MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE

REVIEWER
Algebra
Algebra is the branch of mathematics that helps in the representation of problems or situations in the form of
mathematical expressions. It involves variables like x, y, z, and mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division to form a meaningful mathematical expression. All the branches of mathematics such as
trigonometry, calculus, coordinate geometry, involve the use of algebra. One simple example of an expression in algebra
is 2x + 4 = 8.

Algebra deals with symbols and these symbols are related to each other with the help of operators. It is not just a
mathematical concept, but a skill that all of us use in our daily life without even realizing it. Understanding algebra as a
concept is more important than solving equations and finding the right answer, as it is useful in all the other topics of
mathematics that you are going to learn in the future or you have already learned in past.

What is Algebra?
Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with symbols and the arithmetic operations across these symbols. These
symbols do not have any fixed values and are called variables. In our real-life problems, we often see certain values that
keep on changing. But there is a constant need to represent these changing values. Here in algebra, these values are
often represented with symbols such as x, y, z, p, or q, and these symbols are called variables. Further, these symbols
are manipulated through various arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, with an
objective to find the values.

The above algebraic expressions are made up of variables, operators, and constants. Here the numbers 4 and 28 are
constants, x is the variable, and the arithmetic operation of addition is performed .

Branches of Algebra
The complexity of algebra is simplified by the use of numerous algebraic expressions. Based on the use and the
complexity of the expressions, algebra can be classified into various branches that are listed below:

 Pre-algebra
 Elementary Algebra
 Abstract Algebra
 Universal Algebra

Pre-algebra
The basic ways of presenting the unknown values as variables help to create mathematical expressions. It helps in
transforming real-life problems into an algebraic expression in mathematics. Forming a mathematical expression of the
given problem statement is part of pre-algebra.

Elementary Algebra
Elementary algebra deals with solving the algebraic expressions for a viable answer. In elementary algebra, simple
variables like x, y, are represented in the form of an equation. Based on the degree of the variable, the equations are
called linear equations, quadratic equations, polynomials. Linear equations are of the form, ax + b = c, ax + by + c = 0, ax
+ by + cz + d = 0. Elementary algebra based on the degree of the variables, branches out into quadratic equations and
polynomials. A general form of representation of a quadratic equation is ax 2 + bx + c = 0, and for a polynomial equation, it
is axn + bxn-1+ cxn-2+ .....k = 0.

Abstract Algebra
Abstract algebra deals with the use of abstract concepts like groups, rings, vectors rather than simple mathematical
number systems. Rings are a simple level of abstraction found by writing the addition and multiplication properties
together. Group theory and ring theory are two important concepts of abstract algebra. Abstract algebra finds numerous
applications in computer sciences, physics, astronomy, and uses vector spaces to represent quantities.

Universal Algebra
All the other mathematical forms involving trigonometry, calculus, coordinate geometry involving algebraic expressions
can be accounted as universal algebra. Across these topics, universal algebra studies mathematical expressions and
does not involve the study of models of algebra. All the other branches of algebra can be considered as the subset of
universal algebra. Any of the real-life problems can be classified into one of the branches of mathematics and can be
solved using abstract algebra.

Algebraic Expressions
An algebraic expression in algebra is formed using integer constants,
variables, and basic arithmetic operations of addition(+), subtraction(-),
multiplication(×), and division(/). An example of an algebraic expression is
5x + 6. Here 5 and 6 are fixed numbers and x is a variable. Further, the
variables can be simple variables using alphabets like x, y, z or can have
complex variables like x2, x3, xn, xy, x2y, etc. Algebraic expressions are
also known as polynomials. A polynomial is an expression consisting of
variables (also called indeterminates), coefficients, and non-negative
integer exponents of variables. Example: 5x3 + 4x2 + 7x + 2 = 0.

An equation is a mathematical statement with an 'equal to' symbol between two algebraic expressions that have equal
values. Given below are the different types of equations, based on the degree of the variable, where we apply the concept
of algebra:
 Linear Equations: Linear equations help in representing the relationship between variables such as x, y, z, and are
expressed in exponents of one degree. In these linear equations, we use algebra, starting from the basics such as the
addition and subtraction of algebraic expressions.
 Quadratic Equations: A quadratic equation can be written in the standard form as ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are
constants and x is the variable. The values of x that satisfy the equation are called solutions of the equation, and a
quadratic equation has at most two solutions.
 Cubic Equations: The algebraic equations having variables with power 3 are referred to as cubic equations. A
generalized form of a cubic equation is ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0. A cubic equation has numerous applications in calculus
and three-dimensional geometry (3D Geometry).

Sequence and Series

A set of numbers having a relationship across the numbers is called a sequence. A sequence is a set of numbers having
a common mathematical relationship between the number, and a series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. In
mathematics, we have two broad number sequences and series in the form of arithmetic progression and geometric
progression. Some of these series are finite and some series are infinite. The two series are also called arithmetic
progression and geometric progression and can be represented as follows.

 Arithmetic Progression: An Arithmetic progression (AP) is a special type of progression in which the difference
between two consecutive terms is always a constant. The terms of an arithmetic progression series is a, a+d, a + 2d,
a + 3d, a + 4d, a + 5d, .....
 Geometric Progression: Any progression in which the ratio of adjacent terms is fixed is a Geometric Progression.
The general form of representation of a geometric sequence is a, ar, ar 2, ar3, ar4, ar5, .....
Exponents
Exponent is a mathematical operation, written as a n. Here the expression an involves two numbers, the base 'a' and the
exponent or power 'n'. Exponents are used to simplify algebraic expressions. In this section, we are going to learn in detail
about exponents including squares, cubes, square root, and cube root. The names are based on the powers of these
exponents. The exponents can be represented in the form a n = a × a × a × ... n times.

Logarithms
The logarithm is the inverse function to exponents in algebra. Logarithms are a convenient way to simplify large algebraic
expressions. The exponential form represented as ax = n can be transformed into logarithmic form as logaan = x. John
Napier discovered the concept of Logarithms in 1614. Logarithms have now become an integral part of modern
mathematics.

Sets
A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects and is used to represent algebraic variables. The purpose of using sets
is to represent the collection of relevant objects in a group. Example: Set A = {2, 4, 6, 8}..........(A set of even numbers),
Set B = {a, e, i, o, u}......(A set of vowels).
Algebraic Formulas
An algebraic identity is an equation that is always true regardless of the values assigned to the variables. Identity means
that the left-hand side of the equation is identical to the right-hand side, for all values of the variables. These formulae
involve squares and cubes of algebraic expressions and help in solving the algebraic expressions in a few quick steps.
The frequently used algebraic formulas are listed below.
 (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
 (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2
 (a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2
 (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
 (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

Algebraic Operations
The basic operations covered in algebra are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

 Addition: For the addition operation in algebra, two or more expressions are separated by a plus (+) sign between
them.
 Subtraction: For the subtraction operation in algebra, two or more expressions are separated by a minus (-) sign
between them.
 Multiplication: For the multiplication operation in algebra, two or more expressions are separated by a multiplication
(×) sign between them.
 Division: For the division operation in algebra, two or more expressions are separated by a "/" sign between them.
Basic Rules and Properties of Algebra

The basic rules or properties of algebra for variables, algebraic expressions, or real numbers a, b and c are as given
below,

 Commutative Property of Addition: a + b = b + a

 Commutative Property of Multiplication: a × b = b × a
 Associative Property of Addition: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
 Associative Property of Multiplication: a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c
 Distributive Property: a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c), or, a × (b - c) = (a × b) - (a × c)
 Reciprocal: Reciprocal of a = 1/a
 Additive Identity Property: a + 0 = 0 + a = a
 Multiplicative Identity Property: a × 1 = 1 × a = a
 Additive Inverse: a + (-a) = 0

Geometry
Geometry (from the Ancient Greek: geo- "earth", -metron "measurement") is a branch of mathematics, that is primarily
concerned with the shapes and sizes of the objects, their relative position, and the properties of space. There are many
postulates and theorems applied by the Greek mathematician Euclid, who is often referred to as the “Father of Geometry”.
Let us explore all the important topics in Geometry.

What is Geometry?
Geometry is the branch of mathematics that relates the principles covering
distances, angles, patterns, areas, and volumes. All the visually and spatially related
concepts are categorized under geometry. There are three types of geometry:

 Euclidean
 Hyperbolic
 Elliptical

Euclidean Geometry
We study Euclidean geometry to understand the fundamentals of geometry. Euclidean Geometry refers to the study of
plane and solid figures on the basis of axioms (a statement or proposition) and theorems. The fundamental concepts of
Euclidean geometry include Points and Lines, Euclid’s Axioms and Postulates, Geometrical Proof, and Euclid’s Fifth
Postulate. There are 5 basic postulates of Euclidean Geometry that define geometrical figures.
 A straight line segment is drawn from any given point to any other.
 A straight line is extended indefinitely in both directions.
 A circle is drawn with any given point as its center and any length as its radius.
 All right angles are congruent.
 Any two straight lines are infinitely parallel that are equidistant from one another at two points.

Euclid's Axioms:
Axioms or postulates are based on assumptions and have no proof for them. A few of Euclid's axioms in geometry that
are universally accepted are:

 The things that are equal to the same things are equal to one another. If A = C and B = C then A = C
 If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal. If A = B and C = D, then A + C = B + D
 If equals are subtracted, the remainders are equal.
 The coinciding things are equal to one another.
 The whole is greater than its part. If A > B, then there exists C such that A = B + C.
 The things that are double the same are equal to one another.
 The things that are halves of the same things are equal to one another.
Non-Euclidean Geometry
Spherical geometry and hyperbolic geometry are the two non-Euclidean geometries. Non-Euclidean geometry differs in its
postulates on the nature of the parallel lines and the angles in the planar space, as validated by Euclidean geometry.

 Spherical geometry is the study of plane geometry on a sphere. Lines are defined as the shortest distance between
the two points that lie along with them. This line on a sphere is an arc and is called the great circle. The sum of the
angles in the triangle is greater than 180º.
 Hyperbolic geometry refers to a curved surface. This geometry finds its application in topology. Depending on the
inner curvature of the curved surface, the planar triangle has the sum of the angles lesser than 180º.
Plane Geometry
Euclidean geometry involves the study of geometry in a plane. A two-
dimensional surface extending infinitely in both directions forms the plane.
Planes are used in every area of geometry and graph theory. The basic
components of planes in geometry are analogous to points, lines, and angles.
A point is the no-dimensional basic unit of geometry. Points lying on the same
line are the collinear points. A line is a uni-dimensional unit that refers to a set
of points that extends in two opposite directions and the line is said to be the
intersection of two planes. A line has no endpoints. It is easy to differentiate a
line, line segment, and ray. Lines may be parallel or perpendicular. Lines may
or not intersect.

Angles in Geometry
When two straight lines or rays intersect at a point, they form an angle. Angles are usually measured in degrees. The
angles can be an acute, obtuse, right angle, straight angle, or obtuse angle. The pairs of angles can be supplementary or
complementary. The construction of angles and lines is an intricate component of geometry. The study of angles in a unit
circle and that of a triangle forms the stepping stone of trigonometry. Transversals and related angles establish the
interesting properties of parallel lines and their theorems.

Plane Shapes in Geometry

The properties of plane shapes help us identify and classify them. The plane
geometric shapes are two-dimensional shapes or flat shapes. Polygons are closed
curves that are made up of more than two lines. A triangle is a closed figure with three
sides and three vertices. There are many theorems based on the triangles that help us
understand the properties of triangles. In geometry, the most significant theorems
based on triangles include Heron's formula, The exterior angle theorem, the angle
sum property, the basic proportionality theorem, the similarity and Congruence in
Triangles, the Pythagoras Theorem, and so on. These help us recognize the angle-
side relationships in triangles. Quadrilaterals are polygons with four sides and four
vertices. A circle is a closed figure and has no edges or corners. It is defined as the
set of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a given point called the center of
the circle. Various concepts centered around symmetry, transformations in shapes,
construction of shapes are the formative chapters in geometry.
Solid Geometry
Solid shapes in geometry are three-dimensional in nature. The three dimensions that are taken into consideration are
length, width, and height. There are different types of solid figures like a cylinder, cube, sphere, cone, cuboids, prism,
pyramids, and so on and these figures acquire some space. They are characterized by vertices, faces, and edges. The
five platonic solids and the polyhedrons have interesting properties in Euclidean space. The
nets of the plane shapes can be folded into solids.
Measurement in Geometry
Measurement in geometry ascertains the calculation of length or distance, the area occupied by a flat shape, and the
volume occupied by the solid objects. Mensuration in geometry is applied to the computation of perimeter, area, capacity,
surface areas, and volumes of geometric figures. Perimeter is the distance around the plane shapes, the area is the
region occupied by the shape, volume is the amount of region occupied by a solid, and the surface area of a solid is the
sum of the areas of its faces.
Two-dimensional Analytical Geometry
Analytical geometry is popularly known as coordinate geometry is a branch of geometry where the position of any given
point on a plane is defined with the help of an ordered pair of numbers, or coordinates using the rectangular Cartesian
coordinate system. The coordinate axes divide the plane into four quadrants. Identifying and plotting points will be a
building block of visualizing the geometric objects on the coordinate plane. In the example below, point A is defined as
(4,3) and Point B is defined as (-3,1).

The various properties of the geometric figures like straight

lines, curves, parabolas, ellipse, hyperbola, circles, and so
on can be studied using coordinate geometry. In analytical
geometry, the curves are represented as algebraic
equations, and this gives a deeper understanding of
algebraic equations through visual representations. The
distance formula, the section formula, midpoint formula, the centroid of a triangle, the area of the
triangle formed by three given points, and the area of the quadrilateral formed by four
points are determined using the known coordinates in the cartesian coordinate
system. The equation of a straight line passing through a point, or two points, the angle
between two straight lines are computed easily using the analytical geometry as they are
generalized using formulas.
Three-dimensional Geometry
The three-dimensional geometry discusses the geometry of shapes in 3D space in the cartesian planes. Every point in the
space is denoted by 3 coordinates, represented as an ordered triple (x, y,z) of real numbers.

Direction Cosines of a Line

If a straight line makes angles α, β and γ with the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis
respectively then cosα, cosβ, cosγ are called the direction cosines of a line.
These are denoted as l = cosα, m = cosβ, and n = cosγ. For l, m, and n, l 2 +
m2 + n2 = 1, direction cosines of a line joining the points P(x1,y1,z1x1,y1,z1)
and Q(x2,y2,z2x2,y2,z2) are given
as :x2−x1PQ,y2−y1PQ,z2−z1PQx2−x1PQ,y2−y1PQ,z2−z1PQ,
where PQ = √((x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2+(z2−z1)2((x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2+(z2−z1)2

Direction Ratios of a Line

The directional ratios of a line are the numbers that are proportional to the direct cosines of the line. If l, m, n are the
direction cosines, and a,b c are the direction ratios, then

l = a√a2+b2+c2aa2+b2+c2,
m = b√a2+b2+c2ba2+b2+c2 and
n = c√a2+b2+c2ca2+b2+c2.
Direction ratios of line joining the points P(x1,y1,z1x1,y1,z1) and Q(x2,y2,z2x2,y2,z2) are:
(x2−x1),(y2−y1),(z2−z1)(x2−x1),(y2−y1),(z2−z1) or (x1−x2),(y1−y2),(z1−z2)(x1−x2),(y1−y2),(z1−z2)

Skew lines in Geometry

The skew lines are the lines in space that are neither parallel nor intersecting, and they lie in different planes. The angle
between two lines is cos θ = |l1l2+m1m2+n1n2l1l2+m1m2+n1n2| where θ is the acute angle between the lines.
Also Cos θ = |a1a2+b1b2+c1c2√a21+b21+c21√a21+b21+c21a1a2+b1b2+c1c2a12+b12+c12a12+b12+c12|

Equation of Line in 3-D Geometry

 Vector equation of the line passing through a point with the position vector →aa→ and parallel to
vector →bb→ is →r=→a+λ→br→=a→+λb→
 Cartesian equation of the line passing through the point (x1,y1,z1x1,y1,z1) and direction cosines l, m, n
is x−x1l=y−y1m=z−z1nx−x1l=y−y1m=z−z1n
 Vector equation of the line passing through two points with the position
vectors →aa→ and →bb→ is →r=→a+λ(→b−→a)r→=a→+λ(b→−a→)
 Cartesian equation of the line passing through the points (x1,y1,z1x1,y1,z1) and (x2,y2,z2x2,y2,z2)
is x−x1x2−x1=y−y1y2−y1=z−z1z2−z1x−x1x2−x1=y−y1y2−y1=z−z1z2−z1

Angle Between Two Lines

Angle between intersecting lines drawn parallel to each of the skew lines is the angle between skew lines. If θ is the angle
between →r=→a1+λ→b1r→=a→1+λb→1 and →r=→a2+λ→b2r→=a→2+λb→2, then cos θ = |→b1.→b2|→b1||→b2|
b→1.b→2|b→1||b→2||

Trigonometry
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with the relationship between ratios of the sides of a right-angled
triangle with its angles. The ratios used to study this relationship are called trigonometric ratios, namely, sine, cosine,
tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant. The word trigonometry is a 16th century Latin derivative and the concept was given
by the Greek mathematician Hipparchus.

Here in the below content, we shall understand the basics of trigonometry, the various identities-formulas of trigonometry,
and the real-life examples or applications of trigonometry.

Introduction to Trigonometry
Trigonometry is one of the most important branches in mathematics.
The word trigonometry is formed by clubbing words 'Trigonon' and
'Metron' which means triangle and measure respectively. It is the study
of the relation between the sides and angles of a right-angled triangle. It
thus helps in finding the measure of unknown dimensions of a right-
angled triangle using formulas and identities based on this relationship.

Trigonometry Basics
Trigonometry basics deal with the measurement of
angles and problems related to angles. There are three
basic functions in trigonometry: sine, cosine, and
tangent. These three basic ratios or functions can be
used to derive other important trigonometric functions:
cotangent, secant, and cosecant. All the important
concepts covered under trigonometry are based on these
functions. Hence, further, we need to learn these
functions and their respective formulas at first to
understand trigonometry.

In a right-angled triangle, we have the following three sides.

Perpendicular - It is the side opposite to the angle θ.
Base - This is the adjacent side to the angle θ.
Hypotenuse - This is the side opposite to the right angle.
Trigonometric Ratios
There are basic six ratios in trigonometry that help in establishing a relationship between the ratio of sides of a right
triangle with the angle. If θ is the angle in a right-angled triangle, formed between the base and hypotenuse, then
 sin θ = Perpendicular/Hypotenuse
 cos θ = Base/Hypotenuse
 tan θ = Perpendicular/Base

The value of the other three functions: cot, sec, and cosec depend on tan, cos, and sin respectively as given
below.

 cot θ = 1/tan θ = Base/Perpendicualr

 sec θ = 1/cos θ = Hypotenuse/Base
 cosec θ = 1/sin θ = Hypotenuse/Perpendicular

Trigonometric Table
The trigonometric table is made up of trigonometric ratios that are
interrelated to each other – sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant,
cotangent. These ratios, in short, are written as sin, cos, tan, cosec,
sec, cot, and are taken for standard angle values. You can refer to
the trigonometric table chart to know more about these ratios.

Important Trigonometric Angles

Trigonometric angles are the angles in a right-angled triangle using which different trigonometric functions can be
represented. Some standard angles used in trigonometry are 0º, 30º, 45º, 60º, 90º. The trigonometric values for these
angles can be observed directly in a trigonometric table. Some other important angles in trigonometry are 180º, 270º, and
360º. Trigonometry angle can be expressed in terms of trigonometric ratios as,

 θ = sin-1 (Perpendicular/Hypotenuse)
 θ = cos-1 (Base/Hypotenuse)
 θ = tan-1 (Perpendicular/Base)

List of Trigonometric Formulas

There are different formulas in trigonometry depicting the relationships between trigonometric ratios and the angles for
different quadrants. The basic trigonometry formulas list is given below:

1. Trigonometry Ratio Formulas

 sin θ = Opposite Side/Hypotenuse

 cos θ = Adjacent Side/Hypotenuse
 tan θ = Opposite Side/Adjacent Side
 cot θ = 1/tan θ = Adjacent Side/Opposite Side
 sec θ = 1/cos θ = Hypotenuse/Adjacent Side
 cosec θ = 1/sin θ = Hypotenuse/Opposite Side

2. Trigonometry Formulas Involving Pythagorean Identities

 sin²θ + cos²θ = 1
 tan2θ + 1 = sec2θ
 cot2θ + 1 = cosec2θ

3. Sine and Cosine Law in Trigonometry

 a/sinA = b/sinB = c/sinC

 c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C
 a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
 b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B

Here a, b, c are the lengths of the sides of the triangle and A, B, and C are the angle of the triangle.

The complete list of trigonometric formulas involving trigonometry ratios and trigonometry identities is listed for easy
access. Here's a list of all the trigonometric formulas for you to learn and revise.
Trigonometric Functions Graphs
Different properties of a trigonometric function like domain, range, etc can be
studied using the trigonometric function graphs. The graphs of basic
trigonometric functions- Sine and Cosine are given below:

The domain and range of sin and cosine functions can

thus be given as,

 sin θ: Domain (-∞, + ∞); Range [-1, +1]

 cos θ: Domain (-∞ +∞); Range [-1, +1]
Click here to learn about the graphs of all trigonometric functions and their domain and
range in detail- Trigonometric Functions
Unit Circle and Trigonometric Values
Unit circle can be used to calculate the values of basic trigonometric
functions- sine, cosine, and tangent. The following diagram shows how
trigonometric ratios sine and cosine can be represented in a unit circle.

Trigonometry Identities
In Trigonometric Identities, an equation is called an identity when it is true
for all values of the variables involved. Similarly, an equation involving trigonometric ratios of an angle is called a
trigonometric identity, if it is true for all values of the angles involved. In trigonometric identities, you will get to learn more
about the Sum and Difference Identities.

For example, sin θ/cos θ = [Opposite/Hypotenuse] ÷ [Adjacent/Hypotenuse] = Opposite/Adjacent = tan θ

Therefore, tan θ = sin θ/cos θ is a trigonometric identity. The three important trigonometric identities are:
 sin²θ + cos²θ = 1
 tan²θ + 1 = sec²θ
 cot²θ + 1 = cosec²θ

Applications of Trigonometry
Throughout history, trigonometry has been applied in areas such as architecture, celestial mechanics, surveying, etc. Its
applications include in:

 Various fields like oceanography, seismology, meteorology, physical sciences, astronomy, acoustics, navigation,
electronics, and many more.
 It is also helpful to find the distance of long rivers, measure the height of the mountain, etc.
 Spherical trigonometry has been used for locating solar, lunar, and stellar positions.

Real-Life Examples of Trigonometry

Trigonometry has many real-life examples used broadly. Let’s get
a better idea of trigonometry with an example. A boy is standing
near a tree. He looks up at the tree and wonders “How tall is the
tree?” The height of the tree can be found without actually
measuring it. What we have here is a right-angled triangle, i.e., a
triangle with one of the angles equal to 90 degrees. Trigonometric
formulas can be applied to calculate the height of the tree, if the
distance between the tree and boy, and the angle formed when
the tree is viewed from the ground is given.

It is determined using the tangent function, such as tan of angle is equal to the ratio of the height of the tree and the
distance. Let us say the angle is θ, then

tan θ = Height/Distance between object & tree

Distance = Height/tan θ

Let us assume that distance is 30m and the angle formed is 45 degrees, then

Height = 30/tan 45°

Since, tan 45° = 1
So, Height = 30 m

The height of the tree can be found out by using basic trigonometry formulas.

Important Notes on Trigonometry

 Trigonometric values are based on the three major trigonometric ratios: Sine, Cosine, and Tangent.
Sine or sin θ = Side opposite to θ / Hypotenuse
Cosine or cos θ = Adjacent side to θ / Hypotenuse
Tangent or tan θ = Side opposite to θ / Adjacent side to θ

 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90° are called the standard angles in trigonometry.

 The trigonometry ratios of cosθ, secθ are even functions, since cos(-θ) = cosθ, sec(-θ) = secθ.

Calculus
Calculus is one of the most important branches of mathematics that deals with continuous change. The two major
concepts that calculus is based on are derivatives and integrals. The derivative of a function is the measure of the rate of
change of a function, while integral is the measure of the area under the curve of the function. The derivative gives the
explanation of the function at a specific point whereas the integral accumulates the discrete values of a function over a
range of values.

Calculus is also referred to as infinitesimal calculus or “the calculus of infinitesimals”. Infinitesimal numbers are the
quantities that have value nearly equal to zero, but not exactly zero. Generally, classical calculus is the study of
continuous change of functions.

What is Calculus?
Calculus focuses on some important topics covered in math such as differentiation, integration, limits, functions, and so
on. Calculus, a branch of mathematics, deals with the study of the rate of change, was developed by Newton and Leibniz.

Calculus Definition: Calculus in Mathematics is generally used

in mathematical models to obtain optimal solutions and thus helps in
understanding the changes between the values related by a function.
Calculus is broadly classified into two different sections:

 Differential Calculus
 Integral Calculus

Both differential and integral calculus serve as a foundation for the higher branch of Mathematics known as “Analysis”,
dealing with the impact of a slight change in dependent variable, as it leads to zero, on the function.

Calculus Topics
Based on the complexity of the concepts covered under calculus, we classify
the topics under different categories as listed below,

 Precalculus
 Calculus 1
 Calculus 2

Precalculus
Precalculus in mathematics is a course that includes trigonometry and algebra designed to prepare students for the study
of calculus. In precalculus, we focus on the study of advanced mathematical concepts including functions and quantitative
reasoning. Some important topics covered under precalculus are,

 Functions
 Inverse Functions
 Complex Numbers
 Rational Function

Calculus 1
Calculus 1 covered the topics mainly focusing on differential calculus and the related concepts like limits and continuity.
Some of the topics covered under calculus 1 are,
 Limits
 Derivatives
 Applications of Derivatives
 Integrals

Calculus 2
Calculus 2 focuses on the mathematical study of change first introduced during the curriculum of Calculus 1. Some of the
important topics under Calculus 2 are,

 Differential Equations
 Sequence and Series
 Application of Integrals
 Trapezoidal Rule
Functions
Functions in calculus represent the relationship between two variables,
which are the independent variable and the dependent variable. Let’s
consider the following diagram.

There is an INPUT, a black box, and an OUTPUT. For

example, suppose we want to make a pizza. We would
need the following basic ingredients.

 Pizza Base
 Pizza Sauce
 Cheese
 Seasoning

The above real-life example can be represented in the form

of a function as explained below,

The taste of our pizza depends on the quality of the ingredients. Let’s Value of x Value of y
take another example

Suppose that: y = x2 1 1

2 4

9 81

11 121
Using the diagram given above, we get:

We can see that the value of y depends on the value

of x. We can conclude that

 INPUT is independent of the OUTPUT

 OUTPUT depends on the INPUT
 Black Box is responsible for the transformation of the INPUT to the OUTPUT

In calculus,

 INPUT is an independent variable

 OUTPUT is a dependent variable
 Black Box is a function

Differential Calculus
Differential calculus focuses on solving the problem of finding the rate of change of a function with respect to the other
variables. To find the optimal solution, derivatives are used to calculate the maxima and minima values of a function.
Differential helps in the study of the limit of a quotient, dealing with variables such as x and y, functions f(x), and the
corresponding changes in the variables x and y. The notations dy and dx are known as differentials. The process used to
find the derivatives is called differentiation. The derivative of a function, y with respect to variable x, is represented by
dy/dx or f’(x).

Limits
Limit helps in calculating the degree of closeness to any value or the approaching term. A limit is normally expressed
using the limit formula as,
limx→cf(x) = A

This expression is read as “the limit of f of x as x approaches c equals A”.

Derivatives
Derivatives represent the instantaneous rate of change of a quantity with respect to the other. The derivative of a function
is represented as:

limx→h[f(x + h) − f(x)]/h = A

Continuity
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a particular point x = a, if the following three conditions are satisfied –

 f(a) is defined
 limx→af(x) exists
 limx→a− f(x) = limx→a+ f(x) = f(a)

Continuity and Differentiability

A function is always continuous if it is differentiable at any point, whereas the vice-versa for this condition is not always
true.

Integral Calculus
Integral calculus is the study of integrals and the properties associated to them. It is helpful in:

 calculating f from f’ (i.e. from its derivative). If a function, say f is differentiable in any given interval, then f’ is defined in
that interval.
 calculating the area under a curve for any function.

Integration
Integration is the reciprocal of differentiation. As differentiation can be understood as dividing a part into many small parts,
integration can be said as a collection of small parts in order to form a whole. It is generally used for calculating areas.

Definite Integral
A definite integral has a specific boundary or limit for the calculation of the function. The upper and lower limits of the
independent variable of a function are specified. A definite integral is given mathematically as,

∫ab f(x).dx = F(x)

Indefinite Integral
An indefinite integral does not have a specific boundary, i.e. no upper and lower limit is defined. Thus the integration value
is always accompanied by a constant value (C). It is denoted as:

∫ f(x).dx = F(x) + C

Calculus Formula
Calculus Formulas can be broadly divided into the following six broad sets of formulas. The six broad formulas are limits,
differentiation, integration, definite integrals, application of differentiation, and differential equations. All of these formulas
are complementary to each other.

Limits Formulas: Limits formulas help in approximating the values to a defined number, and are defined either to
zero or to infinity.

Ltx→0 (xn - an)(x - a) = na(n - 1)

Ltx→0 (sin x)/x = 1
Ltx→0 (tan x)/x = 1
Ltx→0 (ex - 1)/x = 1
Ltx→0 (ax - 1)/x = logea
Ltx→0 (1 + (1/x))x = e
Ltx→0 (1 + x)1/x = e
Ltx→0 (1 + (a/x))x = ea

Differentiation Formula: Differentiation Formulas are applicable to basic algebraic expressions, trigonometric

ratios, inverse trigonometry, and exponential terms.

ddxddxxn = nxn - 1
ddxddx Constant = 0
ddxddx ex = ex
ddxddxax = ax.loga
ddxddx log x = 1/x
ddxddx sin x = cos x
ddxddx cos x = -sin x
ddxddx tan x = sec2x
ddxddx cot x = -cosec2x
ddxddx sec x = sec x.tanx
ddxddx cosec x = -cosec x.cot x

Integration Formula: Integrals Formulas can be derived from differentiation formulas, and are complimentary to
differentiation formulas.

∫ xn.dx = xn + 1/(n + 1) + C
∫ 1.dx = x + C
∫ ex.dx = ex + C
∫(1/x).dx = log|x| + C
∫ ax.dx = (ax/log a) + C
∫ cos x.dx = sin x + C
∫ sin x.dx = -cos x + C
∫ sec2x.dx = tan x + C
∫ cosec2x.dx = -cot x + C
∫ sec x.tan x.dx = sec x + C
∫ cosec x.cotx.dx = -cosec x + C

Definite Integrals Formulas: Definite Integrals are the basic integral formulas and are additionally having
limits. There is an upper and lower limit, and definite integrals, that are helpful in finding the area within these limits.

∫ba f'(x).dx = f(b) - f(a)

∫ba f(x).dx = ∫ba f(t).dt
∫ba f(x).dx = - ∫ab f(x).dx
∫ba f(x).dx = ∫ca f(x).dx + ∫bc f(x).dx
∫ba f(x).dx = ∫ba f(a + b - x).dx
∫a0 f(x).dx = ∫a0 f(a - x).dx
∫2a0 f(x).dx = 2∫a0 f(x).dx
∫a-a f(x).dx = 2∫a0 f(x).dx, f is an even function
∫a-a f(x).dx = 0 , f is an odd function

Application of Differentiation Formulas: The application of differentiation formulas is useful for

approximation, estimation of values, equations of tangent and normals, maxima and minima, and for finding the changes
of numerous physical events.

dy/dx = (dy/dt)/(dx/dt)
Equation of a Tangent: y - y1 = dy/dx.(x - x1)
Equation of a Normal: y - y1 = -1/(dy/dx).(x - x1)
Differential Equations Formula: Differential equations are higher-order derivatives and can be comparable
to general equations. In the general equation, we have the unknown variable 'x' and here we have the differentiation dy/dx
as the variable of the equation.

Homogeneous Differential Equation: f(λx, λy) = λnf(x, y)

Linear Differential Equation: dy/dx + Py = Q
General solution of Linear Differential Equation is y.e - ∫P.dx = ∫(Q.e∫P.dx).dx + C
Applications of Calculus
Calculus is a very important branch, a mathematical model that helps in:

 Analyzing a system to find an optimal solution to predict the future of any given condition for a function.
 Concepts of calculus play a major role in real life, either it is related to solve the area of complicated shapes,
evaluating survey data, the safety of vehicles, business planning, credit card payment records, or finding the changing
conditions of a system that affect us, etc.
 Calculus is a language of economists, biologists, architects, medical experts, statisticians. For example, Architects
and engineers use different concepts of calculus in determining the size and shape of the construction structures.
 Calculus is used in modeling concepts like birth and death rates, radioactive decay, reaction rates, heat and light,
motion, electricity, etc.
Multiplication Tables 2 to 5

2 Times Table 3 Times Table 4 Times Table 5 Times Table

2×1=2 3×1=3 4×1=4 5×1=5

2×2=4 3×2=6 4×2=8 5 × 2 = 10

2×3=6 3×3=9 4 × 3 = 12 5 × 3 = 15

2×4=8 3 × 4 = 12 4 × 4 = 16 5 × 4 = 20
 2 Times Table 3 Times Table 4 Times Table 5 Times Table

2 × 5 = 10 3 × 5 = 15 4 × 5 = 20 5 × 5 = 25

2 × 6 = 12 3 × 6 = 18 4 × 6 = 24 5 × 6 = 30

2 × 7 = 14 3 × 7 = 21 4 × 7 = 28 5 × 7 = 35

2 × 8 = 16 3 × 8 = 24 4 × 8 = 32 5 × 8 = 40

2 × 9 = 18 3 × 9 = 27 4 × 9 = 36 5 × 9 = 45

2 × 10 = 20 3 × 10 = 30 4 × 10 = 40 5 × 10 = 50

Multiplication Tables 6 to 10

6 Times Table 7 Times Table 8 Times Table 9 Times Table 10 Times Table

6×1=6 7×1=7 8×1=8 9×1=9 10 × 1 = 10

6 × 2 = 12 7 × 2 = 14 8 × 2 = 16 9 × 2 = 18 10 × 2 = 20

6 × 3 = 18 7 × 3 = 21 8 × 3 = 24 9 × 3 = 27 10 × 3 = 30

6 × 4 = 24 7 × 4 = 28 8 × 4 = 32 9 × 4 = 36 10 × 4 = 40

6 × 5 = 30 7 × 5 = 35 8 × 5 = 40 9 × 5 = 45 10 × 5 = 50

6 × 6 = 36 7 × 6 = 42 8 × 6 = 48 9 × 6 = 54 10 × 6 = 60

6 × 7 = 42 7 × 7 = 49 8 × 7 = 56 9 × 7 = 63 10 × 7 = 70

6 × 8 = 48 7 × 8 = 56 8 × 8 = 64 9 × 8 = 72 10 × 8 = 80

6 × 9 = 54 7 × 9 = 63 8 × 9 = 72 9 × 9 = 81 10 × 9 = 90

6 × 10 = 60 7 × 10 = 70 8 × 10 = 80 9 × 10 = 90 10 × 10 = 100

Times Tables 11 to 15

11 Times Table 12 Times Table 13 Times Table 14 Times Table 15 Times Table

11 × 1 = 11 12 × 1 = 12 13 × 1 = 13 14 × 1 = 14 15 × 1 = 15
 11 Times Table 12 Times Table 13 Times Table 14 Times Table 15 Times Table

11 × 2 = 22 12 × 2 = 24 13 × 2 = 26 14 × 2 = 28 15 × 2 = 30

11 × 3 = 33 12 × 3 = 36 13 × 3 = 39 14 × 3 = 42 15 × 3 = 45

11 × 4 = 44 12 × 4 = 48 13 × 4 = 52 14 × 4 = 56 15 × 4 = 60

11 × 5 = 55 12 × 5 = 60 13 × 5 = 65 14 × 5 = 70 15 × 5 = 75

11 × 6 = 66 12 × 6 = 72 13 × 6 = 78 14 × 6 = 84 15 × 6 = 90

11 × 7 = 77 12 × 7 = 84 13 × 7 = 91 14 × 7 = 98 15 × 7 = 105

11 × 8 = 88 12 × 8 = 96 13 × 8 = 104 14 × 8 = 112 15 × 8 = 120

11 × 9 = 99 12 × 9 = 108 13 × 9 = 117 14 × 9 = 126 15 × 9 = 135

11 × 10 = 110 12 × 10 = 120 13 × 10 = 130 14 × 10 = 140 15 × 10 = 150

Times Tables 16 to 20

16 Times Table 17 Times Table 18 Times Table 19 Times Table 20 Times Table

16 × 1 = 16 17 × 1 = 17 18 × 1 = 18 19 × 1 = 19 20 × 1 = 20

16 × 2 = 32 17 × 2 = 34 18 × 2 = 36 19 × 2 = 38 20 × 2 = 40

16 × 3 = 48 17 × 3 = 51 18 × 3 = 54 19 × 3 = 57 20 × 3 = 60

16 × 4 = 64 17 × 4 = 68 18 × 4 = 72 19 × 4 = 76 20 × 4 = 80

16 × 5 = 80 17 × 5 = 85 18 × 5 = 90 19 × 5 = 95 20 × 5 = 100

16 × 6 = 96 17 × 6 = 102 18 × 6 = 108 19 × 6 = 114 20 × 6 = 120

16 × 7 = 112 17 × 7 = 119 18 × 7 = 126 19 × 7 = 133 20 × 7 = 140

16 × 8 = 128 17 × 8 = 136 18 × 8 = 144 19 × 8 = 152 20 × 8 = 160

16 × 9 = 144 17 × 9 = 153 18 × 9 = 162 19 × 9 = 171 20 × 9 = 180

16 × 10 = 160 17 × 10 = 170 18 × 10 = 180 19 × 10 = 190 20 × 10 = 200