the most commonly used
textile fibres fall into a region below 10-7 S/m, which corresponds to the
best insulators. The most commonly used conductive materials, such as
metal, show much higher values: from 107 S/m for steel to 109 S/m for
copper and silver (Marchini, 1991).

Figure 4.1. The electrical conductivity of materials

The surface resistivity of textiles can be divided into such groups (Lin and
Lou, 2003; CEN/TR 16298: 2011):

1) EMI/RFI shielding materials: less than 104 ȍ;

2) conductive textiles: less than 106 ȍ;
3) static dissipative materials: from 106 to 1012 ȍ;
4) anti-static textiles: from 1010 to 1012 ȍ;
3) insulation textiles above 1012 ȍ.

Many synthetic fibres used in the production of textiles are insulators with
a specific resistivity of about 1015 ȍ. This is much higher than the
materials used for electromagnetic shielding materials. For example, the
20 4. Electrical conductivity and electrostatic shielding of textiles

best quality anti-static-electrostatic clothing must have a specific surface

resistivity of between 105 ȍ and 109 ȍ (Lin and Lou, 2003). But, it is
enough for the anti-static-electrostatic fabrics to have a specific resistivity
of between 109 and 1013 ȍ and for static charge-dissipating fabrics
between 102 and 106 ȍ, and for shielding materials less than 102 ȍ (Chen
et al., 2007).

Because simple polymeric materials are electrically non-conducting, the

surface resistance of such materials is usually higher than 1012 ȍ, so
electrons may easily accumulate on the polymer surface. Such
accumulated electrons create a high voltage in a short time, which can
destroy mechanical elements or even cause an explosion. Processes for the
production of conductive polymers can be divided into two groups:
processes by which the polymer itself is produced as a conductor and
where conductive particles (metal powders, fibres, etc.) are inserted into
the polymer matrix in the manufacturing process (Lei et al., 2004).

For materials with some electrostatic shielding effects, the ER measured

according to EN 1149-3: 2004 Method 2 is less than Emax. Occasionally, a
transition peak appears in curves drawn by the recorder. Such peaks are
not taken into account when calculating ER. If ER<Emax/2, this is recorded
as t50<0.01 s. If the field strength displayed in 30 seconds does not
decrease to Emax/2, this is recorded as t50>30 s.

The shielding effect of the test fabrics is not sudden, so the results
obtained during the test EN 1149-3: 2004 (induction charging method) can
be divided into three types: metal, core and homogeneous (see Figure 4.2).
Fabrics, whose curves are drawn without any initial spike, are classified as
metal. The core material curves have an initial spike ER which quickly
disappears (30-50 μs) to value Emax/2. If there is no shielding factor for the
fabrics, the ER is equal to Emax and fabrics behave like insulators (EN
1149-3: 2004; Paasi et al., 2004).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 21

Figure 4.2. Shielding effect of different textile fabrics (Paasi et al., 2004)

The charge-discharge variation can be calculated using the following

equation (Vogel et al., 2006):

t

E Emax e RC
(10)

where: Emax– the strength of the electrostatic field without a sample (initial
field strength); E– a variation of electrostatic field strength in time; C–
capacitance of the measuring device; R– resistance of the object under
investigation; t– time.

Typically, there is a good relationship between homogeneous fabrics, with

surface resistivities of less than 1011 ȍ, and a duration of the charge decay
(EN 1149-1: 2000).

Vogel et al. conducted measurements of homogeneous and heterogeneous

fabrics with the ICM-1 charge decay device, according to EN 1149-3,
method 2. They found that polyester and polyester/cotton fabrics do not
22 4. Electrical conductivity and electrostatic shielding of textiles

have any shielding properties, but the electric charge decay time is lower
for multifiber fabric than that of the man-made fabric, and with the
incorporation of conductive fibres into these fabrics the charge decay
properties significantly improve (Vogel et al., 2006).

The vertical resistance can be an important feature by itself or to

complement the specific surface resistivity of the clothing fabric. The low
vertical resistance (e.g. less than 108 ȍ) of the electrostatic charge
dissipative clothing, is a useful property to reduce the surface resistivity.
However, it is often impossible to rely on this useful property, as the
isolation clothing worn under the upper clothing may interfere with the
upper clothing's contact with the skin while preventing the electrostatic
charge decay directly through the body. For special purposes, such as arc
welding protective clothing (when voltage is typically less than 100 V),
higher vertical resistance (e.g. greater than 105 ȍ) may be required to
ensure proper insulation (EN 1149-2: 2000).

Polyaniline in its thick form is electrically conductive and soluble in

organic solvents such as toluene and xylene. Polyaniline solutions can be
used in the finishing of filtration materials in order to improve their water
removal properties. Compared to conventional anti-static filtration
materials, polyaniline-treated polyester materials are easily converted into
various types of filtering materials and bags. Usually, the conductivity
values of polyaniline-treated materials are between 104÷109 S/cm
(Järvinen and Puolakka, 2003; Kuhn, 1997; Rivas and Sanchez, 2001;
Molina et al., 2009).

Air filters, produced from fibres, are widely used for dust collection and
environmental protection. Effective filtering of submicron particles is very
important as these particles pose a health threat. Fibrous materials used for
air filtration provide high filtration efficiency, low air resistance (because
of low-pressure differential across the filter) and show good dust
collection efficiency. Fibres in the filter are constantly charged, and
electrostatic charges enhance filtration efficiency compared to mechanical
filters (Motyl and Lowkis, 2006).

The efficiency of collecting dust particles from electric filters depends on

many parameters, such as the density of the fibre charge, the tightness of
the filter, the thickness of the filter and the size and charge of the aerosol
particles. The efficiency of the collecting increases linearly with the
increase of the quantity of the electrical components. Solid aerosol
particles block the pores of the electric filters, and the deposited aerosol
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 23

reduces the electrical charge on the surface. The liquid aerosol covers the
surface of the charged fibre and reduces surface charge and collecting
efficiency. Increased specific humidity can reduce the efficiency of the
filters. In their work (Motyl and Lowkis, 2006), researchers studied
surface tension of polypropylene non-woven fabrics according to Reedyk
and Perlman alignment method (Perlman and Reedyk, 1968). The
researchers have found that polypropylene non-woven material with a
higher surface density and thickness has better charge accumulation and
water repellency properties (Motyl and Lowkis, 2006).

Michalak and students (Michalak and Bilska, 2002) have researched non-
woven fabrics made of polypropylene and electrically conductive fibres.
The vertical and surface resistances of non-woven fabrics and fibres were
investigated; the ability of fibres and fabrics to electrify were also assessed
during the work. The results showed that even a small amount (0.5 %) of
electrically conductive fibre in the fabric reduces the vertical and surface
resistances at almost 107 degrees. Mixtures of non-woven fabrics have
been described as having the lower electrical capacity.

Plastics with conductive coatings or metal fibres embedded during the

forming stage are increasingly used. Recently, attention has been paid to
lightweight and flexible materials such as textiles coated with absorbent
material. These materials are flexible and inexpensive and have good
device and human protection properties against electromagnetic radiation
(Nurmi et al., 2007; Pietranik and Stawski, 2004).

4.1. Influence of specific humidity on the electrostatic

properties of fabrics
The dependence of specific electrical resistivity on the specific humidity
of the environment is higher for fabrics with higher moisture absorption
than for fabrics with lower moisture absorption properties (Tappura and
Nurmi, 2003; Ramer and Richards, 1968; Rizvi et al., 1998).

Problems arising from the accumulation of electrostatic charge on fibres,

fabrics and other textiles are very diverse. The biggest problems arise with
fibres with quite low moisture absorption at low relative humidity, as even
moisture-absorbing fibres can cause permanent static charging in such
conditions. Since conventional textile fibres are insulators or have a
sufficiently low electrical conductivity, it is very difficult for the
accumulated charge to dissipate. Electrostatic charge is a surface
phenomenon where textile fibres have an extremely high surface to
24 4. Electrical conductivity and electrostatic shielding of textiles

volume ratio. The sensitivity of the fibres to electrostatic charge is high

enough. Sensitivity is greater the lower the humidity of the environment.
Fibres with sufficiently high moisture absorption, such as wool and cotton,
usually do not generate a high electrostatic charge at average ambient
humidity, but at low relative humidity, they tend to generate an
electrostatic charge, just like fibres with low moisture absorption. Under
dry environmental conditions, cotton has a relatively high surface
resistance and hardly dissipates the accumulated charge. Fabric charging is
not a big problem at high relative humidity. Problems arise in the textile
production process and in the processes where charges can accumulate in
the processing of textiles and in other parts of the textile chain of logistics,
such as transportation (Nurmi et al., 2007; Gonzalez, 2005; Knittel and
Schollmeyer, 2009).

Onogi et al. (1996) investigated charge decay properties of textiles such as

wool, cotton, polyamide, and polyester electrolyzed by the triboelectric
method. They found that static charges from textiles mostly dissipate
through electrical conductivity to the ground. However, some of them can
also dissipate into the air by evaporating water molecules. Their work
confirmed atmospheric electrical charge dissipation into the air by water
molecules during evaporation from the fabric surface resulting in reduced
static charge. The velocity constant of the dissipation of the atmospheric
charge depends on the amount of water in the textiles. The authors
obtained a linear relationship between the velocity constant and the
amount of free water above the critical water content in the fabric. The
water molecules absorbed by textiles firmly attach to the polymer
molecules or exist free in textiles. The so-called "free water" plays an
important role in the dissipation of the atmosphere triboelectric charges.
Similar results have been obtained by other authors exploring the
influence of water content on the velocity of dissipation on the fabric
surface (Nakamura et al., 1981; Nakamura et al., 1983; Onogi et al., 1997).

Onogi et al. (1997), clarified the conclusions described in his earlier

works. He found that charge dissipation speed has a linear dependence on
the amount of free water that is above the critical water content in the
fabric at only 20 ºC. However, they found no correlation between the
velocity of charge dissipation and the amount of free water at other
temperatures, i. e. molecules, which are in textiles, cannot be divided into
only two types. It seems that the velocity of charge dissipation depends on
the amount of water in the fabric and the specific humidity in the
environment.
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 25

Lutz and Kinbersberger investigated the dependence of epoxy resin charge

dissipation properties on specific humidity. They found that the specific
surface resistivity significantly decreases from 1016 to 1013 ȍ degrees
when the relative humidity increases. The highest jump in the specific
surface resistivity is visible between 60 % and 80 % relative humidity. The
time decay is also shortened as the relative humidity of the environment
increases (Lutz and Kindersberger, 2009).

Ramer and Richards (1968) also found that the charge decay time is
slower for fabrics with higher surface resistivities. Research has shown
that the lowest specific surface resistivity and the fastest charge decay was
found for polypropylene fabric, compared to other investigated fabrics of
different fibre content. Thus, there is a strong tendency for the velocity of
charge decay to correlate with the specific resistivity

The increase in relative humidity reduces unwanted static factors for many
types of fibres, although Sereda and Feldman (1964) have described that
some fibres can create higher static charges at higher specific humidity
than at lower specific humidity. Because the moisture of the fibres
significantly affects the electrical properties, the specific humidity has a
significant influence on the static electrification of the textile materials.
They noted that the maximum electric charge which may accumulate when
textiles are exposed to continuous friction when the monomolecular water
layer theoretically exists on the fibre surface is reduced.

Gonzalez et al., (2001) reported that the ordinary standard atmosphere for
testing textile materials—65 % specific humidity—is too high to carry out
static electricity tests, because there is no significant difference between
the values of the different fibre resistances, however, under lower relative
humidity, the difference between the values obtained is more prominent.
Therefore, he recommended performing tests at 20–30 % specific
humidity.

Paasi et al., (2001) investigated the specific surface resistivity and charge
dissipation parameters of various textile materials used for personal
protection and packaging. Studies have shown that the focus should be on
the management of ESD with a specific environmental humidity of less
than 20–30 % since under such conditions some ESD protective materials
have a very limited ability to dissipate the accumulated charge and may
become insulators. Researchers have found that it is very important to
select fabrics for ESD control purposes very carefully, at low specific
humidity values. It should be kept in mind that choosing fabrics, with a
26 4. Electrical conductivity and electrostatic shielding of textiles

specific surface resistivity close to 105 ȍ, may be risky because fabrics

with specific surface resistivity within the range of 109–1011 ȍ provide
better protection during an ESD event. In accordance with IEC
(International Electrotechnical Commission) standard 61340-5-1, the
specific surface resistivity of the measured fabric should be less than
1×1012 ȍ in order to control the risk of ESD.

Kan and Yuen (2008) investigated the dependence of electrical charges'

half decay times and moisture content of polyester fabrics. They found
that an increase in the moisture content of polyester fabrics shortens the
charge half decay time, i.e. anti-static properties of polyester fabrics
significantly improve. Since moisture consists of water molecules and is
polar by nature, the conductivity of polyester fabric at higher humidity
quantities improves. The local static charge on the surface of the polyester
fabric dissipates much easier. The moisture layer formed on the surface of
the fabric can dissipate in the air and at the same time carry a sufficient
amount of static charge from the surface of the fabric to the air by
reducing the static charge on the fabric surface. As the moisture content is
inversely proportional to the charge decay time the increase in humidity of
the low-temperature plasma-treated polyester fabric would reduce the
charge decay time and thus would improve the anti-static properties of the
polyester fabric.

Rizvi et al., (1998; 1995) investigated the electrostatic properties of

thermal protective clothing in low relative humidity environments. They
found that the fibre composition of the upper layer of the protective
garment had a greater impact on electrical potential and energy than the
inner layer. The inner layer has an influence when the charges were
generated by separating, but not rubbing with another fabric. The
dissipation potentials and energies were lower, however, than the outer
layer. The energy released was less when the specific humidity during the
test was lower. They also found that in extremely dry conditions rubbing
activity, such as slipping in the vehicle seat, can cause charge dissipation
energy of up to 15 mJ and can electrify a person wearing protective
clothing, up to 13 kV. Separation of clothing is better than rubbing in
order to induce much lower energy. Although the nature of the inner
garment in the system does not affect the dissipation of the charge from
the body, it has been discovered that the top layer is the most important.
Researchers have found that, at low specific humidity, upper clothing
made from aramid/carbon fabric provides the least potentials and energies.
The maximum values were measured for fabrics, used for upper clothing,
from FR-cotton and 100 % aramid. While people in the industry believe
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 27

that cotton clothing has the lowest tendency to static electricity, FR-cotton
has not shown better results than 100 % aramid. Anti-static clothing
(aramid/carbon and aramid/stainless steel) has been described as the safest
clothing in a low humidity environment. However, they may still cause a
rather high electrostatic charge due to friction. For all subjects with anti-
static clothing, an aramid/carbon fabric produces less dissipation energy
than anti-static clothing from aramid/stainless steel material.

Hersh and Montgomery (1952; 1955) studied electrical properties of

various yarns including polyamide, viscose and wool. They found that
cyclic washing and long sample conditioning have an important influence
on the electrical resistance of the yarns. The results published by the
authors show that as the number of washing cycle increases, electrical
resistance increases; for example, the electrical resistance of unbleached
wool yarn is 4.2×1012 ȍ, after one wash cycle it increases to 14×1012 ȍ,
and after three wash cycles it increases to 16×1012 ȍ. The downward trend
in resistance is seen with increasing conditioning time: after 36 hours of
conditioning, the electrical resistance of the viscose filament yarn is
0.69×1012 ȍ, and after more than 108 hours—0.65×1012 ȍ and this value
remains even after the conditioning time is extended to 156 hours.

Lei et al. (2004) investigated the dependence of the residual voltage of

polyamide non-woven fabrics from different surfaces. They found that the
surface structure of polyamide non-woven fabrics has a very significant
impact on residual electrostatic voltage. Laminated patterned non-woven
fabrics are very effective at dissipating electrons due to their increased
surface area. The residual electrostatic voltage of laminated double line
pattern non-woven fabrics is low compared to the residual electrostatic
voltage of non-woven fabric with stainless steel.

Sweet et al. (1986) investigated the dependence of the charge decay time
on the specific moisture of urethane foam coated with amino and anionic
anti-static particles. They found that used chemicals migrate to the surface
of the fabrics by forming a thin, conductive aqueous electrolyte surface by
which the static charge leaks down. As the specific humidity increases
from 4 % to 13 %, the static dissipation time decreases linearly from 3 s to
1.5 s.
 5. EVALUATION METHODS
OF CONDUCTIVE TEXTILES

Many methods have been designed and developed to evaluate the

electrostatic properties of textiles so as to establish a pattern for their anti-
static behaviour. Four major organizations that publish electrostatic test
standards are the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTN), the
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Association, the American Association of
Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) and the International Standards
Organization (ISO). These organizations have developed test methods to
assess resistivity, and static charge generation, accumulation and decay.
There are three accepted test method categories that can be used to
evaluate the anti-static properties of textile materials (Zhang, 2011; Holme
et al., 1998):

- The direct method category typically consists of measuring

electrical properties such as electrical field, the potential, charge
amount, or the rate of ESD after developing charges on the material
by certain treatments.
- The indirect method generally involves the use of other indicators
such as electrical resistivity or conductivity of the textile materials.
Resistivity is the inability of a material to conduct electric current.
Conductivity is the opposite of electrical resistance, and it refers to
the ability of the material to allow current to flow when a potential
difference is applied. Since the static charges are generated on the
surface of textile materials, most work focuses on the measurement
of the surface resistivity and conductivity. Surface resistivity or
conductivity can be measured by using either concentric ring
electrodes or parallel plate electrodes.
- The simulation method consists of methods that study the
behaviour of textile materials in simulating the end-use for which
they are intended, instead of actual electrostatic properties.

EN 1149-1 is a European Standard that specifies a test method for

materials intended to be employed in the production of static dissipative
protective clothing (or gloves) to avoid incendiary discharge. This test
30 5. Evaluation methods of conductive textiles

method is not applicable for materials to be used in the manufacturing of

protective clothing or gloves against mains voltages.

The principle of the test method is that the specimen is placed on an

insulating plate and an electrode assembly is rested on the specimen. A
DC potential is applied to the electrode assembly and the surface
resistance (Ÿ) of the fabric is measured. The measuring circuit is shown in
Figure 5.1.

The surface resistivity is the surface resistance (Ÿ) between opposite edges
of a square of the material along the surface of the material. It is
independent of the electrode dimensions and is calculated by multiplying
the measured surface resistance by an appropriate factor k. The factor k is
calculated using the following equation:
ଶ஠
݇= ೝ (11)
୪୭୥౛ ቀ మቁ
ೝ
భ

where r1– the radius of the inner electrode, mm; r2– the inner radius of the
outer electrode, mm.

Figure 5.1. The measuring circuit of surface resistance

The specimen shall be conditioned for at least 24 h prior to testing and

shall be tested in the following atmospheres: air temperature (23±1) 0C,
relative humidity (25±5) %. The surface resistance of materials can
depend on a large degree on relative humidity. The lower the relative
humidity the higher the surface resistance.

EN 1149-3 European Standard specifies methods for measuring the

dissipation of electrostatic charge from the surface of materials for
garments. The test methods are applicable to all materials, including
homogeneous materials and inhomogeneous materials with surface
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 31

conducting fibres and core fibres. The standard describes two methods for
measuring the rate of dissipation of electrostatic charge of garment
materials: triboelectric charging and induction charging. In both cases, the
charge is monitored by observation of the electrostatic field it generates
and this is done using non-conducting field measuring instruments. The
principle of the first method is that test materials are charged by rubbing
against cylindrical rods mounted on a vertically running slider. The
electrical field strength from the charge generated on the test material is
observed and recorded using an electrostatic field metre connected to a
graphical recording device (see Figure 5.2). The charge dissipation of
triboelectric accumulations is explained by the simple phenomenon, i.e.
charges dissipate due to conductivity. The function of charge dissipation
reduction is often an exponential function of time. Thus, static dissipation
is characterized by the time required to dissipate the charge to half its
initial value. The value of half decay of the electrostatic charge depends
significantly on the condition of the fabric surface. Environmental
conditions and the amount of moisture in the fabric have a significant
impact on the accumulation of static charge. However, charge dissipation
is not the only conduction mechanism to leak down charges accumulated
on the surface of the fabric. These charges also penetrate into the fabric
and also dissipate into the air (Onogi et al., 1996; Shashoua, 1958; Wilson,
1963; Guanghui et al., 1998).

Figure 5.2. Example of equipment for triboelectric charging method

The charging of the test specimen during the second test method –
induction charging – is carried out by an induction effect. Immediately
32 5. Evaluation methods of conductive textiles

under the test specimen, which is horizontally arranged, a field-electrode is

positioned, without being in contact with the specimen. A high voltage is
rapidly applied to the field-electrode. If the specimen is conductive or
contains conducting elements, a charge of opposite polarity to the field-
electrode is induced on the specimen. Field from the field-electrode which
impinges on the conducting elements does not pass through the test
specimen and the net field is reduced in a way that is characteristic of the
material under test. During induction charging, migration of the charge
can take place at any conductive element in the material (Paasi et al.,
2004). This impact is measured and registered behind the specimen with
an appropriate field measuring probe. The view of the measuring device is
presented in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3. The measuring device ICM-1 (for induction charging method)

As the quantity of induced charge on the test specimen increases, the

electric field registered by the measuring probe decreases. It is this
decrease in the field that is used to determine the half decay time and
shielding factor.

The shielding factor S is the relationship between Emax and ER and

calculated as (EN 1149-3: 2004):
୉౎
ܵ =1െ (12)
୉ౣ౗౮
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 33

where: ER– maximum electric field strength indicated on the recording

device with the test specimen in the measuring position; Emax maximum
electric field strength indicated on the recording device with the test
specimen in the measuring position.

In both methods, the test specimens must be conditioned for at least 24

hours in an atmosphere of (23±1) 0C and (25±5) % relative humidity.
Testing must be performed in the same atmosphere.

Both of these methods are suitable for evaluating the dissipation of

electrostatic charges in fabrics to avoid incendiary discharges (EN 1149-3:
2004), but an electrostatic charge is generated by an electrically charged
object during induction charging, rather than by direct contact between
two objects, as is the case with the triboelectric method.

The induction charging method can be applied to all homogeneous and

heterogeneous (made of filaments with conductive surface or core) fabrics
(EN 1149-3: 2004; Paasi et al., 2004). Surface resistance measurements
are not very significant for special purpose fabrics, and therefore a charge
decay test has been standardized to assess such non-homogeneous fabrics
for electrostatic charge dissipation garments against incendiary discharges.
This method is used to accurately characterize ESD (Electrostatic
Discharge) products. It provides information on the phenomenon of
electrostatic shielding, but does not show what happens on the surface of
the test object and inside it (EN 1149-3: 2004).

EN 1149-2 is a European Standard that specifies a test method for

materials supposed to be involved in the production of static dissipative
protective clothing (or gloves) to avoid incendiary discharge. This test
method is not applicable for materials to be used in the manufacturing of
protective clothing or gloves against network voltages.

The vertical resistance can be an important feature by itself or to

complement the surface resistivity of the clothing material. The low
resistance (e.g. lower than 108 Ÿ) of the clothing through which the
electrostatic charge is discharged is a useful feature to reduce the surface
resistivity. However, often this useful feature cannot be relied upon as the
isolated clothing worn under the upper clothing may interfere with the
upper clothing's contact with the skin and together prohibit the
electrostatic charge from leaking directly through the body. For special
purposes, such as arc welding protective clothing (when the voltage is
typically less than 100 V), a high vertical resistance (e.g. greater than 10)
may be required to ensure proper insulation. It should be noted that in
34 5. Evaluation methods of conductive textiles

general, the insulation properties tend to decrease with increased relative

humidity.

The principle of vertical resistance tests is that electrodes are placed on

opposite sides of the test sample. The difference of the DC current
potential is formed between the electrodes and the resistance of the test
substance is determined. The measuring circuit of vertical resistance is
presented in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4. The measuring circuit of vertical resistance

The European Standard (EN ISO 11611: 2015) specifies that protective
clothing worn during welding and similar processes must meet certain
electrical resistance requirements, i. e. the electrical vertical resistance of
all sets of clothing measured in accordance with EN 1149-2: 2000, with a
relative humidity of 85±5 %, must be greater than 105 ȍ (corresponding to
a leakage current of less than 1 mA). The seam is required in prepared
tested samples.

In order that the electrical characteristics of the electrically conductive

yarns can be measured a suitable set-up is prepared. One end of the
electrically conductive yarn is fixed on an isolated metallic clamp and the
other end is curved over a metallic roller. A variable DC power source is
connected to the clamp and the roller. Over these two conductive elements
the yarn is set under electrical voltage (see Figure 5.5). The voltage is
regulated in order to keep the electrical current lower than the critical
disintegration value. If the electrical current is high, the Joule effect can
lead to excessive heating of the conventional polymer yarn, which can be
disintegrated through the melting mechanism of the polymer. A voltmeter
is connected over a certain length L of the yarn. The electrical resistance of
the yarn of length L is calculated according to the Ohm law. The yarn has
a linear behaviour like every common conductor. The four point’s
measurement of the resistance eliminates measurement errors due to the
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 35

contact resistance of the probes and the terminals of the instruments and
the power source (Vassiliadis et al., 2004).

Figure 5.5. Typical set-up for DC measurements

EN 16812: 2016 is the European Standard which describes a test method

for the determination of the linear electric resistance of conductive tracks
for textile structures or intended for application in/to textiles, e.g. yarns,
printed or coated tracks, ropes, ribbons and webbing. This European
Standard is designed for materials showing ohmic behaviour and is
designed for conductive tracks where electrical contact between the
measurement electrodes and the conductive track is possible. This test
describes a procedure to measure the linear electrical resistance of textile-
based electrically conductive tracks using the measurement principle of
the four-wire (four points) Kelvin method and a DC current source.

This test method can be performed as ‘four-electrode–four-wire method”

(see Figure 5.6) or “two-electrode–four-wire method” (see Figure 5.7).
36 5. Evaluation methods of conductive textiles

Figure 5.6. Detailed scheme for the “four-electrode– four-wire measurement”; the
four electrodes (contacts) are visualized by the four nodes indicated in the scheme:
I– applied current (A); U– measured voltage (V); Im– current in the voltage
measurement circuit (equivalent to zero); RCI1, RCI2– contact resistances in the
current circuit (Ÿ); RCU1, RCU2– contact resistance in the voltage circuit (Ÿ); RW–
wire resistance, Ÿ ; R– resistance of the sample (function of electrode spacing
d)=RLxd (Ÿ), identical to the measured resistance: R=U/I
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 37

Figure 5.7. Detailed scheme for the “two-electrode–four-wire measurement”; the

two electrodes (contacts) are visualized by the four nodes indicated in the scheme:
I– applied current (A); U– measured voltage (V); Im– current in the voltage
measurement circuit (equivalent to zero); RC1– contact resistance at electrode 1, Ÿ;
RC2– contact resistance at electrode 2, Ÿ; R– resistance of the sample (Ÿ); RW–
wire resistance, Ÿ; RM – measured resistance, Ÿ, with RM=RC1+R+RC2=U/I

By using four electrodes the contact resistance between the electrodes and
the sample are compensated. RCI, RCU and RW can be excluded due to the
“four-electrode–four-wire measurements”, so that the resistance of the
specimen can be calculated by the simple formula (EN 16812: 2016):
୙
ܴ= (13)
୍

The linear resistance RL, Ÿm, is calculated as (EN 16812: 2016):

ୖ
ܴ௅ = (14)
ୢ

where: d– the distance between the voltage measurement electrodes.

For “two-electrode– four-wire method” only RW can be excluded due to

the four-wire measurement so that the resistance R of the specimen needs
to be calculated by the more complex formula (EN 16812: 2016):
38 5. Evaluation methods of conductive textiles

୙
ܴெ = R େଵ + R + R େଶ = (15)
୍

The contact resistances RC1 and RC2 are usually not known. Assuming that
the contact resistances are independent of the specimen length (i.e. only
related to the nature of the specimen and the measurement set-up) it is
possible to determine the resistance for different specimen lengths (d, m)
and then calculate by linear resistance, RL, Ÿ/m, of the specimen, using the
equation (EN 16812: 2016):

RM(d)=(RC1+RC2)+R(d)-(RC1+RC2)+RL·d (16)

By taking into account that (EN 16812: 2016):

ୖ(ୢ)
ܴ௅ = (17)
ୢ

As a result the “four-electrode–four-wire method” requires fewer

measurements and calculations as compared to the “two-electrode–four-
wire method”. Therefore the “four-electrode–four-wire method” is the
preferred method.

In cases where it is not feasible to prepare the necessary four contacts for
the electrodes, “the two-electrodes–four-wire method” can be used.
 6. LIMITATIONS OF RESISTANCE
MEASUREMENTS FOR CONDUCTIVE TEXTILES

Due to the limitations of the surface resistivity test, heterogeneous fabrics

(containing conductive filament yarns having a conductive surface or
conductive core) must be measured and evaluated for the properties of
incendiary discharges from different sizes of insulation surfaces, i. e. by
measurement according to EN 1149-3: 2004. Electrostatic properties of
homogeneous materials can also be measured according to this standard
test method. The classical and most used method of measuring anti-static
parameters according to EN 1149-1: 2006 is more suitable for
homogeneous materials (Vogel et al., 2006; Berberi, 2001). Problems with
static electricity are caused by increasing surface tension and the charge
left on the fabric after it has been contacted with other fabric or was
rubbed. It is possible to observe sufficiently high surface tensions on the
fabric, which show low resistances and also quite low stresses on fabrics
that are good insulators (Chubb, 2004).

Many chemical fibres have the increased ability to accumulate static

charges and dissipate them weakly. These skills cause a lot of problems in
the production of fibres and reduce the exploitation and hygiene properties
of the products. It is obvious that the ability of different fibre materials to
dissipate electrical charge under the same conditions is characterized by
the magnitude of the specific resistivity. However, there is no reliable and
sufficiently simple method to measure the electrical resistance of fibrous
materials. Problems with measuring this parameter are explained by the
very high electrical resistance of the polymer from which the material was
made, the fibre diameter and the difficulty to ensure reliable contact
between the fibres and the electrodes of the measuring device (Davydov et
al., 1972).

Berberi (2001; 1998) suggested that compression properties of fibres

groups have a very big influence on the electrical resistance of fabrics. The
author described a new multi-step method for measuring the electrical
resistance of textiles, which included the compression properties of the
fibres. The specific resistivity measured and calculated by the P. G.
40 6. Limitations of resistance measurements for conductive textiles

Berberi method describes the feature characteristics of the fibres groups

and does not depend on the shape of the sample.

Standard resistance measurements are not suitable for describing the

ability of a fabric to dissipate a charge on a fabric surface because (Chubb,
2004):

1. Resistance measurements indicate the fastest path of charge

movement on the surface. Small values are measured when high
conductivity components are considered to be a sufficiently
insulating matrix. The main examples are cleaning clothes and a
large number of bags containing conductive yarns with a surface
conductivity. "Resistance" measurements indicate thread resistance;
however, do not supply information on the ability of the charge
movement among the yarns on the fabric.
2. "Resistance" measurements to divide fabrics into two groups are
based on the assumption that fabrics are homogeneous and have
linear current/voltage dependence. The reduction of surface
resistance in many fabrics after local triboelectrification does not
correspond to the exponential form that would occur with a simple
"having resistance" charge motion.

Methods for measuring charge dissipation must meet the following

requirements (Chubb, 2004):

- Provide results that are comparable to those of other fabrics in the

practice of tribocharging.
- Measurements of the voltage generated by the electrification action
are performed on the surface of the fabric and its decrease is
measured over time.
- Surface voltage measurements are carried out without direct
contact with the electrified area.
- Measurements must be done on the same side of the fabric that was
electrified.
- Measurements are made independently of fabric construction or
features.
- Minimum modifications of fabric and dissipation characteristics in
the test (and this must also be applied to the triboelectric method).
- The method must be easy to construct and/or commercially
available.
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 41

- It should be known how to handle the device. Instructions must be

printed describing the device and giving supportive experimental
measurements. All documents must be specified in the standard.
7. FABRICS AND CLOTHING CONTROLLING THE
DISSIPATION OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES

One of the most important qualities of clothing is the comfort. It is known

that the structure, composition and dimensions of the fabric, as well as the
model of the clothing, have a significant influence on the comfort of
wearing clothes, i.e. hygienic and thermal properties. Clothing from
natural fibres provides the best comfort which artificial fibres cannot
always guarantee. However, comfort properties are not very important in
protective clothing. Special clothing must provide the protective properties
of its purpose (Zimniewska et al., 2003). Electrostatic charge-dissipating
properties are required for much protective clothing (Vogel et al., 2006).

Personal protective equipment (PPE) protecting the whole body or part of

it from the impact of electric current must sufficiently insulate against the
accumulation of electrostatic charge in order to protect the user in the most
unfavourable conditions. Therefore, PPE components and fabrics must be
selected, designed and incorporated in such a way that the electric current
flowing through the protective layer is kept to a minimum and never
exceeds the maximum level. PPE used in working with electrical
equipment through which an electric current of a particular voltage flows
or may flow must be marked with signs indicating its type of protection
and/or appropriate working voltage, their serial number and the date of
manufacture. These markings must also appear on their packaging. A
space must be provided on the outside of such PPE where the date on
which the PPE began to be used can be indicated and where records
showing periodic checks can also be indicated. The instructions for the use
of PPE provided by the manufacturer must indicate the intended use and
the nature and frequency of the dielectric tests carried out during the life of
these PPE.

Reduction of electrostatic electricity can be provided in different textile

production processes, such as yarns, fabrics, knitted fabrics, etc.,
depending on product type, the purpose of use and environment. Fabrics
from natural fibres, such as cotton, can be sufficiently conductive for rapid
dissipation of static charges, but these properties depend on moisture
absorption from the environment. Synthetic fibres with low specific
44 7. Fabrics and clothing controlling the dissipation of electrostatic charges

electrical conductivity are often used in the production of protective

clothing, but such garments are able to accumulate an electric charge
(Pinar and Michalak, 2006). Moisture absorption from the environment
can also be used to improve the conductivity of chemical fibres, such as
polyamide or polyester, which would otherwise be quite good insulators
(Nurmi et al., 2007).

The fabrics used to control static electricity must meet at least one of the
two basic requirements: they must not be easily electrified or, if
electrically powered, must safely dissipate the charges faster than the
charges accumulate. The main purpose of protective clothing in the
electronics industry is to protect sensitive devices in the production phase
from static electricity. Electrostatic discharge occurs in clothing on which
static charge accumulates and electrifies. The functions of protective
clothing are greatly reduced or even lost if the clothing is ungrounded.
Grounding usually occurs through a direct collar or sleeve contact with a
grounded operator. Improper use of the clothing can easily break the
grounding path. Thus, alternative grounding methods should be considered
or a permanent grounding connection control system should be designed
to provide the desired function of protective clothing. Grounding of the
electrostatic dissipating (surface conduction) clothing may take place
through a conductive cuff flap directly in contact with the grounded body
skin, through a separate grounded cord with a switch and through a
connection with, for example, a conductive chair, grounded through a
floor (man sitting) or conductive footwear through conductive floor (man
standing) (Nurmi et. al., 2007; Gonzalez, 2005; Ono et al., 2003; Paasi et
al., 2005).

An anti-static fabric (fabric with conductive yarns or coated with a

conductive polymer coating) used in the manufacture of anti-static
clothing must be certified. However, this is not enough because the
garment must also meet the requirements of a special standard. The claim
that the used garment indeed protects against static charge sparks is only
acceptable if the design of the garment itself is approved by a certificate
issued by the appropriate notified body. Anti-static clothing will not
provide complete protection if extra clothes are worn on top: jackets,
vests, etc. What should be worn under anti-static clothing is not so
important. The basic requirement is that the anti-static clothing should be
in contact with the wearer's skin at the wrist and neck area. All PPE,
including protective clothing, will provide full protection if the
instructions for use are followed (i.e. wear and maintenance instructions)
provided that other PPE–—respirators, shields, gloves, helmets, footwear—
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 45

are worn at the same time. For example, for anti-static gloves (as well as
for anti-static footwear), the value of the electrical resistance must be less
than 108 Ÿ. In this case, no static charge is generated, and no dynamic
electrification process occurs. When working in an explosive, flammable
environment, protection against electrostatic discharge and flame is
necessary. This means that protective clothing should be anti-static and
non-flammable. Intelligent textile production technologies have created
fabrics that have both these properties at the same time. Simply put, the
garment model of these complex fabrics should be such that it meets the
requirements of anti-static and non-flammability simultaneously.

To protect against electrostatic discharge, the clothing must be grounded

by direct contact with the wearer's skin or alternatively electrically
connected through the wrist strap (Nurmi et al., 2007). Protective clothing
that passes electrostatic charge must consist of a two- or one-piece suit and
always cover the body, hands and feet. Clothing should be designed so
that the charge dissipates from throughout the clothing and is in direct
contact between conductive parts of clothing and human skin, such as the
neck or wrists. The edges of the clothing, such as cuffs, trousers or collars,
must improve the contact of the electrostatic fabric with the skin (EN
1149-1: 2000). Grounding is unnecessary if the clothing is made of low-
electrification textile fabrics. It is very important that the sleeves of the
ESD protective clothing cover the end of the garment's inner sleeve
(Nurmi et al., 2007).

The purpose of the development of conductive fabrics is to create a

balance between charge accumulation and dissipation. This is achieved by
incorporating various conductive elements, such as chemical impurities,
fibres or threads into the fabric structures. Modern electrostatic discharge
protection fabrics today are heterogeneous composite materials, where
conductive yarns are inserted into the insulating matrix of cotton,
polyester, polyamide fibres/filaments in the form of webs or strips.
Conductive fibres/filaments are increasingly produced as composites, such
as matrices for conductive and insulating fibres/filaments (core conductive
yarns, sandwich fibres, etc.) (Nurmi et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2004).
8. REQUIREMENTS FOR PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
WITH ELECTROSTATIC PROPERTIES

The use of standards is voluntary in Europe unless they are made

mandatory by law, such as the EU (European) Directives or Regulations.
The valid standards for electrostatic discharge control can be divided into
two groups (Von Pidoll, 2009):

- Avoiding electrostatic incendiary risk.

- Avoiding electrostatic damage to ESD-sensitive devices.

Both groups can be further grouped into three sections:

- Standards for basic requirements.

- Requirements for Special Purpose Products and Processes.
- Test methods.
These sections may be marked (Von Pidoll, 2009):

Standards: A set of requirements to be met by fabrics, products, systems

or processes. They also describe procedures for determining parameters.

Technical reports: A set of technical data, test results, or knowledge

printed as reference information for a particular fabric, product, system or
process.

Standard test methods: Describes the measurement and evaluation

procedure for one or more fabrics, products, systems or process properties
and characteristics that give repeated test results.

Application of the standard: Procedures describing how to perform one or

more operations or functions that may or may not be provided by a test
result.

The textiles standards and personal protective clothing against unwanted

dissipation of charges currently valid in Europe are described in Table 8.1.
48 8. Requirements for protective clothing with electrostatic properties

Table 8.1. Standards for textiles and personal protective clothing

against unwanted dissipation of charges

Test method Title Scope

EN 1149-5 Protective clothing. Electrostatic Requirements for

properties. Part 5 Requirements protective clothing
for material performance and
model.

EN 1149-1 Protective clothing – Method for

Electrostatic properties. Part 1: determining the
Test method for measurement of electrostatic
surface resistivity properties of
protective clothing

EN 1149-3 Protective clothing. Electrostatic Method for

properties. Part 3: Test methods determining the
for measurement of charge electrostatic
decay properties of
protective clothing

EN 1149-2 Protective clothing. Electrostatic Method for

properties. Part 2: Test method determining the
for measurement of the electrical electrostatic
resistance through a material properties of
(vertical resistance) protective clothing

At present, the European Standard EN 1149-5 for performance and model

requirements for electrostatic fabrics is widely used. This standard
specifies that the electrostatic charge-dissipating fabrics used for
protective clothing against incendiary discharge shall meet the following
requirements:

- t50<4s or S>0.2, performing tests according to EN 1149-3 standard,

2nd method, or
- surface resistance should be less than 2.5×109 ȍ, for at least one
surface, tested according to EN 1149-1 standard.
 9. PROTECTION AGAINST ELECTROMAGNETIC
PHENOMENA

9.1. Electromagnetic compatibility

Many sources of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) in our daily environment
emit electromagnetic waves that can be the cause of interference in
electrical and electronic devices. The nature of these sources varies
widely: lightning, electric motors, digital computers, mobile phones. The
effects of electromagnetic radiation on human health have not been
definitively investigated, but many scientists state that EMR (the term
EMR includes RFR, i.e., radio frequency radiation) have a detrimental
effect on the human body, especially tissues, and hearing, visual organs,
and cause cancer (Nurmi et al., 2007; Hoback and Reilly, 1988; Das et al.,
2002; De Seze et al., 2001; Lai et al., 2007; Roh et al., 2008).

Increased electromagnetic radiation in an environment radiated by mobile

phones, telecommunication systems, microwave ovens, machine-controlled
radars and ultra-fast personal computers are challenging when trying to
create shields protecting against such radiation. Protective shields for
clothing should be aesthetic, flexible, comply with air permeability
requirements and have a low surface density (Michalak et al., 2009). The
harmful effects on human health from electromagnetic waves are shown in
Figure 9.1.1.

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is the ability of these devices to

function in an environment without interference and radiation of
electromagnetic fields (Nurmi et al., 2007).

Electromagnetic radiation must be reduced as soon as possible. This

requires a suitable fabric, e.g. conductive textiles, which can act as
protection against electromagnetic waves (Nurmi et al., 2007).
50 9. Protection against electromagnetic phenomena

Figure 9.1.1. Graphic presentation of electromagnetic waves spectrum, application

and effects (Roh et al., 2008)

Shielding is a very popular method of ensuring electromagnetic compatibility

between electronics and electrical devices, and protection of people
against electromagnetic emissions. Shields are used to isolate space (room,
equipment, electrical circuit, etc.) from external sources of electromagnetic
energy, or to prevent unwanted radiation from internal sources of
electromagnetic energy. Most often, such shields are made of rigid metal
material with well-known electromagnetic properties (Roh et al., 2008).
An ideal barrier against electromagnetic radiation is a grounded, thick-
walled, electrically conductive metal container with good magnetic
conductivity (to minimize wall thickness, it should ensure that electrical
and magnetic fields do not penetrate into the container). However, these
barriers do not ensure the air permeability needed for the working staff, so
their suitability is limited to protective devices. It is not possible to protect
from the entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including low-
frequency fields, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X and gamma
rays. Shields are designed for a specific, rather narrow frequency range
(Michalak et al., 2006).

In recent years, much attention has been paid to electromagnetic wave

barriers made of textile materials. These fabrics have excellent flexibility,
lightness, some mechanical (fatigue, creasing) and chemical (corrosion
and oxidation resistance) occurrence (Cheng et al., 2000; Cheng et al.,
2001; Chen et al., 2008).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 51

9.2. The main phenomena of electromagnetism

In the case of flat wave propagation, which can be assessed as the simplest
type of propagation, the electric field and the magnetic field are built up of
infinite parallel planes perpendicular to the direction of propagation
(Nurmi et al., 2007).

Figure 9.2.1. Instantaneous electromagnetic wave propagation diagram (Nurmi et

al., 2007).

This can be achieved by using an electromagnetic source at larger distance

r compared with the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves (far field
region). The region of the flat waves increases significantly and behaves
completely continuously, when this source is distant, meaning E (electric
field) and H (magnetic field) are independent of the position in each plane
(Nurmi et al., 2007).

In fact, if the electromagnetic wave comes from the sinusoidal source with
a phase angle Ȧ, then the electric field component in the x direction can be
expressed using Maxwell’s formula (Nurmi et al., 2007; Singh et al.,
2012):

Ex Ex 0 e J z (18)

A propagation constant Ȗ appears in this expression, which depends on the

wave phase angle Ȧ and the speed of light in the vacuum c (Nurmi et al.,
2007):

Z
J j
c (19)
52 9. Protection against electromagnetic phenomena

This dependency is only valid for lossless media; the wave does not suffer
any attenuation when it propagates through the medium (Nurmi et al.,
2007).

The magnitude of field strength is independent of z whereas the phase

angle depends on this geometrical variable. By using Maxell’s equation
ሬԦ. The relation between
we can state similar relations for magnetic field ‫ܪ‬
Ex and Hy is of a simple form (Saini and Arora, 2012):

ாೣ ఓబ
=ට = ܼ௪ (20)
ு೤ ఌబ

where: μ0 and ѓ0– the absolute magnetic permeability and the absolute
electric permittivity, respectively; Zw– the wave impedance. This
impedance may be connected with the electromagnetic power radiated
from the RF source and its numerical value for lossless media is (Nurmi et
al., 2007).

Zw=120ʌ=377Ÿ (21)

The dielectric parameters – permittivity and permeability, of material are

required in order to describe how electromagnetic waves interact with
matter. From the material side, having the ability to make materials with
specific complex permittivity (İw) and permeability (ȝw) over a suitable
frequency range is essential. If the conductive textile material has non-
ferrous nature, only the complex permittivity could be evaluated
(Håkansson et al., 2007).

According to the distance r between the radiating source and the

observation point, an electromagnetic irradiative region can be divided
into three parts (see Figure 9.2.2) relative total wavelength Ȝ of the
electromagnetic wave. The region within the distance r<Ȝ/2ʌ is the near-
field while the distance r>Ȝ/2ʌ is the far field. Between the two regions, as
the distance r§Ȝ/2ʌ, is the transition region. For designing material for
specific shielding application, it is imperative to possess in-depth data of
both intrinsic and extrinsic parameters on which shielding effectiveness
rely, together with appropriate theoretical relations correlating them with
reflection, absorption and multiple-reflection loss components (Saini and
Arora, 2012).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 53

Figure 9.2.2. Dependence of wave impedance on distance from source normalized

to Ȝ/2ʌ (Saini and Arora, 2012)

9.3. Electromagnetic shielding mechanism

Shielding fabrics act as barriers protecting against electromagnetic fields
created in a very wide frequency range, which can be 50 Hz (60 Hz) for
AC power supply, 100 kHz–30 MHz for medium and short wave radio
broadcast stations, 100–500 MHz for FM and TV transmitters, 900 MHz
and several GHz for mobile phones and radar sources. The metal shield
that fully covers electronic devices can be the easiest way to realize an
electromagnetic screen because a conductive electromagnetic shield
weakens electromagnetic waves from external RF sources, when waves
pass through the shield (see Figure 9.3.1) (Nurmi et al., 2007).
54 9. Protection against electromagnetic phenomena

Figure 9.3.1. The multiple reflection phenomena on a thin screen

Waves passing through a barrier protecting against electromagnetic fields

are affected by many physical mechanisms while interacting with
molecules of the medium or object and weaken those fields. This
interaction can be divided into two major steps: i) attenuation due to
reflection and (ii) absorption attenuation (Maity and Chatterjee, 2018).
The first is the wave reflection that occurs in the area between the free
space and the barrier; in fact, part of the fallen wave is reflected from the
surface until the other part of the wave penetrates through the material and
becomes weakened when passing to the other side of the barrier
(absorption loss) (see Figure 9.3.1). The absorption loss for an incident flat
wave, penetrating through a good conductive medium (a good conductor
must satisfy the condition: ı>>Ȧѓ) perpendicular to its surface, can be
characterized by the depth of penetration so-called “skin depth” į, and
expressed by the formula (Nurmi et al., 2007; Maity and Chatterjee, 2018;
Saini and Arora, 2012; Marchini, 1991):

1
G
SPV f (22)
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 55

That means that over a distance of į amplitude of the wave will be reduced
by 30 % at a frequency f. Therefore if the thickness of the medium is much
greater than the skin depth the wave amplitude that travels through this
material is reduced dramatically (Maity and Chatterjee, 2018; Saini and
Arora, 2012).

The absorption loss of one skin depth in a shield is approximately 9 dB.

Skin effect is especially important at low frequencies, where the fields
experienced are more likely to be predominantly magnetic with lower
wave impedance than 377 Ÿ. From the absorption loss point of view, a
good material for a shield will have high conductivity and high
permeability along with sufficient thickness to achieve the required
number of skin depths at the lowest frequency of concern (Singh et al.,
2012).

It can be seen that multiple reflections and wave transmission occur on

both sides of the material. This material is the cause of multiple wave
motion, thus weakening more electromagnetic fields. The total field,
passed through the barrier, is equal to the sum of all waves that passed
multi-reflections (Nurmi et al., 2007; Avloni et al., 2007; Marchini, 1991;
Lai et al., 2007; Cheng et al., 2000).

The time changing magnetic field induces currents on the enclosure, these
induce a magnetic field inside the enclosure with opposite phase angle, so
the resulting magnetic field decreases inside when the frequency increases.

Thus, shielding efficiency (SE) can be divided into three phenomena:

reflection loss (R), absorption loss (A), and multiple reflections (Rmulti)
(Maity and Chatterjee, 2018; Saini and Arora, 2012; Yuping et al., 2006;
Cheng et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2008):

ܵ‫ = ܧ‬R + A + R ୫୳୪୲୧ (23)

9.4. Shielding efficiency

The control of electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding efficiency
(SE) depends on the conductivity of the fabric. Fabrics with a specific
surface resistivity of less than 10 ȍ are suitable for protection against
electromagnetic interference and fabrics with larger specific surface
resistivity are suitable for anti-static purposes (Geetha et al., 2005).

The effectiveness of electromagnetic barriers is usually characterized by

shielding efficiency (SE), expressed as the ratio of the electrical (or
56 9. Protection against electromagnetic phenomena

magnetic) field strength without the barrier and the electric (or magnetic)
field strength inside the barrier. By this definition, we can express the
electric field shielding efficiency (dB) as (Nurmi et al., 2007; Avloni et al.,
2007; Yuping et al., 2006; Das et al., 2002; Geetha et al., 2005; Maity and
Chatterjee, 2018):

Ei
SE 20 lg
Et
(24)

The electromagnetic efficiency of the magnetic field is:

Hi
SH 20 lg
Ht
(25)

where: Ei– incident electrical field strength; Et– transmitted electrical field
strength; Hi– incident magnetic field strength; Ht– transmitted magnetic
field strength.

For a single layer, the theoretical EMI SE (dB) can be written as (Kim et
al., 2003):
ଵ
‫ = ܧܵ ܫܯܧ‬20݈‫ ݃݋‬ቀ1 + ߪܼ݀଴ ቁ (26)
ଶ

where: ı– conductivity; d– the thickness of the sample; Z0– the free space
wave impedance, 377 Ÿ.

In designing and selecting coated or multilayer textile materials for the

construction of shields, masking elements or special protective clothing,
including camouflage clothes, a significant element is knowledge of the
following properties of these materials within the required band of
frequency (BrzeziĔski et al., 2009):

- Reflection coefficient– the reflection of the electromagnetic wave

from the media boundary resulting from the misfit of the wave
impedance of the media.
- Absorption coefficient– the absorption of EMR wave energy by the
material (including the phenomenon of internal reflections).
- Transmission coefficient– EMR penetration into the medium
behind a barrier (shields or clothes etc.).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 57

By measuring the reflectance (R) and the transmittance (T) of the material,
the absorbance (A) can be calculated using the following equation
(Abdelal, 2018):

A=1-T-R (27)

where: R and T are the square of the ratio of reflected (Er) and transmitted
(Et) electric fields to the incident electric field (Ei), respectively, as follows
(Maity and Chatterjee, 2018; Maity et al., 2013):
ா ଶ
ܴ = ቚ ೝ ቚ = |ܵଵଵ (‫ܵ ݎ݋‬ଶଶ )|ଶ (28)
ா೔

ா ଶ
ܶ = ቚ ೟ቚ = |ܵଶଵ (‫ܵ ݎ݋‬ଵଶ )|ଶ (29)
ா೔

In a two-port network analysis system, the scattering parameters S, i. e. S11

(S22), S12 (S21) can be correlated to the reflection and transmission
coefficient (Nayak et al., 2013).

Nicolson-Ross-Weir technique showed that for electrically thin materials

the scattering parameters S11 and S21 can be described as (Saini and Arora,
2012; Abdelal, 2018):
ୖ(ଵି୘మ )
ܵଵଵ = (30)
(ଵିୖమ ୘మ )
୘(ଵିୖమ )
ܵଶଵ = (31)
(ଵିୖమ ୘మ )

If in an EMI shielding material, the effect of multiple reflections is

considered as negligible, then the relative intensity of the effective
incident wave inside the material after reflection is based on the quantity
(1-R). So, the effective absorption coefficient can be described as (Nayak
et al., 2013):
(ଵିୖି୘)
‫ܣ‬௘௙௙ = (32)
ଶ௔(ଵିோ)

where: SER and SEA of the shielding material are correlated with the
reflection (R) and transmission (T) coefficient by the following equations
(Nayak et al., 2013; Abdelal, 2018):

ܵ‫ܧ‬ோ = െ10log (1 െ ܴ) (33)

்
ܵ‫ܧ‬஺ = െ10 log൫1 െ ‫ܣ‬௘௙௙ ൯ = െ݈‫݃݋‬ (34)
ଵିோ
58 9. Protection against electromagnetic phenomena

where: R– reflection; T– transmission; A– absorption coefficient of

shielding material.

With reference to the theory presented and obtained expressions

(Rubežienơ et al., 2018), reflectance (R) and transmittance (T) can be
expressed as:
஗஢౩ ଶ
ܴ=ቂ ቃ (35)
ଶା஗ఙೞ

ସ
ܶ = (ଶା (36)
Kఙೞ )మ

where: K– the impedance of free space; V– the surface conductivity.

Absorption (A) in the layer can be easily calculated multiplying the drop
of the amplitude of the magnetic field with the amplitude of electric field
in the layer leading to:
ସKఙೞ
‫( = ܣ‬ଶା (36)
Kఙೞ )మ

The typical behaviours of SE and SH versus the frequency are given in

Figure 9.4.1. It is clearly seen from Figure 9.4.1, that above ft, the
shielding effectiveness of the electric field increases to join the shielding
effectiveness for the magnetic field at higher frequencies. This
characteristic frequency ft corresponds to the condition where the skin
depth į becomes smaller than the shield thickness t:
ଵ
į”t then ݂௧ = (37)
஠ஜ஢௧ మ

This phenomenon appears when the enclosure dimension becomes

oversized compared to the wavelength.

We can notice that apertures in enclosures reduce dramatically the

shielding effectiveness. Indeed, these apertures will change current and
charges distributions at the enclosure surface area producing leakage of the
magnetic and electric field inside. The aperture size and contact resistance
of yarns in fabrics are critical parameters in determining shielding
effectiveness (Shateri-Khalilabad and Yazdanshenas, 2013).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 59

Figure 9.4.1. Effectiveness of SE and SH in frequency (Nurmi et al., 2007)

The decrease in electromagnetic energy is characterized not only by the

size of the SE but also by the size of the IL. IL is the magnitude of the
attenuation of the signal passed through the material in the measured
channel (Avloni et al., 2007; Avloni et al., 2008; Maity and Chatterjee,
2018):

§U ·
ILdb 10 lg ¨ 0 ¸
© U1 ¹ (38)

where: U0– channel output voltage (power) without the test sample; and
U1– the same voltage (power) with the test sample.

The holes in the barrier significantly reduce the effectiveness of shielding.

These holes replace the current, so the charge distribution on the surface of
the sample causes the magnetic and electrical fields to leak inside the
barrier (Nurmi et al., 2007).

There is no doubt that the best EMI shielding and absorption material
should have high conductivity and high magnetic permeability. Therefore,
60 9. Protection against electromagnetic phenomena

devices made of metal impurities are considered the best shielding

devices. Materials used for radio frequency (RF) shielding are mainly
copper, aluminium or silver conductive paints. Such barriers reflect waves
as these metals have high electrical conductivity. Magnetic field shielding
materials must have magnetic penetration to absorb fields. If RF barriers
have a low amount of metal impurities or do not have them at all, they
become barriers to the broadband radio system that prevents EMI and RF
interference (Avloni et al., 2008).

Avloni et al. (2007), using the TEM measuring chamber, assessed the
decrease in the electromagnetic energy of metallized and polypyrrole-
coated woven and non-woven fabrics in SE and IL values. They found that
EMI shielding efficiency increases with increasing electrical conductivity
of the material surface, which increases the reflectance of electromagnetic
radiation. The high reflectivity coefficient is due to the high conductivity
of the surface coating of the composite. The shielding performance of
polypyrrole-coated materials can be controlled by changing the electrical
conductivity of the coating. The authors have also investigated that
polypropylene non-woven materials have a high absorption coefficient
compared to metallized materials. The shielding efficiency of metallized
textiles is usually dependent on the energy of reflection rather than the
energy of absorption. Polypropylene materials have good absorption
properties and provide good absorption of electromagnetic radiation.

Cheng et al. have studied the screening efficiency of stainless

steel/polyester/glass/polypropylene knitted fabric composites (Cheng et
al., 2006). They note that the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding
can be linked to many parameters of the material structure, e. g. the
density of the material, the number of layers and the amount of conductive
yarn. The quantity of stainless steel in the composite laminate has a strong
impact on EMS (electromagnetic shielding) performance characteristics.
The more metal threads present in the material and the higher the density
of the knitted material, the higher the EMS efficiency of the composite.
Similar research results were described by Cheng et al., (2001; 2006).
Experiment researchers have confirmed that EMS performance depends on
the amount of conductive yarn and fabric density: more yarns results in
better shielding. It has also been found that the conductivity of the
conductive fabric with the smallest pores is the greatest. Similar findings
were made by Lai et al. (2007) studying polyester materials coated with
silver, copper, aluminium and titanium.
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 61

De Temmerman (1992) studied non-woven polyamide materials, coated

with various concentrations of the metallized coating. The author has
found that high shielding efficiency is achieved by increasing the metal
concentration in the coating. He also noticed that the shielding level
decreases with increasing fabric specific resistivity.

Non-woven materials with flax and polypropylene for electromagnetic

radiation shields were investigated by Michalak et al. (2006) and Brazis et
al. (2000). Thermal resistance and electrical resistance were measured in
dry conditions. Researchers found that the amount of flax significantly
reduces the electrical resistance of non-woven materials. The biggest
resistance has pure polypropylene non-woven materials, and the resistance
of pure flax is about four rows smaller.

For EMI shielding applications, typically an SE of at least 20 dB (indicates

that 99 % of the electromagnetic energy is reflected or absorbed by the
material) is needed. An SE of 30 dB indicates that 99.9 % of the EM
energy is reflected or absorbed by the material, with only 0.1 % exiting the
shielding material (King et al., 2015).

High material dielectric constant values and high conductivity provide

materials with shielding efficiency at high-frequency electromagnetic
fields. However, at low frequencies, the attenuation of the magnetic field
H is very difficult. Materials used at such frequencies must have high
magnetic permeability (Nurmi et al., 2007). This is done by using
ferromagnetic materials. The construction of textile materials, as well as
the fibre composition, can have a significant impact on the properties of
electrical materials (Ouyang and Chappell, 2005). Ferromagnetic textile
materials can be produced by applying suitable materials on the surface or
by incorporating them into fibre polymers (Koprowska et al., 2004).

Recently, conductive polymers have become good candidates for low-

frequency shielding, thanks to their intrinsic properties, especially
polyaniline (Nurmi et al., 2007).

9.5. Evaluation of electromagnetic shielding properties

for textiles
Shielding material is typically used to encase an electronic product to
prevent the enclosed product from emitting electromagnetic or radio
frequency (RF) energy. The shielding material either absorbs or reflects
the energy inside the material. A shield can be characterized by its
62 9. Protection against electromagnetic phenomena

shielding effectiveness, which is dependent on the material of which the

shield is made, the thickness of the shield, the frequency, the distance from
the source to the shield and the quantity and shape of any shield
discontinuities. The attenuation provided by a shield results from the
following three mechanisms (Perumalraj et al., 2009):

1) Incident energy that is reflected by the surface of the shield because

of the impedance discontinuity of the air-metal boundary. This
mechanism does not require a particular material thickness, but
simply an impedance discontinuity.
2) The energy that does cross the shield surface i.e. is not reflected, it
is attenuated in passing through the shield.
3) The energy that reaches the opposite face of the shield encounters
another air-metal boundary and thus some of it is reflected back
into the shield.

The electromagnetic shielding effectiveness (SE) of the element is

characterized by its electric conductivity, permittivity, and permeability,
parameters of source and properties of the ambient surrounding. Basic
proposed numerical models of fabrics shielding efficiency are based either
on electrical property (especially volume conductivity) of element
(Perumalraj et al., 2009; Keith et al., 2005; White and Mardiguian, 1988;
Colaneri and Schacklette, 1992) or on analysis of leakage through the
openings in textile (ŠafáĜová et al., 2015). A quick method to determine
the suitability of conductive material is to measure vertical resistivity. If
materials have a vertical resistivity above 100 Ÿcm, they are no longer
good as an EMI shielding material but can be used for electrostatic
dissipation (ESD) application. Vertical resistivity measurements sometimes
suffer from inhomogeneous filler distribution, which creates leakage but
still produces a good macroscopic conductivity. A qualified shielding
product may fail in the vertical resistivity measurement due to the
depletion of fillers in the skin layer (Roh et al., 2008). The electrical
resistance of EMI fabric changes according to yarn to the yarn of fibre to
fibre contact (Neha et al., 2013). The surface resistance of EMI fabric is
dependent on the exposure of conductive material (core conductive yarn)
(Mehmood et al., 2012).

Determining the level of attenuation of an EMI shield can be complex and

the methods often vary according to the particular shield application.
However, a variety of standards are adopted to measure the performance
of planar shielding structure (Celozzi et al., 2008). The more common
techniques for testing shielding strength for plane materials (textiles) may
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 63

be classified into two main groups: (i) measurement methods for Near-
Field and (ii) measurement methods for Far-fields. The first group
includes dual chamber and dual TEM cell methods; the second group
includes coaxial transmission line, KEC, waveguide, space free methods.
In general, the most popular methods are Field Test, Coaxial Transmission
Line Test, Shielded Box Test, and Shielded Room Test (Geetha et al.,
2009; Cheng, 2000; Roh et al., 2008).

9.5.1 Open field or free space method and time domain

approach
The free space method is suitable for flexible thin samples which are
difficult to measure using conventional microwave measurement
techniques, such as waveguide methods, dielectric probes and coaxial
transmission lines (Rupprecht, 1999). Free space methods using larger
samples avoid many of the sample size and contact problems associated
with waveguide measurements (Amiet, 2003). This method is highly
reproducible and a very large number of measurements are done on each
sample, and thus provide statistically reliable results. The only drawback
of the method is the requirement of sophisticated and expensive equipment
(Rupprecht, 1999).

The open field or free space method is used to evaluate the practical
shielding effectiveness of a complete electronic assembly. Thus, this test
measures the radiated emissions that escape from a finished product. The
open field test method requires a large open field, because the method
involves mounting the device at a distance of 30 m from a receiving
antenna and recording the radiated emissions and there should not be any
metallic or conductive object between the sample and the receiving
antenna (Fu et al., 2017; Geetha et al., 2009; Rubežienơ et al., 2015).

From the measurements, which will be given as graphs, it is seen that open
area measurements can be affected by environmental conditions. More
peaks in the graphs and changes of shielding effectiveness raised by
reflections are observed through the whole frequency band. The conducted
emissions transmitted down the power line are also recorded during the
open field test as well. Average shielding levels are low compared to
chamber measurements. (SEÇKøN UöURLU et al., 2015; Geetha et al.,
2009).

The use of a time domain source makes it possible to differentiate the

direct path (through the test sample) and the indirect path (diffracted). The
64 9. Protection against electromagnetic phenomena

signal is reordered at the receiving end. An impulse generator is used to

generate an impulse through a TEM (Transverse Electromagnetic) horn
antenna. Insertion loss measurements were found by measuring the
difference of power recorded at the transmitting and receiving ends
(Bagavathi, 2015).

The measurement procedure includes the following two steps (Bagavathi,

2015):

1) calibration-measurement of the transmitted signal without material

under test (P0);
2) measurements of the transmitted signal as a function of incident
angle in the presence of material under test (P1);
3) the ratio P1/P0 is the power transmittance needed to extract the
complex permittivity.

9.5.2. Shielded Box method and waveguide method

The shielded box method is widely used for comparative measurements of
test specimens of different shield materials. The test comprises of a metal
box and an electrically tight seam that has a sample port in one wall and is
fitted with a receiving antenna. A transmitting antenna is placed outside
the box and the intensity of signals received by the antenna is recorded
both through the open port and with a test specimen fitted over the port
(Geetha et al., 2009). Effectiveness of the shielding can be determined by
the ratio of electric power transmitted by the test material and the
reference material in attenuation measurements for shielded enclosures
within the frequency range of 100 kHz to 10 GHz (Tong, 2016).

The measurement range in this method is divided into 3 sub-ranges (Tao et

al., 2016):

- Low range – from 9 kHz (50 Hz) to 20 MHz – for magnetic

component (H)
- Resonant range – from 20 MHz to 300 MHz – for the electrical
component (E)
- High range – from 300 MHz to 18 GHz (100 GHz) – for plane
wave power (P)

The drawback of this method is that adequate electrical contact between

test specimens and the shielded box is difficult to achieve. The results
from different laboratories show poor correlation (Geetha, 2009). The
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 65

shielded box test is the most reliable for materials in near-field conditions
i.e., up to 500 MHz. Furthermore, inadequate contact between the sample
and the shielded box may affect the repeatability and reliability of results
(Fu et al., 2017).

9.5.3. Shielded room method

The shielded room method has been developed to overcome the
limitations of the shielded box method. The general principle of this
technique is the same as for the shielded box method, except that every
element of the measuring device, signal generator, transmitting and
receiving antennas and a recorder is isolated in separate rooms to eliminate
the possibility of interference. In addition, the antennas are located in
room-sized anechoic chambers and the test specimen size is greatly
increased, typically of the order of 2.5 m2 in area. The frequency range
over which reliable results can be obtained is greatly extended and the
reproducibility of the data is significantly improved (Geetha et al., 2009;
Fu et al., 2017). It is possible to obtain repeatable results by using this
method, especially in externally disturbing conditions (Fu et al., 2017).

9.5.4. Coaxial transmission line method and TEM cell method

The coaxial transmission line method is the most common one due to its
suitability to measure small-sized, flat, and thin conductive samples in an
extended range of frequency (Fu et al., 2017). This method for the
measurement of shielding effectiveness overcomes the limitations of the
shielded box technique. The results obtained in different laboratories are
comparable. In addition, the coaxial transmission line can also be used to
resolve the data into the reflected, absorbed and transmitted components.
Tests are carried out on small doughnut-shaped samples. The specimen
must completely fill the waveguide cross section or large errors result. The
sources of errors in the measurement are due to operator errors, specimen-
caused errors, and measurement system errors as well (Bagavathi, 2015).
This method has the advantage that thickness measurements are not
required, which is usually a major source of inaccuracy when the sample is
not exactly flat (Amiet, 2003). The measurements can be made at specific
frequencies, mostly 0.01 MHz to 1000 MHz, using a modulated signal
generator, crystal detector and tuned amplifier or alternatively, in a swept
mode using a tracking generator and spectrum analyzer as a receiver
(Geetha et al., 2009). This measurement unit works on the principle of
capacity (Tao et al. 2016). In the point-by-point mode, the system is first
66 9. Protection against electromagnetic phenomena

set up at a given frequency without the specimen holder in the line. The
variable attenuator is set to maximum and the signal level is recorded. The
specimen holder is then inserted into the line and the attenuator reduced
until the same reading as before is recorded. The attenuation of the signal
obtained is a direct measure of the shielding effectiveness of the specimen.
To obtain the spectrum of responses the procedure is repeated at a series of
different frequencies. Obviously, this point-by-point approach is time
consuming. In the swept mode a tracking generator driven by a spectrum
analyzer replaces the generator. The spectrum analyzer presents the
response of the system as a single curve on a display screen in a few
minutes. A dynamic range of about 80 dB can be obtained with standard
coaxial cables (Geetha et al., 2009; Tao et al. 2016).

The dual TEM cell allows simultaneous measurements of electric and

magnetic polarizabilities of test material fixed in a small aperture, which is
not possible with a single TEM cell. The dual TEM cell consists of two
TEM cells one of which is coupled via a small aperture in the shared
conducting wall. The aperture transfers power from the driving cell to the
receiving cell. The dual cell simulates both high and low impedance near-
field at the same time. The effect of a dual cell during SE measurement
could be removed by measuring insertion loss in an empty cell and
subtracting it from the insertion loss measured with the cell loaded with
sample (Bagavathi, 2015).
10. DEVELOPMENT OF CONDUCTIVE TEXTILES

10.1. Special fibres and filaments

Textile fibres are generally electrical isolators. The synthetic fibres used in
the textile industry consist of polymers. As the chemical structure of the
polymers does not store free electrons, there is an absence of electrical
carriers, which would form the electrical current upon the application of an
electrical potential. The typical specific resistivity of the polymer used in
the production of synthetic textile fibres is higher than 1010 Ÿm order of
magnitude. After a chemical metallization procedure, the electrical
conductivity of the man-made textile fibres increases steeply. The level of
the electrical conduction of the textile fibres reaches higher values, so that
they can be considered as electrical conductors suitable for technical
applications. The electrical characteristics of the yarns do not seem to be
directly proportional to the electrical characteristics of the fibres.
Principally, the electrical conductivity of the fibres depends on the
quantity of the metal deposited. Further, the electrical character of the
yarns is made up of the electrical characteristics of the constituting fibres
and of the structure of the yarn. The electrical conductivity of yarns is
highly affected by the contact effects taking place between the fibres. The
contact resistance is often more significant than the nominal resistance of
the material. Consequently, the yarn structure affects essentially the
electrical behaviour of the textile yarns made of electrically conductive
fibres (Vassiliadis et. al., 2004). For example, for a mixed yarn consisting
of 50 % natural fibres and 50 % stainless steel fibres, only the sum of the
cross sections of the stainless steel fibres needs to be taken into account,
thus determining the linear resistance of the yarn.

Many special fibres with good electrostatic properties have been

developed over the last few decades. Many fibres are modified forms of
standard fibres which, depending on their use, completely or partially
replace standard fibres. Conductive properties of fibres, produced at low
concentrations from standard fibres, are improved by the addition of
moisture-absorbing impurities during production. In this way, their
electrical activity becomes moisture-dependent and their conductivity is
based on ion conductivity. The latest modified forms of standard fibres,
such as bicomponent fibres, also known as chemical fibres, are mixed
68 10. Development of conductive textiles

metal or carbon fibres. The electrical conductivity of bicomponent fibres is

greater than that of the fibres with which they are mixed and the electrical
activity of chemical structure fibres is independent of moisture (Nurmi et
al., 2007).

Currently, studies and industry have produced conductive yarns out of

whole metals known as metallic yarns, hybrid or composite yarns out of a
combination of metallic yarns and conventional textile yarns, yarns
laminated with conductive films, yarn coated with conductive solutions,
and yarns made from nano-materials (Raji et al., 2017).

Some major types of conductive fibre production (Nurmi et al., 2007):

- Polymerization of polymers with moisture-absorbing reactants by

polycondensation or coupling;
- The polymer is displaced with a moisture-absorbing polymer by
forming a bicomponent fibre (shell-core, matrix-fibril);
- The polymer is displaced with a moisture-absorbing non-polymeric
mixture.

Two main types of fibre structure are commonly used: surface

conductivity and core conductivity (see Figure 10.1.1). Occasionally the
term semi-conductive fibre is used, which means that in the fibre structure
the conductive component is partially on the surface and partially
embedded in the fibre (Nurmi et al., 2007; Kalliohaka et al., 2005; Paasi et
al., 2004).

Figure 10.1.1. Examples of conductive filament diameter

10.2. Conductive yarns and fabrics

10.2.1. Metallized textiles
The first approach towards affecting the conductivity of the textile fabrics
is the use of metallic wires and thin metallic tapes. The metallic wires are
interlaced into the fabric structure and it gives the required electrical
characteristics to it. The electrical conductivity of the fabric is controlled
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 69

through the wire diameter and the density of the wires in the structure of
the fabric. The method of wire weaving into fabrics obviously results in
the production of fabrics characterized mainly by extremely limited
flexibility, increased weight and problems related to the forming of the
final product (Vassiliadis et al., 2004). Wires have been found to not
provide a good comfort level (Rakshit and Hira, 2014). Most metallic
wires are obtained by a drawing or bundle drawing process. The wire
diameter can be reduced by several successive drawing steps. Because of
this drawing process, a thermal treatment is required afterwards, in order
to avoid the thread being too brittle. Through successive drawing steps, a
minimal diameter of 10 μm can be obtained of copper wires, but usually
they have a diameter of 40 μm) and 6 μm diameters can be obtained for
stainless steel wires, but usually wires with a diameter of 12 μm are used.

Copper products: continuous fibres 100 % copper (tin-plated), or wrapped.

Metal yarns are a large group of different types of conductive fibres,

where conductivity is provided by stainless steel wire, metal
particles/impurities, metal oxides or metal salts. Stainless steel yarns are
made exclusively of metal fibres (Nurmi et al., 2007).

Electrically conductive materials are applied in three ways:

- As pure material: 100 % fibres

- As a coating or plating, with or without adding an adhesive
- As a composite: polymer(s) mixed with electrically conductive
particles.

Metals fibres can be incorporated in the textile yarns or fabric structures in

various ways. Few of the methods are depicted below (Rakshit and Hira,
2014):

- Metal-wrapped yarns are a composite of metal and textile yarn.

Conductive metallic yarn is wrapped with one or more strands of
non-conductive textile filaments.
- Metal-filled yarns are obtained by having a fine metal wire as core
covered with non-conductive fibres. The textile covering protects
the core metal and helps it to withstand physical stress and provides
insulation.
- Metal fibre does not form the core, rather it replaces one or all
strands in the plied yarns.
70 10. Development of conductive textiles

Conductive filaments containing metal can be core conductive fibres,

sheath-core filaments or surface conductive filaments. Metals can also be
introduced into the polymer matrix comprising the synthetic textile
material. The conductive element can be silver, nickel, copper, aluminium,
cobalt or metal particles/impurities (Nurmi et al., 2007). Copper is the
most conductive material, after gold and silver. Its electrical conductivity
ranges around 6x107 S/m or a density of 8.9 g/cm3.

The electrically conductive staple fibres can be used for the production of
electrically conductive yarns according to the traditional production of
staple yarn. No special equipment is necessary. They can be blended with
conventional fibres in order to combine the electrical characteristics with
the physical characteristics of the conventional fibres. This technique
needs the presence of very thin metallic fibres to be mixed with the typical
synthetic fibres. Both the production of metallic fibres and their processing
have imposed several difficulties. The usual spinning machines are unable
to process metallic fibres since they are harder than the synthetic ones and
they may damage the surface of the mechanical elements involved in the
spinning procedure. The materials produced are of less flexible and
heavier (Vassiliadis et al., 2004).

Conductivity can also be obtained by coating a metallic surface on a

“traditional textile”. The applied conductive materials are mainly silver,
copper and copper sulphide.

Copper fibres can also be insulated by covering them with a plastic sheath.
Because of the weak mechanical properties of copper fibres, they are not
combined with (i. e. wrapped around) a traditional textile yarn that
provides the mechanical support of the yarn for further processing. Copper
yarns are only available as continuous filaments. Copper fibres have a low
fatigue resistance (they break as a result of successive folding). They
corrode easily in the presence of humidity and acid. This corrosion can be
avoided by depositing (through electrodeposition) a thin layer of silver or
tin, for example, on the surface.

Stainless steel fibres have a good corrosion resistance, which makes it

possible to use them without adding a protective layer. They also have
good mechanical properties and are resistant to folding and torsion. Pure
stainless steel yarns can be woven, knitted or performed in a non-woven
structure. These textile products are used in applications where flexibility
and a stable product under varying thermal conditions are required, such
as filtration at high temperature or protection in the glass industry.
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 71

Stainless steel fibres can be mixed with traditional textiles such as cotton
or polyester. This results in a product that is less heavy, has a better touch,
-lower electrical conductivity and a lower price.

Stainless steel is used in textile applications for several purposes:

- Anti-static purposes: to avoid deposition of dust or electrical

discharge; the content of stainless steel fibres is about 0.5 to 1 % in
volume
- Electromagnetic shielding: according to the principle of Faraday’s
cage; the content of stainless steel fibres is about 1 to 2 % volume
- Radar shielding for military purposes.

Stainless steel products: continuous fibres 100 % stainless steel; discontinuous

fibres (long and short) closely blended, twisted, wrapped and so on.

Filaments containing conductive metal oxides can be surface conductive,

sheath or sheath-core fibres, concentric core or eccentric core-shaped
fibres. Filaments with conductive metal salts are produced by chemically
forming salts on the surface layer of fibres (Nurmi et al., 2007). The
conductivities of metal oxides, such as SnO2, ZnO, Sb2O3, are not as high
as those of metal materials, but they are still useful in making conductive
or semi-conductive textiles for some specific applications (Zhang, 2011).

Metal coating on textile, i.e. the deposition of a metallic layer on a textile

product (i.e. fibre, yarn, woven or knitted structure) is achieved by means
of vacuum pulverization. Metal is evaporated in a chamber and condenses
on the textile surface. This technique allows the deposition of a thin layer
with controlled and regular thickness. Typically, layer thicknesses of 1 to
2 μm are obtained. The advantage of this technique is that the produced
fibres have a density close to that of the original fibre and the
characteristics of the textile are maintained. The electrical properties
depend on the layer thickness and on the applied metal. Silver and copper
sulphide are most frequently used.

The technique is expensive and not really applicable on large surfaces

because the production process takes place in a vacuum and is often
discontinuous. Furthermore, when using silver (even though not very
oxidizable) as a conductive material, problems can arise with humidity,
salty environments and oxygen because the surface oxidizes.

Copper sulphide deposits are less conductive. In general, the thickness of

the conductive layer generates problems related to durability.
72 10. Development of conductive textiles

Metal coated textiles are used in the same applications as stainless steel
fibres, i.e. anti-static applications, electromagnetic shielding, heating
textiles (only for silver).

This metallization technique can be used with almost all metals. However,
the best compromise between cost, conductivity and oxidation is reached
with silver.

Although metals are the most common EMI shielding material, EMI
shielding by absorption rather than reflection is of major interest. Metals
could not be used as an absorbent since their shallow skin depth leads to
shielding through a reflection mechanism. For high EM shielding
effectiveness, the reflection mechanism is often adopted due to the
presence of free electrons in the metal structure (ŠafáĜová and Militký,
2017). Reflection loss for plane waves is greater at low frequencies and for
high conductivity materials. Electromagnetic radiation at high frequencies
only penetrates the near surface region of an electrical conductor. The
electric field of a plane wave penetrating a conductor drops exponentially
with increasing depth into the conductor. The reflection loss decreases
with increasing frequency, whereas absorption loss increases with
increasing frequency. Materials with high absorption loss and low
reflection loss are highly effective in shielding electromagnetic energy
(Cheng et al., 2001). Stainless steel has high absorption and low reflection
of electromagnetic energy in low frequencies; it has high magnetic
permeability (ŠafáĜová and Militký, 2017; Cheng et al., 2001).

Chen et al. (2004) described the successfully developed rotary spinning

method of stainless steel/polypropylene, copper/polypropylene and
stainless steel/copper/polyamide yarns and the production of conductive
composites from woven-knitted fabrics reinforced with polypropylene,
manufactured using a new method. Solid copper, stainless steel wire and
non-wovens are best knitted with the use of conductive hybrid technology.
The EMSE, ESI and specific surface resistivity of woven-knitted reinforced
composites are significantly influenced by the amount of copper and
stainless steel, and the contact points between the conductive elements in
the composite material. Resistance may vary by changing the structure of
woven-knitted reinforced materials, the lamination angles, and the linear
density of yarns used to form knitting loops and incorporation of the weft
yarn. The properties of EMSE and ESI of conductive woven-knitted
composites, reinforced with polypropylene, are very good.
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 73

ŠafáĜová and Militký (2017) concluded, that electromagnetic shielding

effectiveness increases with increasing metal fibre content and that
electromagnetic shielding effectiveness will not increase dramatically
above 2450 MHz. As the frequency increases, the wavelength of the
electromagnetic wave decreases and becomes closer to the size of the
fibre.

Redlich et al. (2014) determined the microwave parameters of textile

structures developed (woven and knitted fabrics with incorporated steel
fibres) using waveguide applicators and the “Time Domain” method. They
concluded, that materials used to camouflage personnel and their equipment,
should feature the lowest reflectance and transmission coefficients, as well
as the greatest absorption factors. The analysis of test results indicated that
woven fabric samples featured reflection coefficients that were too high
and attenuation coefficients that were too low. Measurement of textiles
developed indicated that an irregular distribution of conductive fibres
within the structure has a positive effect on their anti-radar camouflage
properties. The authors also concluded that multiple layers of such
conductive textiles allow for complementarities between the camouflage
parameters of each one.

Telipan et al. (2017) carried out shielding effectiveness measurements in

an anechoic chamber with conductive textiles containing natural fibres
(cotton and wool), synthetic fibres (polyester and nylon) with conductive
yarns of metals (like copper and stainless steel) or carbon. The
measurements were taken in the frequency range of 1–18 GHz. They noted
that efficiency of shielding might be achieved using technical textiles only
in high-frequency ranges (16–18 GHz). As an option to achieve the
desired optimum shielding in the 1–18 GHz range, an additional fabric
layer with shielding properties is proposed. They also concluded, that
technical textiles that contain fibres with copper and stainless steel will
present shielding properties better than fibres which contain carbon. This
behaviour action of the external electromagnetic field is due to the
diamagnetic properties of copper and stainless steel.

Duran and Kado÷lu (2015) investigated fabrics with silver containing core
yarns and silver containing blended yarns. They determined that shielding
effectiveness decreased with increasing frequency in investigated ranges,
due to a smaller wavelength in higher frequencies, according to the
formula f=c/Ȝ, where f is the frequency, c is the speed of light and Ȝ is the
wavelength of the EM wave.
74 10. Development of conductive textiles

10.2.2. Textiles with carbon

Besides metals, carbon materials, such as carbon black, carbon nanofiber,
carbon nanotubes, graphite and graphene, may be used as EMI shielding
materials because of their high specific surface area and low density,
versatile processability, and excellent electrical conductivity. Carbon is
known for its excellent absorption characteristics. Nanoscale materials are
reported to have the ability to fill up the vacancy of the conductive
network formed by conductive materials of different shapes, resulting in a
denser and more complete conductive network (Shahidi and Moazzenchi,
2018).

Many conductive filaments are made from conductive carbon by

acetylation. Various types of conductive filaments are produced using
carbon as impurities. The filament may consist of a high concentration of
carbon, or the carbon may be inserted into the core of the shell-core
bicomponent filament. The first products were manufactured by coating
the filaments with a resin of high carbon content. Active carbon fabrics
have very good conductivity and stability (Nurmi et al., 2007; Cisáo et al.,
2003; Cisáo et al., 2004). The advantage of using carbon, as well as metals
and metal oxides, is that their conductivities are independent of humidity
(Zhang, 2011).

The conductivity of carbon fibres ranges between 105 and 106 S/m.
Because they have a very high temperature resistance (up to 2000 0C in a
non-oxidizing atmosphere), they may be used in situations where other
materials such as copper and stainless steel are no longer applicable. In
addition, their resistance against corrosive chemical agents and humidity
might also be advantageous. However, their low mechanical shock
resistance and abrasion resistance make them unattractive for use in smart
textiles; their use remains limited. Carbon products: continuous fibres 100
% carbon (+grease), carbon+glass.

In general, carbon fibres are obtained by oxidation, carbonization and

graphitization of organic precursor fibres. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is the
most frequently used precursor fibre. The treatments produce a flexible
fibre composed of 93-95 % carbon in a graphite structure (2D and/or 3D).

Carbon fibres appear as continuous multifilaments composed of 1,000 to

10,000 filaments with a diameter of 5 to 10 μm or as monofilaments
covered with spin oil to improve processability and cohesion between the
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 75

different monofilaments. Carbon-based yarns are processed into a textile

structure through weaving or braiding.

Tanahashi et al. (1990), investigated the electrical resistances of materials

produced by papermaking technology and used for manufacturing two
electrically conductive line electrodes. In total, 65 % of this non-woven
material was composed of resin-made carbon filaments, consisting of 20
% activated wood based on clay and 15 % polyethylene dispersing natural
fibres used as a coupling agent. The electrical resistance of a non-standard
product was 18 ȍ.

Zhong et al. (1993) investigated two types of simply produced electrode

materials commonly used in electrical elements. These materials were
made in the form of graphite felt, made of polyacrylonitrile and artificial
silk (viscose filament yarn). The authors argued that the electrical
conductivity of graphite felt based on PAN is superior to that of artificial
silk, despite the same structure of both felts.

In their work Cisáo et al. (2004) aimed to reduce the specific vertical
resistivity of active carbon non-woven materials, used in electrochemical
conductors as an electrode material, in the initial production phase of
viscose non-woven materials. The networks of active carbon non-woven
materials have been produced in various ways. The vertical resistance of
the material was measured using the (EN 1149-2: 2000) standard and the
specific vertical resistivity (ȍm) was calculated by multiplying the value
of the vertical resistance (ȍ) by the ratio of the electrode surface area (m2),
used during the measurement, and the thickness of the tested non-woven
material. The authors determined that the values of specific vertical
resistivity of non-woven fabric depend on the method of manufacture of
the fabric, for example, the specific vertical resistivity of the viscose non-
woven fabric was 108 ȍm of queue; the specific vertical resistivity of the
active carbon non-woven fabric, produced by the non-woven fabric
technology, was 0.27 ȍm, and of the non-woven fabric, manufactured by
classical seam technology, was 1.09 ȍm.

King et al. (2000) inserted conductive particles (black carbon and high-
quality fine-grained graphite) into nylon at high temperature. The
researchers found that black carbon improved the electrical conductivity of
nylon (polyamide) because the chemical formula of black carbon is highly
branched and carbon conductivity is better.
76 10. Development of conductive textiles

10.2.3. Conductive coated textiles

Besides the above methods, there are efforts targeting the modification of
the common textile synthetic fibres in order to give them certain electrical
characteristics. Some of the more important modifications are:

- Polymers filled with electroconductive compounds powder –

usually carbon or metal powder is included in the mass of the
polymer so that it permits the flow of electrical current through the
fibres. Satisfactory results have been obtained when 25 % or more
of the filling agent is added. Unfortunately, the presence of that
amount of conductive particles strongly affects the mechanical
properties of the fibres and limits the use of them in common
textile applications. The fibres have a dark colour restricting their
use in rather technical anti-static applications.
- Vacuum spread metal – the method targets the deposition of metal,
e. g. aluminium, particles using a physical process. The particles
are not strongly connected to the body of the fibre and the low
adhesion gives poor results. The method is only applicable when a
very thin layer of metal is required. If better electrical characteristics
such as higher electrical conductivity are needed the metal coating
cannot be easily obtained.
- Galvanic coating – the fibres are subjected to a galvanic process
and are coated with a metal film. Although theoretically, it could
give controllable results, the main drawback is that this method
requires already electrically conductive fibres. Thus its application
is limited mainly to carbon and graphite fibres.
- Chemical coating – this method is one of the most feasible methods
for the production of electrically conductive textile fibres with good
electrical characteristics. This chemical procedure is based on the
treatment of the fibres in a bath, where metal salts are taken up by
the fibres and then through the reduction, the fibres remain on the
conductive metal. After the chemical coating, the fibres can be
subjected to further galvanic metallization since they have the
necessary electrical conductivity and homogenous distribution of
the metal over them. The fibres keep the majority of their initial
mechanical properties and they can be processed like the usual
textile fibres without changes and modifications in the spinning
process. The technological complexity of the method is the main
disadvantage. The multistage process required, results in a
relatively high cost of the conductive fibres. Another factor
increasing the production cost is the processing of the wastewater
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 77

since after each stage the fibres must be carefully washed

(Vassiliadis et al., 2004).
- Impregnation with anti-static agents – the cheapest, easiest and
most commonly used method of providing the desired conductivity
to textiles is impregnation of the material with anti-static agents
(usually carbon filled resins). The result is an electrically
conductive material, but the electrical properties are not stable and
the conductivity not high enough. Another method of finishing is
the direct coating of textile material with metals or other
conductive substances. The most commonly used coatings are
polypyrrole, polyaniline and polypyrene polymers – commonly
named as inherently conductive polymers (ICP) (Dall’Acqua et al.
2004; Foitzik et al., 2007; Avloni et al., 2007; Marchini, 1991,
Vassiliadis et al., 2004). This method gives satisfactory results but
it introduces many drawbacks at the same time. Some of the
positive aspects of this method are: (i) the electrical conductivity
can be more precisely controlled; (ii) the production of the
electrically conductive material is not complex; (iii) it is just one
additional processing stage.

The long-lasting anti-static finish of textiles requires that the electrical

properties of the surface be modified so as not to be seriously damaged by
further washing or wearing. If the finishing reagent is applied to the
surface, it must be firmly attached to the textiles and if the surface is
chemically modified, that modification must remain intact throughout the
life of the products (Nurmi et al., 2007; Hoback and Reilly, 1988;
Dall’Acqua et al., 2004; Foitzik et al., 2007).

However, coating affects the structure of the fabric. The yarns and fibres
are bonded together. During the use of the fabric, the deformations
imposed affect the initial geometry of the structure. The inter-fibre and
inter-yarn motion possibly break the continuity of the coating material
resulting in the increase of the electrical resistance or in the discontinuation
of the path of the electric current. Another problem is that this coating
layer affects the colour of the textile material and consequently its
appearance (Vassiliadis et al., 2004).

Hoback and Reilly (1988) examined the properties of graphite, silver,

copper and nickel plating on the material surface and their surface
durability. They found that carbon coatings were the best at controlling
static electricity phenomena. Copper coatings were determined as well
shielded, but they were not very useful for the environment due to the
78 10. Development of conductive textiles

phenomena of oxidation. Graphite coatings had absolutely no shielding

properties. The best shielding properties and electrical conductivity were
found for nickel and silver. The resistances of nickel and silver were quite
low, but these materials were the best at reflecting electromagnetic waves.

Xiao et al. (2014) presented three new methods for preparing

electromagnetic (EM) textiles. These are metallized textiles containing
pores and meshes, and spacer-structure textiles. They concluded that the
SE of the metal mesh is obviously different from that of the metal plate
with pores on its surface. For a plane wave in a distant EM field, the SE of
the metal mesh depends mainly on the reflection loss. Most of the incident
EM wave entering the fluff was reflected back to the receiver. Clearly, the
EM waves were being absorbed by the plush fabric, based on the theory
that the EM reflection coefficient is related to fibre size. The fibre size
affects the incident impedance of the EM wave on the surface of the plush
fabric and showed that the plush fabric exhibited frequency selectivity
penetration. The velvet fabrics had less mass than absorbent materials at
the same level of attenuation. In order to achieve the best scattering affect
the conductive spacer yarns were grouped and each other arranged in a
circular shape. On the lower surface of the spacer fabric, the spacer yarns
were consolidated to give a smaller circumference, and on the upper
surface, they formed a larger circumference, giving an upwardly open and
relatively flat truncated cone. The EM wave could then be repeatedly
scattered within the cone and the reflectivity in any particular direction
would be decreased.

Nanocoating is a relatively new technique in the textile field. Conductive

nanocomposite yarns are produced by various processes and techniques.
Nanocomposite synthesis typically involves deposition of metallic
nanoparticles or carbon nanotubes into a dielectric matrix. Polymeric
matrices are of particular interest due to their relatively low cost and easy
processability. The electric properties of such composites are closely
related to the morphology of the embedded metallic or carbon
nanostructures, which depends upon both film thickness and metal
concentration (Raji et al., 2017).

Gupta et al. (2016) analyzed the influence of carbon (nano carbon black)
concentration (5-10 %) in polyurethane resin coating on microwave
properties of coated cotton fabric. The coating was applied using a knife-
over-roll coating technique. EM range tested was 8-18 GHz. The coated
materials were evaluated for relevant microwave properties: permittivity,
scattering parameters, reflection, transmission, absorption, reflection loss
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 79

and electromagnetic interference shielding in a VHS free space microwave

measurement system. It was observed that increasing the carbon content
increased the permittivity values and decreased the impedance. Tests
results also revealed that with an increase of carbon content up to 7 %,
absorption increased due to an increase of permittivity, while with a
further increase of carbon content from 8 to 10 %, absorption decreased
due to an increase of conductivity and thereby increased reflection.

Zou et al. (2015) analyzed the influence of washing procedures on the

stability of shielding performance of cotton fabrics obtained via
superhydrophobic finishing with Nafion (perfluorosulfonated
polymer)/MWCNTs coating. According to the authors, the uniform
distribution of MWCNTs is beneficial for not only forming a connective
conductive network, which enhances electrical conductivity, and shielding
performance of the cotton fabric but also constructing a nano-micrometre
dual scale structure, which is necessary for the superhydrophobic surface.
After 6-cycles of Nafion-MWCNTs deposition applying a drip-drying
process, the resultant fabric possessed favourable shielding effectiveness
of 9.0 dB. Besides the satisfied shielding ability and superhydrophobic
surface, more importantly, the fabric exhibited good durability in EMI
shielding after immersing in water for 96 h or washing in accordance with
AATCC standard because of the superhydrophobicity and sufficient
chemical stability of the Nafion-MWCNTs coating.

10.2.4. Inherently conductive polymers (ICP)

Intrinsically or inherently conductive polymers conduct electrical current
which means that there are altering single (ı) and double (ʌ) bonds
between the carbon atoms of the backbone structure, and if it is doped (i.
e. oxidation and reduction brings along electrons or supplementary holes
moving along the chains) (Ramakrishnan, 2011).

The most frequently used ICPs are:

– Polyaniline (PANI)
– Poly-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (PEDOT)
– Polypyrrole (PPy)
– Polyacetylene

These polymers are insulating or semi-conductive in uploaded state but

become conductive when doped.
80 10. Development of conductive textiles

Electrical conductivity to approximately 10 S/m may be achieved by

adding dopants (<1 %). The amount of dopant added has a direct influence
on the electrical properties of the polymer. The maximum conductivities
that can be achieved reach up to 107 S/m, as in the case for metallic
conductors.

ICPs are synthesized in a chemical or electrochemical way. They are

infusible and difficult to dissolve, but they can be dispersed. These
properties, together with the necessity to add dopants, make ICPs very
delicate to handle. However, these materials are polymers, and are
therefore lightweight and flexible (e. g. PANI has an elongation of up to
150 %).

In contrast with metals, ICPs are not resistant at high temperatures (e.g.
135 0C maximum for PANI).

Commercial products are available as a paste (i. e. particles dispersed in a

binding agent). They can be coated (on fibres, yarns or fabrics) or printed
(screen or inkjet) on the textile.

Two major disadvantages of these materials are:

- They are expensive

- They become unstable over time, due to their low resistance to
humidity, oxygen and like all polymers, to temperature.

Yuping et al. (2006) found that the electrical conductivity of Pani-HCl

composite was better than Pani-EB composite, as the ratio of Pani-HCl
powder increases, the vertical resistance decreases. This was because
when the quantity of Pani-HCl increases, "insulated conductive islands"
dissipate and gradually merge with each other, i. e. a closed conductive
circuit was formed in the composite.

The model multilayer shielding materials were developed (BrzeziĔski et

al., 2009) for shielding electromagnetic radiation (EMR), showing a
possible high absorption coefficient, a so-called insertion loss of •40 %.
These materials were designed according to technology that consists of
bonding/laminating constituent coating materials with diversified
permittivity and magnetic permeability into multilayer systems. The
individual layers were prepared using different technologies, including
coating with ICPs–PANI, inserting metallized yarns, using conductive
additives such as nano- and micro-carbon black, submicron and micro-
powders of Al, Cu, Ni, submicron and micro-powders of ferromagnetic
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 81

substances and semiconductors. Textile coating materials were prepared

by the direct thin-layer techniques.

Polyaniline nanofibers and their composite with graphite have been

synthesized by a simple chemical polymerization method (Joseph et al.,
2017). Polyaniline nanofiber graphite composites with a thickness of 1
mm exhibit excellent electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding of
above 80 dB in the frequency range of 8.2–18 GHz. EMI shielding fabrics
of 0.1 mm thickness based on polyaniline nanofibers as well as their
composites have been developed by an in situ polymerization process.
These fabrics combine the properties of polyaniline nanofibers, their
composites and fabrics (cotton and nylon). The developed functional
fabrics with 0.1 mm thickness exhibit EMI shielding effectiveness of
approximately 11–15 dB in the 8.2–18 GHz frequency range. The SER
value of the polyaniline nanofiber graphite composite is found to be in the
range of 18–13 dB, while that of the polyaniline nanofibers is 14–10 dB in
this frequency range. Similarly, with the addition of graphite, the SEA
value increases from 57–67 to 65–76 dB in the measured frequency range.
It is found that the polyaniline nanofibers and their graphite composite
exhibit an attractive EMI shielding response for a small sample thickness
of 1 mm with a significant contribution from SEA.

Novel conductive fabrics were developed by polymerizing aniline onto the

polyamide (PA)-knitted fabrics (Engin and Usta, 2015) The highest
shielding value obtained was 6.7 dB in the frequency range from 2200 to
2300 MHz in the 0.5M aniline-concentration treated fabric. The
absorption, reflection and shielding values were found to be better for
0.5M aniline concentration as compared to the other treated fabrics. It is
also observed that the increase in the absorption values directly affects the
shielding values and the fabrics perform the absorption instead of
reflection.

Järvinen and Puolakka (2003) found that the conductivity of filter

polyester fabrics can be improved by the influence of the filter material on
polyaniline. The conductivity of the affected polyester fabric remains
unchanged, even in extreme weather conditions during transportation,
storage or cleaning. The authors exposed polyaniline-treated polyester
fabrics to moisture, cold and UV (ultraviolet) light in order to measure
possible changes in the electrical conductivity of the filter fabric. The
researchers found that at -20 0C, the conductivity of the fabric remained
unchanged, and when the fabric was treated with drops of water or fully
soaked, the electrical conductivity was not altered very significantly. The
82 10. Development of conductive textiles

test fabrics tolerated impregnation in distilled water for seven days well,
i.e. the electrical conductivity did not change significantly either. Even
after 100 days of continuous 60 % humidity exposure, the vertical
resistance (measured by the EN 1149-2 method) was still approximately
105 ȍ lower than the untreated with polyaniline polyester fabric. The
intense UV light has the greatest effect on polyaniline-treated fabrics,
although the loss of electrical conductivity remains for two decades.

10.2.5. Textiles with conductive fillers

Polymers are mainly insulating materials. However, by incorporating
conductive fillers into an insulating polymer matrix, electrical conductivity
can be achieved. The type and amount of conductive filler like the
combination of the filler and polymer matrix depend on the required
electrical and mechanical properties.

Three main types of conductive fillers are applied:

- metallic particles (copper, silver, nickel, stainless steel) are used for
their excellent electrical conductive properties;
- carbon particles (graphite, carbon black, carbon fibres and carbon
nanotubes) are used for their mechanical reinforcing properties;
- intrinsically conductive polymers are used for their low density and
their mechanical properties that resemble those of the hosting
polymer matrix.

Polymer matrices are mainly categorized into three groups:

- Thermoplastics: easy to shape and reusable;

- Thermoset: very stable but difficult to reuse;
- Elastomers: stable, cross-linked, highly elastic but not recyclable.

To produce products with conductive fillers, several “mixing” methods are

applied:

- In situ polymerization and vulcanization is used for thermoplastics

and elastomers. The charge may be introduced into the polymer
matrix before or during the polymerization or cross-linking process.
But always before the final shaping of the material.
- The melting process (mixture or extrusion) is used for
thermoplastics. It is carried out to perform a pre-mixture, followed
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 83

by shaping the material through compression, injection or

extrusion).
- The wet process is used to increase the dispersion of the charges
and, in some particular cases, the implementation (e. g. unmeltable
polymers).

The nature and morphology of the filler influence the percolation

concentration – the minimum amount of filler that needs to be added to
create a conductive polymer composite. Thus, it is important to find a
charging material that can introduce conductivity into the polymer by just
adding a low concentration.

In theory, the ideal percolation concentration for a perfect dispersion of

spherical conductive particles is 16 % in volume.

In reality, however, concentrations are:

- 14 to 20 % for graphite (spherical particles or platelets);

- 7.5 to 15 % for carbon black (agglomerated or ramified spherical
particles);
- 0.5 to 3.5 % for carbon nanotubes.

Because of these important disadvantages, conductive polymer composite

cannot be produced in fibre form (except for those filled with carbon
nanotubes). Therefore, they are used for coating and printing.

Rubežienơ et al. (2015, 2018) investigated conductive fabrics, where

metallized yarns were interwoven in 85 % cotton/15 % polyester fabrics
and formed a mesh grid (grid area 50 mm2 and 100 mm2) and where
conductive coating contained conductive filler carbon black as an absorber
of EM waves was applied. S-Shield PES® yarns produced by Schoeller
GmbH&CoKG (Austria) – Polyester (PES) fibres with stainless steel
staples (INOX) – 80 % PES, 20 % INOX were used. The diameter of the
metal fibres was 8 ȝm. In the case of coated fabrics, the carbon
black/styrene acrylate copolymer coating was applied manually, using a
screen printing method. The amount of carbon in the paste was determined
at 24.12 %. The samples of fabrics were printed with the particular paste
coating their full surface (50x50 cm) or using the squared printing pattern,
with square dimensions of 1 x 1 cm and lines of 2 mm width. In order to
bond and fix the conductive layer on the fabric, the samples were dried in
the laboratory oven and steamer. EMR shielding effectiveness in the
frequency range 2–12 GHz of investigated samples was evaluated using a
84 10. Development of conductive textiles

procedure based on measurements of reflection and transmission of

electromagnetic waves, normally incident on fabric, in a semi-anechoic
chamber. The EMR attenuation of the developed samples over the
frequency range 2–20 GHz was evaluated using a UWB Time Domain
measurement system. It was determined that shielding effectiveness
decreases with frequency for samples with silver-coated fibres. For
investigated fabrics with metallized yarns, the contribution to shielding
from absorption and reflectance is similar in the case of a sample with
finer mesh. For another sample – fabric with 100 mm2 mesh grid, the
reflectance is weightier. Moreover, the shielding properties of fabrics with
metallized yarns in all tested ranges are changeable. It was determined that
the distribution of coating paste on the fabric's surface had an important
influence on their EMR shielding effectiveness at the higher frequency
range. Fabrics with partial coating exposed considerably lower shielding
effectiveness (SE) within a frequency range of 2-20 GHz, in comparison
with fully coated fabrics, due to the open space (not coated) structure,
allowing EMR to pass through the structure at shorter wavelengths. It was
also determined that for carbon-coated fabrics absorption contribution to
shielding was the deciding factor.
 11. CONDUCTIVE “SMART” AND E-TEXTILES

The field of conductive textiles may be explained as an integration of

technologies of materials, electronics and textiles in order to create a new
generation of flexible, comfortable, multifunctional conductive textile
structures. This structure is known as ‘Smart textile’ (Anderson and
Seyam, 2004). Smart Textiles covers a broad field of studies and products
that extend the functionality and usefulness of common textile materials.
Smart Textiles are defined as textile products such as fibres/filaments,
yarns, woven and knitted fabrics, non-woven structures, which can interact
with the environment or user. The interflow of textiles and electronics (e-
textiles) can be important in developing smart materials that are capable of
accomplishing various functions found in rigid and non-flexible electronic
products nowadays.

Smart textiles integrate a high level of intelligence and can be divided into
three subgroups (Van Langenhove and Hertleer, 2004; Van Langenhove et
al., 2005; Chudasama, 2014):

x Passive smart textiles: only able to sense the environment or user

and are based on sensors;
x Active smart textiles: reactive sensitivity to the surroundings,
integration of an actuator function and a sensing device;
x Very smart textiles: able to sense, react and adapt their behaviour to
the given circumstances.

The percentage of e-textile players using each material type, derived from
IDTechEx's survey of over 150 suppliers and manufacturers in the space is
presented in Figure 11.1.
86 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

Figure 11.1. Number of e-textile players that use various conductive materials in
2018

Some of the main players dominating in the e-textile industry are E. I. Du

Pont De Nemours and Company, Intelligent Clothing Ltd., Interactive
Wear AG, International Fashion Machines Inc., Kimberly-Clark Health
Care, Milliken & Company, Noble Biomaterials Inc., Outlast Technologies
Inc, QinetiQ North America, Royal Philips Electronics N.V., Toray
Industries Inc., and others. This industry is classified based on the
following application segments: Consumer Products, Military & Homeland
Defense/Public Safety Applications, Computing, Biomedical, Vehicle
Safety & Comfort, Others (Logistics & Supply Chain Management, and
Signage, among others). Major geographic areas include North America,
Asia Pacific, Europe, and Rest of the World (www.transparencymarket
research.com).

Different fabric sensors, fabrics incorporating thermocouples, luminescent

elements, wearable displays, shape-sensitive fabrics, carbon electrodes and
other materials may be attributed to Smart or E-textiles. In all these
products the presence of conductive elements in textiles is critical. While
manufacturing E-textiles, the conductive materials are incorporated into
the textile structure by different technologies, e.g. embroidering, sewing,
non-woven textile, knitting, weaving, spinning, braiding, coating/laminating,
printing and chemical treatments (Stoppa and Chiolerio, 2014). But, Smart
or E-textiles cannot function properly if the electric circuit is not formed
properly in the fabric by conductive materials.
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 87

There are primarily two categories of E-Textiles (Wainwright, 2016):

1. The first and simplest applications are embedded “off-the-shelf”

consumer electronic devices, such as digital cameras, battery packs,
chargers, speakers, headphones, mobile phones, and light emitting diodes
(discrete LEDs and LED strips, flexible solar films, digital audio players,
EL wires, etc.). These are installed into apparel using standard wiring.

2. The second and most compelling category includes E-Textiles that:

- Employ micro-processor-controlled fabric colour with changing

systems that are remotely controlled by sensors or smartphones;
- Monitor and display real-time biophysical conditions in the form of
digital alphanumeric data; - Replicate physical motion or mood
remotely on another person’s apparel;
- Provide responsive colour-changing attributes to fabric, depending
on a person’s mood or in response to surrounding stimuli (i.e.,
sound, temperature, light, lethal gas environments, etc.);
- Use fabric displays to identify incoming callers on nearby
smartphones.

Advantages of E-Textiles are somewhat obvious when considering utility

value-added technologies that can be combined with textiles (Wainwright,
2016):

- monitoring health and fitness (the largest segment of R&D),

- recharging digital devices fitted with lightweight batteries such as
LiPo (Lithium Ion Polymer batteries), by using body heat or body
movement,
- providing night-time LED safety indicators,
- IFF (Identifying friend or foe) in policing or combat situations,
- indicating acute surrounding environmental hazardous conditions
(i. e. UV radiation levels),
- displays that link to smart-phone functions, such as emails, texts,
voice mails, calls, GPS,
- alerting hospital and first aid staff to medical emergencies,
- using smart-phone-controlled fabric attributes to display utility
functions such as voltage, temperature, and other measurements.
88 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

11.1. The scheme of the electric circuit in the textiles

Electrically conductive yarns and fabrics are widely used where properties
such as flexibility and comfort are important. Conductive fibres have been
used for quite some time in the manufacture of electromagnetic shielding
and electrostatic dissipation fabrics. Also, conductive materials are used
for the manufacture of e-textiles or as electrode and battery separators
(Kim et al., 2004; Dhawan et al., 2004).

The simplest way to embed conductive yarn into the fabric is to weave it
as one of the warp or weft yarns (El-Newashy et al., 2012). Furthermore,
one can go for modern shuttleless weaving technology. Warp and weft
knitted structures are also possible and can give different effects than those
of woven fabrics as far as physical characteristics are concerned.
Sometimes it is enough to form a conductive yarn net structure or insert
conductive yarn only in one direction in the fabric structure in order to
receive good EMI shielding properties or protection against incendiary
discharge.

One of the most noteworthy discoveries in the use of conductive yarns in

electronics is the attempt to form a yarn mesh in the fabric during weaving
or knitting (see Figure 11.1.1). Such fabric can be described as a network
of conductive and non-conductive yarns arranged and weaved in
accordance with the prior fabric design. Conductive fibres behave like an
electric signal carrier in this network that transmits signals from one point
of the network to another. An efficient current transfer from a conductive
yarn to the next perpendicularly weaved-in conductive yarn in a weaved
electric circuit requires an efficient electrical connection (the point of
interconnection). The main goal of the interconnection point is to reduce
the vertical and surface resistances associated with the interconnection
point that is achieved by selecting the right material and the particular
connecting/weaving procedure (Paasi et al., 2004; Paasi et al., 2005;
Dhawan et al., 2004; Ghosh and Dhawan, 2006; Ouyang and Chappell,
2005).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 89

Figure 11.1.1. Techniques for inserting conductive yarns into fabrics: a, b – mesh
structure; c, d – is a one-way structure for the insertion of conductive yarns.

Pinar and Michalak (2006) investigated knitted fabrics of different

weaves, in which a VSC Lenzing 75%/PES 25% two-component
electrically conductive yarn was inserted in a transverse direction at a
distance of 10 mm. The polyester component of the yarns was composed
of Resist type carbon particles. The authors conducted the experiments
according to European standards (EN 1149-1: 2000; EN 1149-2: 2000; EN
1149-3: 2004). They found that the surface resistance of knitted fabrics
with the highest yarn filling coefficient is the lowest, and the charge decay
time is the shortest, i.e. this fabric has the best electrostatic properties.
They also found that values of shielding factor only depend on the number
of conductive yarns knitted in the fabric – the more conductive the yarns,
the better the shielding properties of the fabric. The resistance values of
the investigated materials were at the 1010–1011 ȍ degrees.

Su and Chern (2004) explored the effectiveness of shielding fabrics where

stainless steel yarns were woven in at various distances in the directions of
weft or weft and warp. They found that fabrics in which conductive yarns
were woven into fabrics in both directions and formed a fine mesh,
shielded much better than fabrics in which conductive yarns formed a
90 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

larger grid. The authors also established that the worst shielding properties
were found in those fabrics where the conductive yarn was woven in only
the weft direction. Studies have also shown that the mesh size, formed by
conductive yarn in plain weave fabrics and 2/2 twill weave is small and
the mesh size of fabric with the 3/1 twill weave is narrow (the area of
conductive mesh was found to be larger for this fabric than for fabrics with
the plain weave or 2/2 twill weave). Therefore, the electrical conductivity
of the latter fabric is lower compared to the other two materials. The
shielding efficiency of plain weave fabrics was found to be the best. The
statement that the conductivity of the fabric depends on the mesh size
formed by the conductive yarns is questionable because the main factors
affecting the properties of the fabric are the yarn densities and their
lengths.

Lin and Lou (2003) found that the molten four-layer non-woven
polypropylene strip forms a thermoplastic laminate matrix. The
conductivity of laminates after the thermal process equals the conductivity
of the untreated laminates. Although conductive metal multifilament yarns
were inserted into the laminates only in the direction of the weft, and after
heat treatment the polypropylene non-woven material shrank and became
more compact, the surface resistance in all directions of the laminate
became uniform.

A cut of electrically conductive textiles – woven or knitted, can be treated

as a combination of resistors that correspond to the resistance of the yarns
themselves and the resistance at the points of contact among yarns on both
sides of the fabric (contact resistance). These parameters depend on many
external factors such as temperature, humidity, pressure and elongation
(Banaszczyk et al., 2009).

The conductivity of electrically conductive material can be assessed by an

electrical scheme. The loop model shown in Figure 11.1.2. consists of
resistance (Rc) at the contact points of yarns, a loop float resistance (Rl),
and tuck loop resistance (rl), and related respectively with an overlapping
load force of the yarn and an internal resistance of the metal yarn (Zhang
et. al., 2005; Tao, 2005).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 91

Figure 11.1.2. The loop and its simulation model using an electric resistance circuit
(Banaszczyk et. al., 2009).

Loops change their shape when fabrics are under load. However, the
contact resistance Rc and resistance Rl, which is dependent on the length,
will vary depending on the size of the load force and the length of the yarn
in the loop that will change when the fabric is stretched.

The equivalent resistance of the fabric is calculated as the ratio of voltage

U to total current itotal.
୙
ܴ௘௤௨௜௩௔௟௘௡௧ = (39)
୧౪౥౪౗ౢ

Kirchoff's circuit law and electrical circuit theory are used to calculate the
fabric circuit itotal. Kirchoff's circuit law shows that the sum of all
component voltages in a closed circuit is equal to zero. The hypothetical
current i flows through each closed circuit circulation, and the true current
I flowing through the circuit branches is the arithmetic sum of the
hypothetical current i (Zhang et. al., 2005).
92 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

Figure 11.1.3. Loop circuit model (Zhang et. al., 2005).

The loop circuit model in Figure 11.1.3 is analyzed according to the

method described above. The relationship between the hypothetical
current i and the branch current I can be expressed by the formula (40).
The formula (41) is derived from Kirchoff's circuit law.

I1 i3
I2 i 3  i1
I3 I1
I4 i1  i 2
I5 i3  i 2
I6 i2
I7 i3 ; (40)

I 3 R12  I 4 R 21  I 2 R11 0
 I 4 R 21  I 6 R 32  R 31I 5 0
I 2 R11  I 5 R 31 U ; (41)

After solving these equations, we would find that the equivalent resistance
of the loop circuit model presented in Figure 11.1.3 could be calculated
from formula (39).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 93

The equivalent resistance of any conductive knitted material can be

calculated using the provided solution model (Zhang et. al., 2005).

a)

b)

Figure 11.1.4. a) Structure of plain weave woven fabric; b) an electrical circuit

describing a segment of conductive woven fabric (Zhang et. al., 2005).

The plain weave fabric coated with a conductive polymer can be described
by the electrical circuit shown in Figure 11.1.4. The resistance of the plain
weave fabric can be expressed (Tao, 2005):

O 1  Cv  Np  1
Rv
In warp direction: Ne ; (42)
94 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

O 1  Ch  Ne  1
Rh
In weft direction: Np ; (43)

where: Rv, Rh– the resistance, measured in warp and weft directions; Np–
weft density; Ne– warp density; Ȝ– yarn resistance through total length; Cv
and Ch– weave overlay in warp and weft directions, respectively (Tao,
2005).

Figure 11.1.5. Electrically conductive textiles; a) overall view, b) magnified

fragment of woven fabric, c) scheme of contact resistance, d) an equivalent
electrical model is woven for the fragment of woven textile, e) explanation of
recurring method (Tao, 2005)

The scheme of woven electrically conductive textiles is shown in Figure

11.1.5. The angle Į between the fibre and electrodes is called the angle of
contact. The resistance of the cut Rcut, ȍ, is calculated (Banaszczyk et. al.,
2009):
୚౛ౢ
ܴ௖௨௧ = (44)
୍౛ౢ

where: Vel and Iel– voltage and current between electrodes. The value of
Rcut depends on the shape and dimensions of a specimen. The specific
surface resistivity of cut ȡcut is calculated:
౒౛ౢ

ߩ௖௨௧ = ై
౅౛ౢ (45)
ీ
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 95

where: L and D– the length and width of the cut, respectively (Figure
11.1.5.a.), ȡcut– specific resistance, ȍ, which describes the fabric
regardless the size and shape of the specimen (Banaszczyk et al., 2009).

Electrically conductive textiles can be interpreted as an electrical circuit

consisting of resistors connected in parallel and sequentially. A magnified
fragment of conductive textiles is shown in Figure 11.1.15.a. and the
corresponding electrical model is shown in Figures 11.1.15.d and e. The
electrical resistance of the part of the fibre whose length l (the distance
between the two parallel yarns) is indicated as R. The contact resistance
between interlaced yarns is called Rc. Both of these resistances are
determined experimentally for each of the fibres tested. The resistance
values vary considerably depending on the material from which the yarn
was made, the structure of yarn (e. g. they consist of many thin fibres), as
well as external factors such as the load between the contacting fibres or
the moisture of the textiles (e. g. the impact of human sweat). The idea of
an electric model is simple, but the main problem is a large number of
circuits that can reach up to one hundred thousand elements, which makes
it difficult to calculate the results using a simulation product electrical
scheme. An analytical solution using Kirchoff's voltage and the current
law is not possible due to the large number of unknowns. Banaszczyk et
al. (2009) developed a computer program where the new recurring
potential of each intersection point is calculated using the formula:
‫׎‬ೖ,భ ‫׎‬ೖ,మ ‫׎‬ೖ,೙
ା ା‫ڮ‬ା
ೃೖ,భ ೃೖ,మ ೃೖ,೙
‫׎‬௡௘௪
௞ = ‫׎‬୭୪ୢ
୩ +ɒቌ భ భ భ െ ‫׎‬୭୪ୢ
୩ ቍ (46)
ା ା‫ڮ‬ା
౎ౡ,భ ೃೖ,మ ೃೖ,೙

where: Øknew– a new potential at k intersection point after repetition, Økold–

a potential at k intersection point before repetition, IJ - relaxation
coefficient, Øk,1, Øk,2 ... Øk,n– k a potential of intersection points of
neighbouring intersections, R1, R2, ...Rk resistances of branches connected
at the intersection point k as shown in Figure 11.1.5e, which may be equal
to R or Rc.

In his work (Dhawan et al., 2004), A. Dhawan and co-authors investigated

the contact resistance of the copper yarns. They found that the resistance
R, measured in multimeters, actually consists of the sum of many
components. The fibres are not continuous and within the yarn structure
are made of many fibres, the superposition principle is not valid. The
electrical continuity is not due to the mechanical continuity of the fibres-
conductors. It is achieved through a combination of alternating fibres
96 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

being in contact. The total resistance is the sum of the resistance of the
fibres plus the contact resistance between the fibres (see Figure 11.1.6)
The resistance of the fibres Rf - a character of the material. The
metallization process is controlled and can provide certain specific
resistance depending on the metal content of the fibres. The contact
resistance Rc depends mainly on the structure of the yarn and on the
mechanical conditions within the structure. It is a function of the area of
contact and of the applied pressure between the yarns. In the conductive
path the total resistance is (Vassiliadis et al., 2004):
௠
R ୲୭୲ = σ௡௜ୀଵ R ୤୧ + ෍ R ୡ୨ (47)
௝ୀଵ

Meanwhile, while measuring the resistance of the non-weaved conductive

yarn, these components are not affected. The resistance measured at the
point where the yarns are connected includes other resistances (which may
be called Ro), such as the resistance of the multimeter probe, the resistance
of the multimeter probe connection to the conductive yarn (crocodile
terminals), and so on. In characterizing the connection efficiency of
conductive yarns, Ro should be subtracted from the measured R value.

Figure 11.1.6. Arrangement of fibres and its electrical equivalent (Vassiliadis et.
al., 2004).

11.2. Wearable intelligent textile systems

The general principles, definitions and categories of smart textiles are
described in document CEN/TR 16298. The main components of the
wearable intelligent textile system (ITS) are an actuator associated with a
specific purpose sensor, an electronic information controller (processor),
an energy source, and a communication device. An example of the
simplified principle scheme of ITS is presented in Figure 11.2.1.
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 97

Figure 11.2.1 An example of a wearable intelligent textile system: 1 –

communication; 2 – sensors; 3 – processors; 4 – actuator; 5 – energy supply
(CEN/TR 16298)

Modern intelligent clothing, as compared to the traditional one, has

additional active features. These features provide the use of textile
materials with unique properties, or integrated wearable electronic devices,
or a combination of both (Stoppa and Chiolerio, 2014; De Mey et al.,
2014). According to the nature of intelligence, clothing can be divided into
three levels (Srazdienơ and Dobilaitơ, 2007):

- clothing -"assistant" who collects and stores certain information

and processes the data received;
- clothing -"observer", which records human physiological
parameters, follows the state of health;
- clothing-"regulator", which tracks and adjusts the required
parameters. This level includes heating textile products.

Currently, the heating of smart clothing products based on non-textile

electronic components (called "wearable electronics") already exists on the
market, but these are not yet widely available to consumers.
98 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

It is known, that a prototype of a heated, intelligent clothing product was

developed in Finland at Tampere University of Technology in 2006
(Vargas, 2009). The base of the product is a heated shirt with digital
temperature sensors that measure the wearer’s skin and a glowing carbon
fibre panel, powered by high-capacity nickel batteries. The heating
temperature range can be chosen by the wearer himself. The electronic
circuitry and the heating panel must be removed before washing the
clothing. The heating element made of carbon fibre is also used by the
Milwaukee “M12 ™ Heated Gear” in the production line of protective
clothing against foul weather. These products have 3 heating capacities;
Li-ion batteries have a battery life of 3.25 hours (the lowest heat-up time)
up to 8 hours (the highest heat-up time).

The North Face company's heating jacket MET5 is also known in the
market. It has 2 heating zones formed from conductive fibres and
maintains the optimum temperature for the wearer by pressing the textile
button. This technical solution made by both Malden Mills and North Face
produces a heated jacket called Polartec® HeatTM, which uses a heat-
generating network of thin fibres fused to the chest area. The entire
heating system is powered by two rechargeable Li-on batteries. There are
2 heating modes available – maximum (up to 45 °C, duration 2.5 hours)
and variable (duration – 5 hours). All electronic components must be
removed before washing.

Heated underwear is manufactured by WarmX GmbH. The main idea of

Warm-X technology is to achieve the warmth effect with the lowest
possible energy consumption. According to this concept, heating elements
are incorporated into underwear, where direct skin contact minimizes
energy loss. These garments are produced from knitted fabrics made of
conductive silver-plated polyamide yarns. Constant heating power
(optionally 2, 4.5 or 7 W) is achieved by the microprocessor and lithium-
ion batteries (continuous operation: power level 1– up to 6 hours, 2– for
about 4.5 hours, 3– for about 2.5 hours).

Textile heating garments (underwear, gloves, socks, waistcoats) are also

advertised by such companies as Duran, China Depot, Zanier-Sport
GmbH, Inuheat, and others.

Researchers at Cornell University (USA) assessed that the maximum

temperature attained by the heating elements that come into contact with
human skin must not exceed the tolerance limits of the human temperature
– 40 °C (Vargas, 2009).
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 99

Šahta et al. (2014), concluded that steel yarns could not be used for
knitting while silver-coated polyamide yarns are suitable for the
manufacture of knitted heating elements. Depending on the conductive
yarn type inserted in the fabric, it can increase or decrease fabric resistance
in relation to initial resistance. Evenness of warm-up was provided by
three-ply silver-coated polyamide yarns. The knitted heating element of
three-ply yarn performed the heating functions without any significant
changes in temperature over a long period of time. The main criteria for
the selection of yarns for manufacture of the knitted resistive heating
element are low electrical resistance of yarns; low resistance changes
during the elongation of the knitted heating element; constant temperature
of the element for a protracted time and the suitability of yarns for
knitting.

A comparison of heat generation by plain, rib and interlock structures was

studied in the scientific article by Hamdani et al. (2013). It was discovered
from a number of various experiments that a minimum required threshold
force of contact at binding points in knitted fabric exist for the electricity
to pass. Once this force is achieved, stretching the fabric does not affect
the amount of heat produced.

Bai et al. (2018) presented a unique and facile technique for fabricating
flexible heating materials with temperature perception; a temperature-
sensitive fine copper was integrated into two pieces of flexible fusible
interlining fabrics by a simple thermal bonding method. The electrical
properties, thermal performance and mechanical properties of investigated
materials are stable according to the experimental data and analysis
presented, and it may be helpful for developing secure and durable
products.

Investigations were carried out to create a textile heating circuit and to

adopt the required technical parameters for "wearing electronic" components
(sensors, centralized sensor/heating device connectors, temperature
controller, power supply and flexible conductive connections) while
designing and developing intelligent heating clothing with wearable
electronic, that actively react to human body/environment temperature
changes and intended to use in active physical activity in a cold
environment. The operation of designed wearable ITS requires a coherent
interaction between all the above components.

The first "wearing" electronic component needed for warm clothing – a

sensor, measuring and following the wearer's skin temperature and
100 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

transmitting this data to the controller. In choosing temperature sensors, it

is first and foremost important to define the main measurement indicators:
sensitivity and accuracy. Integrating the temperature sensor into a textile
material, it is also important for it to be small and securely fastened; its
transmission highway must be flexible, have a minimum number of
threads, be as short as possible and isolated from external influences.

The temperature of the human skin, depending on the environmental

conditions, varies in different parts of the body– 32–37 °C (Pan and
Gibson, 2006). The average human skin temperature is assumed to be
about 34 °C (Koralewski, 2006). Exposure to the skin above 40 °C for a
warmer surface for more than 30 seconds has a potentially painful effect.
Table 11.2.2 presents the conditions for the thermal sensation and human
thermophysiological comfort depending on the temperature of the skin.

Table 11.2.2. Dependence of the thermal sensation on the wearer's

skin temperature

Thermal sensation Temperature of human skin, °C

Very hot >36.6

Hot 36.0±0.6

Warm 34.9±0.7

Comfortable 33.2±1.0

Cool 31.1±1.0

Cold 29.1±1.0

Very cold ‫ޒ‬28.1

Temperature control is one of the most important functions of clothes.

Most of the heating elements use the principle of Joule’s heat, which is
generated when an electric current is passed through a conductive
material. All conductive materials are heating elements in principle. The
basis of heating textile products consists of materials that have electrical
conductivity properties. Analyzing technical literature and the market for
this type of product (CEN/TR 16298; Stoppa and Chiolerio, 2014; De Mey
et al., 2014; Strazdienơ and Dobilaitơ, 2007; Vargas, 2009; Šahta et al.,
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 101

2014; Hamdani et al., 2013; Locher, 2006; Sezgin et al., 2012; Ding et al.,
2014; Roell, 1996; Lee Sandbach et al., 2008; Petcu et al., 2012;
Poboroniuc et al., 2014; Meþnika et al., 2014), it can be concluded that in
recent years clothing products have been designed to integrate heating
elements in the material structure, which are composed of conductive
yarns introduced in various ways.

Electroconductive textiles cannot be considered as homogenous structures,

because fabrics consist of conductive and non-conductive yarns, interlaced
with each other. Such distribution of yarns results in anisotropic current
distribution when a voltage is applied. The aim of investigations made by
Varnaitơ-Žuravliova et al. (2016) was to assess current and temperature
distributions in conductive textiles, which can be used in many
applications, such as protective textiles, e-textiles, heating textiles etc. It
was found that Ohm's law is valid for such type of textiles and temperature
increases the increasing voltage applied. The quantity and value of current
passing through the conductive yarn principally depends on the
conductivity of the yarn. The length of the conductive yarn also influences
the values of current and temperature. It was found that because of the
continuous coating the electric current passes through yarns with silver-
coated filaments more homogeneously than in yarns with metal fibres. It
was also found, that there exists a maximum voltage which can be fed to
the conductive yarns, without damaging them.

Petcu et al. (2012) aimed to make a comparison between five different

types of conductive, heatable samples. These textile samples were
produced according to the five most important implementation techniques:
knitting, weaving, embroidery, inkjet printing and non-woven padding.
The idea is to identify a conductive option best suitable for a heating
application. The first three methods use electro conductive wires as
heating elements, the fourth uses conductive ink and the fifth uses carbon
black coating. For all of them, resistance, current and heat distribution
were measured. The inkjet printing technology showed an excellent
heating behaviour (up to 105 ÛC with an applied voltage of 14 V) on a
polymeric substrate, but when it came to a textile substrate, the results
were strongly influenced by the structure of the substrate and its shift
during stretching. Conductivity was achieved even after repeated
stretching but in special processing conditions. Using non-woven carbon
padded fabrics as heating elements proved very successful as well. Its
lightweight and reduced thickness play an important role in the
processability of the actual heating system. The downside of this
technology is the reduced elasticity of the fabric. In addition to the reduced
102 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

elasticity, the fabric is very resistant and it requires a high voltage to reach
the desired temperature range (40 V for 80 ÛC). The last three
implementation methods, knitting, weaving and embroidery, were based
on the same type of heating element – electroconductive textile threads.
Embroidery proved to be the most reliable technology, even on the elastic
substrate, reaching a 78 ÛC temperature with a voltage of 25 V. The
samples performed better thermally but unfortunately, not all conductive
textile threads are embroidered.

Sezgin et al. (2012) examined conductive yarns used as transmission lines

of e-textile structures due to the increase in voltage. In total ten different
plain fabric samples were produced: five different conductive yarns with
different linear resistance values were used in order to form an e-textile
structure. As for the conductive yarn, three different silver yarns and two
different steel yarns with different linear resistance values were used.
Then, the voltage was applied through the textile circuit from the end of
the conductive yarns and their thermal images were captured by the
thermal camera. Results showed that the temperature along the conductive
yarn due to an increase in voltage value varies according to the type of
conductive yarns and the base yarn of the fabric. The maximum voltage
was obtained with the 70-denier silver yarn which has a linear resistance
of 377 ȍ/m. The minimum voltage was obtained with 526 tex steel yarn
which has a linear resistance of 17 ȍ/m. Additionally, due to the thermal
conductivity coefficients of fibres, it was found that 100 % of cotton
samples reach higher temperatures than the 50 % cotton/50 % acrylic
samples. So, it is obvious that instead of fabrics composed of 100 % cotton
yarns, using fabrics composed of 50 % cotton/50 % acrylic yarns is more
convenient for e-textile applications. Finally, using 70-denier silver-plated
nylon yarns with 50 % cotton-50 % acrylic yarns is more suitable for e-
textile applications since they present better (lower) temperature values
due to an increase in voltage value.

The electrical resistance of knitted fabrics embedded with conducting

yarns at different temperatures was studied by Ding et al. (2014) in their
paper. Two types of resistance: linear and contact resistance have been
investigated. Two kinds of silver-coated conductive yarns, with linear
resistance of 68.6/cm and 1/cm, were embedded into normal knitted
woollen fabrics. The temperature impact on the resistance of these two
conductive woollen fabrics as a function of applied voltages was
investigated. The results showed that the resistance of every conductive
fabric decreases by a maximum of 30 % when the temperature is rising.
This can be explained by two basic factors: the electrical resistance of the
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 103

silver-coated conductive yarns decreases as the temperature rises; the

physical contact of the overlapped conductive yarns elongates with regards
to heating on knitted fabrics, which causes a decrease in contact resistance.
Not only the linear resistance of the conducting yarns but also the contact
resistance between conducting yarns, play an essential role in the total
electrical resistance of the conductive knitted fabric. They both decrease
with increasing temperature. In summary, the total resistance of the
conductive knitted fabric changes dramatically when the fabric is heated.

There are two ways to manufacture heated textiles (Hamdani et al., 2013):

1) produce a technical fabric and then integrate electronic

components;
2) produce a technical yarn with electronic features and then
manufacture a textile material of that yarn.

It has been indicated in references (Hamdani et al., 2013; Kayacan and

Yazgan Bulgun, 2009) that the resistance of heating panels, produced by
weaving, is lower than that of knitted structures with the same dimensions,
because of the structural characteristics: woven fabrics have inferior
surface character as quality properties, when compared to knitted fabrics
and heating elements made of non-woven materials. They have proved to
be of little use owing to the high electrical resistance of conductive non-
woven fabric. So, knits are more appropriate by implication, as a heating
panel. There are two types of electrically conductive yarns – natural
conductive (e.g. with conductive core) or with natural conductive additives
(metal, carbon, etc.) and specially processed (coated with metals, metal
salts or conductive polymers) of a common thread of textile fibres. Yarns
that have electrical conductivity in their fibre composition by introducing
natural conductive additives or special pre-treatment are more suitable for
integration into textile materials than metal wire or cable since they do not
limit textile properties (softness, flexibility) (Ohgushi et al., 1991; Tao,
2005). However, it should be noted that yarns obtained by conductive
coatings covering their components in various ways tend to have a higher
electrical resistance than metal (Locher, 2006). This needs to be evaluated
when designing fabrics for specific conductive applications with intended
electrical and thermal efficiency properties.

The creation of textile products with heating properties entails the

manufacturing of a system based on a set of elements that must ensure the
desired functionality of a particular fabric. Even if there are several kinds
of textile heating elements, the research concentrates on functional
104 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

products whose structures involve various electroconductive yarns

specially designed for this special goal. Currently, such yarns characterize
characteristics which are comparable to those of conventional textile yarns
(fineness, flexibility, the ability to be processed on machines that are
specific to the textile industry), due to their advanced development. As a
result, the electroconductive yarns can be easily and effectively inserted
into textile fabrics, thus allowing the use of a broad range of realization
and manufacturing techniques that are unique to this field of activity.

There is quite an extensive supply of electrically conductive fibres and

yarns made from them, suitable for the formation of heating contours in
clothing products on the market. Acor (USA) manufactures fibres treated
with pure silver (content ~ 15 %), named X-Static. Europa NCT Sp.
(Poland) is the creator of new electrically conductive copper sulphide-
coated polyacrylic fibres with a EURO-static label. Schoeller GmbH,
Inc.CO KG (Austria) and Durafil (China) produce electrodes for a thread
containing stainless steel fibres (5-95 %) under the name INOX. The
stainless steel fibre, in this case, is thinner than a human hair, so the
clothes made from the heterogeneous fibres do not irritate the skin.
Bekaert (Belgium) manufactures BEKINOX® filament yarns of stainless
steel. Tekstina (Slovenia) produces yarns with the name TekstimTM, which
comes in the form of cotton fibres by also introducing stainless steel
fibres. The R.Stat/N fibres produced by the company R.Stat (France)
consist of PA 6.6 or polyester fibre coated with 0.2 ȝm electrolytic copper
sulphide and a SilveR.Stat® silver layer. Electric conductors named
Shieldex® PA and PES Fiber (non-insulated and TPU-coated) threads are
coated with silver, copper, and also made of nickel by Statex Produktions-
und Vertriebs GmbH (Germany). PA silver-plated yarn (unpolished and
insulated TPU/PVC sheath) called Elitex® is manufactured by Imbut
GmbH (Germany). Electrisola Feindraht AG (Switzerland) manufactures
enamelled metal (copper, copper with silver coating, brass, silver,
aluminium) 0.01–0.50 mm diameters of monofilament. The electrical
conductive properties of the Swiss Shield® yarn manufactured by Swiss
Shield AG (Switzerland) are secured to the textile yarn by incorporating a
metal (copper, brass, bronze, gold, aluminium or steel) thread. W.
Zimmermann GmbH & Co (Germany) manufactures cores for Novonic®
and Textronic Inc. (India) Texro-Yarns® yarns have elastic properties. An
extremely wide assortment of conductive yarns using various metals
(stainless steel, aluminium, copper, nickel, tungsten, and iron) and their
blended alloys are manufactured by Tibtex (France). These are various
insulated and non-insulated yarn/brand names: Thermotech®, Copernic®,
Silverpam®, Spuntex®, Tibtal®, Polynox®, Thermosew®. The company
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 105

also manufactures Tibgrid® and Thermostretch® tapes for various

intelligent textile heating parameters. Electrostatic materials and contours
for heating textiles are also developed and manufactured by ITP GmbH,
W. Zimmermann GmbH & Co., Gustav Gerster GmbH & Co. KG
(Germany), Baltex (Feratec®, Great Britain) and others.

11.3. Applications and functions of smart textiles

Five functions can be distinguished in intelligent clothing (Das et. al.,
2013; Chudasama, 2014; Van Langenhove and Hertleer, 2004):

- Sensors,
- Data processing
- Actuators,
- Storage,
- Intercommunication.
-
The basis of the sensor is to transform a signal into another signal; that can
be read and understood by a predefined reader, which can be a device or a
person. As for real devices, ultimately most signals are being transformed
into electric ones (Das et al., 2013).

Textile materials cover a large area of the body and they are an excellent
measuring tool. Biosignals that are: temperature, biopotentials (cardiogram,
myography), acoustic (of heart, lungs, digestion, joints), ultrasound (blood
flow), motion (respiration), humidity (sweat), pressure (blood) (Das et al.,
2013; Chudasama, 2014).

Data processing is one of the components that are required only when
active processing is necessary. Textile sensors could provide a huge
amount of data, but problems arise due to large variations of signals
between patients, complex analysis of stationary and time depending
signals, lack of objective standard values, lack of understanding of
complex interrelationships between parameters. As the textile material
itself does not have any computing power, electronics, which can be
miniaturized and flexible should be available, which leads to limited
waterproof characteristics (Das et al., 2013; Chudasama, 2014).

Actuators respond to an impulse from the sensor function, possibly after

data processing. Shape memory materials in the form of threads are the
best-known examples of this area. They are able to react to a temperature
change and can be used as an actuator and link up perfectly with the
106 11. Conductive “smart” and e-textiles

requirements imposed on smart textiles (Das et al., 2013; Chudasama,

2014).

Storage of data or energy is most common, sensing, data processing,

actuation, communication; they usually need energy, mostly electrical
power. Efficient energy management will consist of an appropriate
combination of energy supply and energy storage capacity (Das et al.,
2013).

For intelligence textiles, intercommunication has many faces: communication

may be required within one element, between the individual elements to
pass information. The communication is currently realized by either
optical fibres or conductive yarns. Communication is possible by the
following technologies: for the development of a flexible textile screen,
the use of optical fibres (Das et al., 2013; Chudasama, 2014).

Post and Orth (1997) developed a fabric that can sense pressure. When the
fabric is pressed at the right points, the two conducting layers make
contact with nylon net and electric current flows from a row electrode to a
column electrode. Light-emitting diodes (LED) with fuzzy conductive
touch and close fasteners “Velcro” ends for electrical contacts are placed
throughout the net. When both ends of an LED brush against the power
and ground planes, the circuit is complete and the LED lights.

El-Sherif et al. (2007) developed a novel class of fibre optic chemical

sensors, for detection of toxic and biological materials. The design of these
fibre optic sensors was based on a cladding modification approach. The
original passive cladding of the fibre, in a small section, was removed and
the fibre core was coated with a chemically sensitive material. Any change
in the optical properties of the modified cladding material, due to the
presence of specific chemical vapour, changed the transmission properties
of the fibre and resulted in modal power redistribution in multimode
fibres. Both total intensity and modal power distribution (MPD)
measurements were used to detect the output power change through the
sensing fibres. The MPD method measures the power changes in the far
field pattern, i.e. spatial intensity modulation in two dimensions.
Conducting polymers, such as polyaniline and polypyrrole, experience a
reversible change in conductivity upon exposure to chemical vapours.
Conductivity change has been determined to be accompanied by a change
in the optical properties of the material. Therefore, polyaniline and
polypyrrole were selected as the modified cladding material for the
detection of hydrochloride (HCl), ammonia (NH3), hydrazine (H4N2), and
 The Types, Properties, and Applications of Conductive Textiles 107

dimethyl-methyl-phosphonate (DMMP) {a nerve agent, sarin stimulant},

respectively. Several sensors were prepared and successfully tested. The
results showed obvious improvement in the sensor sensitivity when the
MPD technique was used.

Innis et al. (2002) reported the development of complete textile-based

batteries. Inherently conducting polymers are also being developed for
wearable energy storage systems. These fabric batteries and photovoltaic
ones have been developed utilizing ionic liquid electrolytes that could be
incorporated into textile membranes. Fabric-based electrodes have been
used to form a flexible and conformable battery system. These textile-
based electrodes were formed by coating conducting polymeric materials
on fabrics or by in situ or vapour phase polymerization of the monomers
of conductive polymers on fabric substrates.

Huang et al. (2015) fabricated a weavable, knittable and wearable yarn

supercapacitor from reduced-graphene-oxide-modified conductive yarns
covered with a hierarchical structure of MnO2 nanosheets and a
polypyrrole thin film. The resultant modified yarns exhibited specific
capacitances as high as 36.6 mF cm–1 and 486 mF cm–2 in aqueous
electrolyte (three-electrode cell) or 31 mF cm–1 and 411 mF cm–2 in all
solid-state two-electrode cells. The symmetric solid-state supercapacitor
had high energy densities of 0.0092 mWh cm–2 and 1.1 mWh cm–3 (both
normalized to the whole device) with long life cycle. Large energy storage
textiles were produced by weaving developed flexible all-solid-state
supercapacitor yarns to a 15×10 cm fabric on a loom and knitting in a
woollen wrist band to form a pattern, enabling two functions: energy
storage and wearability.
 CONCLUSIONS

The significant attention that electroconductive textile materials have

received recently can be attributed to the possibility of integrating the
functionality of the material into a flexible textile structure or even into a
garment. Insertion of conductive yarns into fabrics provides added value
by decreasing the electrical resistance of fabrics and increasing shielding
effects by reflection or absorption mechanisms of electromagnetic waves.

Due to the emergence of intelligent or smart textiles, a growing interest in

electrically conductive textile materials has arisen. Their properties make
it possible to add some functionality to the textile products in several
ways:

- Providing electrical energy to a system;

- Transporting data (analogous or numerical);
- Making sensors (resistive or capacitive);
- Creating heat based on the Joule effect;
- Dissipating electrical charges (anti-static);
- Protection against electromagnetic interference (EMI).

According to the literature review, it is clear that the best EMI properties
over the wide range of microwave wavelengths are exhibited by
conductive fabrics that feature the lowest reflectance and transmission
coefficients in addition to the greatest absorption factors. The textile
materials, in which metallized yarns or coatings are incorporated, exhibit
the highest shielding effectiveness in this frequency region until a
maximum of 6 to 10 GHz is achieved. These fabrics are highly conductive
and provide electromagnetic radiation (EMR) shields mostly via surface
reflection. This can also be attributed to the presence of smaller
wavelengths at higher frequencies.

Comparing the EMI shielding behaviour of coated and carbon-based

fabrics, it can be stated that carbon-containing fabrics normally do not
possess isotropic EM shielding behaviour due to the yarn direction
obtained by weaving and knitting processes.
110 Conclusions

It should be noted that the colour change is significant in cases in which

carbon treatment is applied to fabrics; depending on carbon quantity, the
colour may turn from grey to black. The colour can also be a critical
parameter for fabrics with metals because it is not always acceptable to
have textiles with grey metal colour in an application.

Conductive polymers are the most promising EMR shielding materials

among other conductive additives that are used to develop conducting
textile materials with required properties intended for EMI shielding in the
microwave range. Requirements for ideal EMI shielding textile materials,
including fabrics coated with inherently conductive polymers (ICPs),
present not only high EMR shielding effectiveness over a wide range of
frequencies but also provide stable electrical properties, resistance to
washing, and withstanding normal wear and tear.

As science goes forward, various and more cost-effective ways to increase

the electrical conductivity of textiles using different polymer or chemical
finishes appear. It is also likely that more application fields of conductive
textiles will occur in the future and scientists will find a solution for
conductive coating application on textiles that remain undamaged by
washing.
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