CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms. Rinku Jain of MA Psychology First Year has conducted and

successfully completed the practical work in MPCL- 007 Practicum: Experimental

Psychology and Psychological Testing.

Name : Rinku Jain

Enrolment No. : 2001665128
Name of the Study Centre : RC3
Place : New Delhi
Regional Centre : RC3
Place : New Delhi
Date : 31st January 2020

MPC007 – Enroll No – 2001665128 (Ms RINKU JAIN) : Page 1 of 37

 INDEX

Sr. No Title Page No

Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory

1 3
(BOBO Doll Experiment)

2 Intelligence & Sternberg’s COVID-19 article 10

3 Interview of an elderly person 17
4 Locus of Control 24
5 Halo Effect (Nisbett and Wilson Experiment) 31

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 PRACTICAL NO. 1
Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory

Introduction
In 1941, Neal E. Miller and John Dollard presented their book with a revision of
Holt's social learning and imitation theory. They argued four factors contribute to
learning: drives, cues, responses, and rewards. One driver is social motivation, which
includes imitativeness, the process of matching an act to an appropriate cue of where and
when to perform the act. A behavior is imitated depending on whether the model receives
a positive or negative response consequences. Miller and Dollard argued that if one were
motivated to learn a particular behavior, then that particular behavior would be learned
through clear observations. By imitating these observed actions, the individual observer
would solidify that learned action and would be rewarded with positive reinforcement.
The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by Canadian
psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura, along with his students and colleagues conducted
a series of studies, known as the Bobo doll experiment, in 1961 and 1963 to find out why
and when children display aggressive behaviors. These studies demonstrated the value of
modeling for acquiring novel behaviors. These studies helped Bandura publish his
seminal article and book in 1977 that expanded on the idea of how behavior is acquired,
and thus built from Miller and Dollard's research. In Bandura's 1977 article, he claimed
that Social Learning Theory shows a direct correlation between a person's perceived self-
efficacy and behavioral change. Self-efficacy comes from four sources: "performance
accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states".
In 1986, Bandura published his second book, which expanded and renamed his
original theory. He called the new theory social cognitive theory. Bandura changed the
name to emphasize the major role cognition plays in encoding and performing behaviors.
In this book, Bandura argued that human behavior is caused by personal, behavioral, and
environmental influences.
Social Learning Theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning in
order to provide a comprehensive model that could account for the wide range of learning
experiences that occur in the real world. As initially outlined by Bandura and Walters in
1963 and further detailed in 1977, key tenets of Social Learning Theory are as follows:
1. Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a cognitive process that takes place
in a social context.
2. Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the consequences
of the behavior (vicarious reinforcement).
3. Learning involves observation, extraction of information from those observations,
and making decisions about the performance of the behavior (observational

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 learning or modeling). Thus, learning can occur without an observable change
in behavior.
4. Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for learning.
5. The learner is not a passive recipient of information. Cognition, environment, and
behavior all mutually influence each other (reciprocal determinism)
Social learning theory explains complex behavior by acknowledging cognitive
factors and the role they play in deciding whether to imitate behavior. However, it does
not account for how we develop a wide range of behavior based on thoughts and feelings.
We have a significant amount of control over our behavior and, as such, we don’t
necessarily reproduce poor behavior, like violence, merely because we experience it.
Modifying and renaming social learning theory to social cognitive learning in
1986, Bandura offered a more fitting framework for how we learn from our social
experiences.
Social cognitive theory is a learning theory based gists agree that the environment
one grows up in contributes to behavior, the individual person (and therefore cognition)
is just as important. People learn by observing others, with the environment, behavior,
and cognition acting as primary factors that influence development in a reciprocal triadic
relationship. Each behavior witnessed can change a person's way of thinking (cognition).
Similarly, the environment one is raised in may influence later behaviors. For example,
a caregiver's mindset (also cognition) determines the environment in which their children
are raised.
The core concepts of this theory are explained by Bandura through a schematization
of triadic reciprocal causation. The schema shows how the reproduction of an observed
behavior is influenced by getting the learner to believe in his or her personal abilities to
correctly complete a behavior.
It refers to the mutual influence between three sets of factors:
1. Behavioral: The response an individual receives after they perform a behavior
(i.e., Provide chances for the learner to experience successful learning as a result
of performing the behavior correctly).
2. Environmental: Aspects of the environment or setting that influence the
individual's ability to successfully complete a behavior (i.e., Make environmental
conditions conducive for improved self-efficacy by providing appropriate
support and materials).
3. Personal factors (e.g., cognitive, affective and biological events),

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 (fig taken from http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Pajares/eff.html)

The goal of SCT is to explain how people regulate their behavior through control
and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time.
The first five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy
was added when the theory evolved into SCT.
1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the
dynamic and reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned
experiences), environment (external social context), and behavior (responses to
stimuli to achieve goals).
2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a
behavior through essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform
a behavior, a person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from
the consequences of their behavior, which also affects the environment in which
they live.
3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a
behavior conducted by others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often
exhibited through "modeling" of behaviors. If individuals see successful
demonstration of a behavior, they can also complete the behavior successfully.
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's
behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior.
Reinforcements can be self-initiated or in the environment, and reinforcements
can be positive or negative. This is the construct of SCT that most closely ties to
the reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment.
5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior.
Outcome expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People
anticipate the consequences of their actions before engaging in the behavior, and
these anticipated consequences can influence successful completion of the
behavior. Expectations derive largely from previous experience. While
expectancies also derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the
value that is placed on the outcome and are subjective to the individual.

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 6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability
to successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other
theories have added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned
Behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's specific capabilities and other
individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).

BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT

Albert bandura conducted a social experiment by taking 72 children and making
them participate in a very interesting experiment
The participants were 36 boys and 36 girls, all between the ages of 3-7 years. Out
of these 72 children, 24 children were put into a Control Group, which means that no
experiments will be conducted on them.
The rest 48 were organized into two groups −
• Aggressive − 24 children who would be exposed to an aggressive model.
• Non-aggressive − 24 children who would be exposed to a non-aggressive model.

First Stage of the Experiment

Each child was subjected to the experiment individually. Each child, along with an
adult model, was sent to a toy room named Toy Room-1 that had two sections. In one
section, the child was left to play with a lot of interesting toys. In the other section, the
adult model was left with a toy set, a Bobo doll, and a hammer. The adult model plays
with the toy set and ignores the Bobo doll. Before leaving the room, the child was told
that he won’t be allowed to play with the toys that the model played with. This process
was followed with all the 48 children with the objective of creating frustration in the
mind of the child.
Now one after the other, the children in the Group Aggressive were resent to the
room with the adult model, and this time, the adult model will exhibit aggressive attitude
towards the doll by hitting it with the hammer, kicking it, slapping it, shouting at it, and
making punching sounds. This goes on for about ten minutes, and after that, the adult
model will leave the room, and the child will be taken to a new toy room, Toy Room-2.
In the case of the Group Non-aggressive, the same sequence was repeated
however, in this case, the adult model will keep playing with his toy set for ten minutes,
and completely ignore the Bobo doll. After that, the child would be taken out of the
room, after the model.

Second Stage of the Experiment

In the second stage of this experiment, the children from both the groups are taken
one by one to Toy Room-2 that was filled with much more attractive toys than there
were in Toy Room-1. The child was allowed to play with the toys for some minutes, and

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when it appeared that the child has really started to enjoy playing with the toys, he was
told that he cannot spend any more time in Toy Room-2 as the other children are waiting,
but he can go back and play in Toy Room-1. This was done to further build up the
frustration in each child.
Once the child was in Toy Room-1, he was allowed to play for about half an hour
there. This time they were told that they can play with the adult model’s toys too, if they
want.
Result
• Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive
responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
• There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those children who
has observed aggressive behavior, although the difference for non-imitative
aggression was small.
• The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive
responses if the model was male but more verbal aggressive responses if the model
was female. However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of
how often they punched Bobo, and in this case the effects of gender were reversed.
• Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls. The evidence for
girls imitating same-sex models is not strong.
• Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little
difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCT and SCL

Social cognitive theory has a broader theoretical scope as it includes a

conceptualization of humans as agents capable of shaping their environment and of self-
regulation. Social learning theory on the other hand is limited to tackling the learning
process in the social context.

Sr. No. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Definition The Social Learning Theory is Social cognitive theory (Bandura)
given by Albert Bandura, who postulates that human functioning is
believed that individual learns determined by
behavior by observing the others. a) personal factors in the form of
Simply, by observing the other cognition, affect, and biological
person’s behavior, attitude, and the events,
outcome of that behavior, an b) behavior, and

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 individual learns how to behave in c) environmental influences.
a given situation, depending on the
consequences observed.
Core There are three core concepts at the 1) The key concepts of SCT can be
concept heart of social learning theory. grouped into five major
i) People can learn through categories: (1) psychological
observation. determinants of behavior
ii) Internal mental states are an (outcome expectations, self-
essential part of this process. efficacy, and collective
iii) This theory recognizes that just efficacy),
because something has been 2) observational learning,
learned, it does not mean that it 3) environmental determinants of
will result in a change in behavior (incentive motivation,
behavior. facilitation),
4) self-regulation, and
5) moral disengagement
Role of Less important Important in acquisition and
cognitive production behaviour
factors
Scope Limited to the learning process in Broader scope; includes a
the social context conceptualization of human agency

Application of SCL theory

Social learning theory can have a number of real-world applications.

1. It can be used to help researchers understand how aggression and violence might
be transmitted through observational learning. By studying media violence,
researchers can gain a better understanding of the factors that might lead children
to act out the aggressive actions they see portrayed on television and in the movies.
2. Social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviors. Researchers
can use social learning theory to investigate and understand ways that positive role
models can be used to encourage desirable behaviors and to facilitate social
change.
3. Social change can be created through media using the Social learning theory, for
example people observe artists on TV or movies and try to imitate them in real life.
So, portraying good characters can help develop good personalities in real life.
4. In schools’ reinforcements in the form of rewards can help children sense of
responsibility and follow good practices of punctuality, discipline in their life.

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Based on the theory and its application, Violence is contagious

Based on theory and its application I conclude that Violence is contagious as we

can see from the experiment that the children imitated the behaviour of aggression or
violence. Whereas the children in control group didn’t show any aggression. Being
contagious means passing from one person to other and in this case, violence is passed
from one person to other i.e., from the model to the children merely by observation. Like
when children or for that matter any adult, if sees his ideal person doing violence and get
appreciated or rewarded then he / she tries to imitate it. This can be seen with children
who have been brought up by aggressive parents vice versa the children of parents who
are silent or nonviolent show less or no aggression at all.
Learning outcomes from the Bobo Doll experiment
The following are the learning outcomes of the Bobo Doll experiment
• People learn by observation
• If they are deprived of something, they like then aggression develops
• The level of aggression is different in males and females
• Act of violence is contagious

Conclusion
Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children are able to learn social behavior
such as aggression through the process of observation learning, through watching the
behavior of another person. The findings support Bandura's (1977) Social Learning
Theory. So, if we wish to teach children good values, calmness we need to observe and
follow them first. As Children don’t do what we say, they do what they see.
References
• https://www.onlinemswprograms.com/social-work/theories/social-learning-theory/
• https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/
• https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › Social_cognitive_theory
• McLeod, S. A. (2014). Bobo Doll Experiment. Retrieved from
www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html

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 PRACTICAL NO.2
Intelligence and Robert J. Sternberg article on ‘COVID-19

Concept of Intelligence
Human intelligence can be defined as mental quality that consists of the abilities to
learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts,
and use knowledge to manipulate one’s environment. Psychologist Robert Sternberg
defined intelligence as "the mental abilities necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping
and selection of, any environmental context”

When we think of “smart people” we likely have an intuitive sense of the qualities
that make them intelligent. They have a good memory, or that they can think quickly, or
that they simply know a whole lot of information. Indeed, people who exhibit such
qualities appear very intelligent. That said, it seems that intelligence must be more than
simply knowing facts and being able to remember them. One point in favor of this
argument is the idea of animal intelligence. A dog, which can learn commands and tricks
seems smarter than a snake that cannot. In fact, researchers and lay people generally agree
with one another that primates—monkeys and apes (including humans)—are among the
most intelligent animals. Apes such as chimpanzees are capable of complex problem
solving and sophisticated communication (Kohler, 1924).

When we talk about intelligence, we typically mean intellectual ability. This broadly
encompasses the ability to learn, remember and use new information, to solve problems
and to adapt to novel situation

Theories of Intelligence in brief

Many theories of intelligence have been proposed. Some theories are discussed here
in brief.
Raymond Cattell’s Theory
In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of intelligence that divided general
intelligence into two components: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence.
Crystallized intelligence is characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability to
retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall information, you are using crystallized
intelligence.
Fluid intelligence encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve
problems. Navigating your way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route
because of road construction would draw upon your fluid intelligence.

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 Fluid intelligence helps you tackle complex, abstract challenges in your daily life,
whereas crystallized intelligence helps you overcome concrete, straightforward
problems.

The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities

In this theory, abilities are related and arranged in a hierarchy with general abilities
at the top, broad abilities in the middle, and narrow (specific) abilities at the bottom. The
narrow abilities are the only ones that can be directly measured; however, they are
integrated within the other abilities. At the general level is general intelligence. Next, the
broad level consists of general abilities such as fluid reasoning, short-term memory, and
processing speed. Finally, as the hierarchy continues, the narrow level includes specific
forms of cognitive abilities.

(fig . taken from SAPA-Project.org SAPA Project | The CHC Model)

Spearman’s General Intelligence (g) Two factor theory

General intelligence, also known as g factor, refers to a general mental ability that,
according to Spearman, underlies multiple specific skills, including verbal, spatial,
numerical and mechanical. In the case of intelligence, Spearman noticed that those who
did well in one area of intelligence tests (for example, mathematics), also did well in other
areas

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities theory

He identified a number of primary mental abilities that comprise intelligence, as

opposed to one general factor. These are as follows

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 Mental Ability Description

Word Fluency Ability to use words quickly and fluency in performing

such tasks as rhyming, solving anagrams, and doing
crossword puzzles.

Verbal Comprehension Ability to understand the meaning of words, concepts, and

ideas.

Numerical Ability Ability to use numbers to quickly computer answers to

problems.

Spatial Visualization Ability to visualize and manipulate patters and forms in

space.

Perceptual Speed Ability to grasp perceptual details quickly and accurately

and to determine similarities and differences between
stimuli.

Memory Ability to recall information such as lists or words,

mathematical formulas, and definitions.

Inductive Reasoning Ability to derive general rules and principles from

presented information.

Thurstone theorized that intelligence consists of both general ability and a number
of specific abilities, paving the way for future research that examined the different forms
of intelligence.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Following the work of Thurstone, American psychologist Howard Gardner built off
the idea that there are multiple forms of intelligence. He proposed that there is no single
intelligence, but rather distinct, independent multiple intelligences exist, each
representing unique skills and talents relevant to a certain category. Gardner proposed
following multiple intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily
kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg developed another theory of intelligence, which he titled the triarchic
theory of intelligence because it sees intelligence as comprised of three parts practical,
creative, and analytical intelligence.

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Types of Intelligence:
➢ Analytical intelligence: aligned with academic problem solving and
computations
➢ Creative intelligence: ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a
new, novel solution to a problem
➢ Crystallized intelligence: characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability
to retrieve it
➢ Cultural intelligence: ability with which people can understand and relate to
those in another culture
➢ Emotional intelligence: ability to understand emotions and motivations in
yourself and others
➢ Fluid intelligence: ability to see complex relationships and solve problems
➢ Multiple intelligences theory: Gardner’s theory that each person possesses at
least eight types of intelligence
➢ Practical intelligence: aka “street smarts”
➢ Triarchic theory of intelligence: Sternberg’s theory of intelligence; three
facets of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical

Gardener’s multiple intelligence and Sternberg’s concept of intelligence

Multiple Intelligences Theory was developed by Howard Gardner, a Harvard
psychologist and 1987)
Gardner (1983, former initially
student of Erik Erikson.
proposed In Gardner’s
seven multiple theory, each
intelligences: person
linguistic,
logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and
possesses at least eight intelligences. Among these eight intelligences, a person typically
intrapersonal, and he has since added naturalist intelligence.
excels in some and falters in others.

(Fig takenholds
Gardner from https://www.simplypsychology.org/multiple-intelligences.htm)
that most activities (such as dancing) will involve a combination of
these multiple intelligences (such as spatial and bodily-kinesthetic intelligences). He
also Gardener
suggests holds
that these multiple
that most intelligences
activities can help
(such as dancing) willus understand
involve concepts
a combination of
beyond intelligence, such as creativity and leadership.
these multiple intelligences (such as spatial and bodily kinesthetic intelligences). He also
And although this theory has widely captured the attention of the psychology
community and greater public, it does have its faults.
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suggests that these multiple intelligences can help us understand concepts beyond
intelligence, such as creativity and leaderships.

Just two years later, in 1985, Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory of
intelligence, integrating components that were lacking in Gardner’s theory. This theory
is based on the definition of intelligence as the ability to achieve success based on one’s
personal standards and sociocultural context.

(fig taken from https://in.pinterest.com/pin/572097958887429015/)

According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical,

creative, and practical.

Analytical intelligence, also referred to as componential intelligence, refers to

intelligence that is applied to analyze or evaluate problems and arrive at solutions. This
is what a traditional IQ test measure.

Creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel and
interesting ideas. This type of intelligence involves imagination, innovation and problem-
solving.

Practical intelligence is the ability that individuals use to solve problems faced in daily
life, when a person finds the best fit between themselves and the demands of the
environment. Adapting to the demands environment involves either utilizing knowledge
gained from experience to purposefully change oneself to suit the environment
(adaptation), changing the environment to suit oneself (shaping), or finding a new
environment in which to work (selection).

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Difference between Gardener’s multiple intelligence and Sternberg’s concept of
intelligence

Sr. No. Gardener’s theory Sternberg’s theory

1 Talks about 8 multiple intelligences Talks about 3 multiple
intelligences
2 It gets at how people use their It gets at what intelligence is
intelligence in different ways
3 Gardner asserts that the theories of According to Sternberg If students
multifaceted intelligences hold out are taught in a way that fits how
“hope that more students can be they think, they do better in
reached more effectively, if their school… [Combining analytic,
favored ways of knowing are taken creative, and practical learning has
into account in the curriculum, greater benefits than just
instruction, and assessment emphasizing memory or critical
thinking. I

Similarities between Gardener’s multiple intelligence and Sternberg’s concept of

intelligence
➢ Both see intelligence as broad
➢ Both say intelligence occurs in contexts
➢ Both captured realms of cognitive abilities that were not captured by
traditional assessments and often not taught in Western classrooms.
➢ Gardner's and Sternberg's theories were born from what they viewed as
missing elements from previous definitions of intelligence.
➢ Each theorist considered aspects of practical intelligence and creativity as
important predictors of life success.
➢ Each theorist also considered unique ways to measure intelligence with a
focus on a broadened view of capturing one's true abilities.

Sternberg’s article related to COVID-19

Robert Sternberg’s recent article in Inside Higher Ed argues that COVID-19 has
shown more clearly than ever that IQ tests and other tests of their type, such as the SAT
or ACT, are not valid indicators of the type of intelligence that actually matters.
According to Sternberg, intelligence is the ability to adapt to the environment.
Intelligence is not just about an inert ability to take tests; it is about the active deployment
of that ability to solve problems of life.
Sternberg has said that mere IQ tests or mathematical verbal tests are not the right
indicators of true intelligence. Intelligence needs dealing with real life problems.
Adapting to the environment and working towards improving the environment is

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intelligence and not merely scoring in the exam. During COVID-19 intelligent people
are those who have adapted to wearing masks, washing hands follow social distancing
and not the so-called intellectuals who don’t follow these rules. He has said that
universities and colleges should teach student to apply their knowledge in real world
rather than just scoring marks and earning money. In his experiment he gave the
participants real life problems and observed how they solved it. That is true intelligence
according to Sternberg

Learning outcomes from COVID-19 article

COVID-19 Article written by Sternberg clearly states that intelligence is not
succeeding or scoring in IQ tests. It is something which helps one to adapt and survive
in the most critical conditions. During COVID-19 people who adapted to the grave
situation survived rather than the people who refused to adapt or learn new things. People
lost their jobs. Only those who learnt new skills and followed the new rules of living,
survived and grew financially, the rest didn’t. It’s necessary that we use our analytical,
reasoning and creative capabilities to learn new things and adapt ourselves to new
situations.

Conclusion
As stated by Gardener and Sternberg in their theories that student should be taught
as per their intelligent capabilities so that they are more adapted to real life situation and
make a mark for themselves. Sternberg has written in his COVID-19 article that if the
schools and colleges teach practical skills to the student rather than just focusing on
academics, they can make better citizens who can work for their and country’s
development. As predicted by Gardner and Sternberg, facilitating the development of all
types of intelligences or aspects of intelligence will likely result in improved academic
skills, better problem solving, and more effective social skills.
References
➢ https://www.multipleintelligencesoasis.org/blog/2020/9/1/67pmqk1mg1u
zre4qlcxetz6pbl3ay
➢ Nobahttps://nobaproject.com › modules › intelligence
➢ https://www.sapa-project.org/blogs/CHCmodel.html
➢ https://www2.winthrop.edu/rex/old_site/core_curriculum/EDUC200/intel
ligence_Sternberg_Gardner.pdf

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 PRACTICAL NO 3
Interview of an elderly person
Concept of old age

Old age, also called senescence, in human beings, the final stage of the normal life
span. Old age comprises "the later part of life; the period of life after youth and middle
age . . ., usually with reference to deterioration". It starts mostly after 55 for most of the
countries.

Age and aging have four dimensions. The dimension most of us think of is
chronological age, defined as the number of years since someone was born. A second
dimension is biological aging, which refers to the physical changes that “slow us down”
as we get into our middle and older years. For example, our arteries might clog up, or
problems with our lungs might make it more difficult for us to breathe. A third dimension,
psychological aging, refers to the psychological changes, including those involving
mental functioning and personality, that occur as we age. Elderly people often have
limited regenerative abilities and are more susceptible to disease, syndromes, injuries and
sickness than younger adults. The elderly also face other social issues around retirement,
loneliness, and ageism.

Gerontologists emphasize that chronological age is not always the same thing as
biological or psychological age. Some people who are 65, for example, can look and act
much younger than some who are 50. Old age is not a definite biological stage, as the
chronological age denoted as "old age" varies culturally and historically.

The fourth dimension of aging is social. Social aging refers to changes in a person’s
roles and relationships, both within their networks of relatives and friends and in formal
organizations such as the workplace and houses of worship.

The World Health Organization (WHO) set 55 as the beginning of old age. It recognized
that the developing world often defines old age, not by years, but by new roles, loss of
previous roles, or inability to make active contributions to society.
Old age issues

The distinguishing characteristics of old age are both physical and mental.

Physical marks of old age include the following:

➢ Bone and joint. Old bones are marked by "thinning and shrinkage". This might
result in a loss of height (about two inches (5 cm) by age 80), a stooping posture
in many people, and a greater susceptibility to bone and joint diseases such as
osteoarthritis and osteoporosis.

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 ➢ Chronic diseases. Some older persons have at least one chronic condition and
many have multiple conditions e.g., uncontrolled hypertension, arthritis, and heart
disease.
➢ Dental problems. May have less saliva and less ability for oral hygiene in old age
which increases the chance of tooth decay and infection.
➢ Digestive system. About 40% of the time, old age is marked by digestive
disorders such as difficulty in swallowing, inability to eat enough and to absorb
nutrition, constipation and bleeding.
➢ Essential tremor (ET) is an uncontrollable shaking in a part of the upper body.
It is more common in the elderly and symptoms worsen with age.
➢ Eyesight. Presbyopia can occur by age 50 and it hinders reading especially of
small print in low lighting.
➢ Falls. Old age spells risk for injury from falls that might not cause injury to a
younger person.
➢ Gait change. Some aspects of gait normally change with old age. Gait velocity
slows after age 70.
➢ Hair usually becomes grayer and also might become thinner. Many men are
affected by balding, and women enter menopause.
➢ Hearing. By age 75 and older, encounter impairments in hearing.
➢ Mobility impairment or loss. "Impairment in mobility affects those between 65
and 74
➢ Skin loses elasticity, becomes drier, and more lined and wrinkled.
➢ Voice. In old age, vocal cords weaken and vibrate more slowly. This results in a
weakened, breathy voice that is sometimes called an "old person's voice".

Mental marks of old age include the following:

➢ Old age dependence induces feelings of incompetence and worthlessness in a
minority.
➢ Depressed mood. When people are prejudiced against the elderly and then become
old themselves, their anti-elderly prejudice turns inward, causing depression.
➢ Increasing fear of health loss.
➢ Reduced mental and cognitive ability may afflict old age.
➢ Memory loss is common in old age due to the decrease in speed of information
being encoded, stored, and retrieved. It takes more time to learn the same amount
of new information.
➢ Dementia and Alzheimer’s is a common disorder among old age.
➢ These are commonly called geriatric syndromes. They are often the consequence
of multiple underlying factors and include frailty, urinary incontinence, falls,
delirium and pressure ulcers.

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Factors related to old age

Certain factors like family, social environment and health affect the process of
ageing. Although some of the variations in older people’s health are genetic, much is due
to people’s physical and social environments – including their homes, neighborhoods,
and communities, as well as their personal characteristics – such as their sex, ethnicity,
or socioeconomic status.

These factors start to influence the ageing process at an early stage. The
environments that people live in as children – or even as developing foetuses – combined
with their personal characteristics, have long-term effects on how they age.

Behaviours also remain important in older age. Strength training to maintain muscle
mass and good nutrition can both help to preserve cognitive function, delay care
dependency, and reverse frailty.

Supportive environments enable people to do what is important to them, despite

losses in capacity. The availability of safe and accessible public buildings and transport,
and environments that are easy to walk around are examples of supportive environments.

The diversity seen in older age is not random. A large part arises from people’s
physical and social environments and the impact of these environments on their
opportunities and health behavior. The relationship we have with our environments is
skewed by personal characteristics such as the family we were born into, our sex and our
ethnicity, leading to inequalities in health. A significant proportion of the diversity in
older age is due to the cumulative impact of these health inequities across the life course.

Older people are often assumed to be frail or dependent, and a burden to society.

Concept of interview
According to Gary Dessler, “Interview is a selection procedure designed to predict
future job performance on the basis of applicants’ oral responses to oral inquiries.”
An interview is essentially a structured conversation where one participant asks
questions, and the other provides answers. In common parlance, the word "interview"
refers to a one-on-one conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee.
Interviews can be unstructured, free-wheeling and open-ended conversations
without predetermined plan or prearranged questions. One form of unstructured interview
is a focused interview in which the interviewer consciously and consistently guides the
conversation so that the interviewee's responses do not stray from the main research topic
or idea. Interviews can also be highly structured conversations in which specific questions
occur in a specified order.

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 They can follow diverse formats; for example, in a ladder interview, a respondent's
answers typically guide subsequent interviews, with the object being to explore a
respondent's subconscious motives. Typically, the interviewer has some way of recording
the information that is gleaned from the interviewee, often by keeping notes with a pencil
and paper, or with a video or audio recorder. Interviews usually have a limited duration,
with a beginning and an ending.
The traditional two-person interview format, sometimes called a one-on-one
interview, permits direct questions and follow-ups, which enables an interviewer to better
gauge the accuracy and relevance of responses. It is a flexible arrangement in the sense
that subsequent questions can be tailored to clarify earlier answers. Further, it eliminates
possible distortion due to other parties being present.
Face to face interviewing helps both parties to interact and form a connection, and
understand the other. Further, face to face interview sessions can be more enjoyable.]
Types of interview

There are several types of interview;

➢ Unstructured (Nondirective) Interview.

➢ Structured (Directive) Interview.
➢ Situational Interview.
➢ Behavioral Interview.
➢ Job-related Interview.
➢ Stress Interview.
➢ Panel Interview (Board Interview).
➢ One-On-One Interview.
➢ Mass Interview (Group Interview),
➢ Phone Interview
Objectives of Interview
Following are the main objectives of the interview.
➢ Create relation between interviewer and interviewee
➢ Gain inner feelings of the respondent
➢ Collect information’s about an existing social problem
➢ Create a source of knowledge
➢ Provide rich hypothesis
➢ Observe the situation quickly
➢ Collect additional information’s
➢ Reduce the distance between human beings
➢ Draw quantitative facts.
➢ Gain new knowledge about an area.

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Interview questionnaire for the elderly
1. What is your name?
Ans : My name is Mr. J
2. What is your age?
Ans : My age is 75 years
3. From where do you belong originally?
Ans : I belong from Agra originally.
4. Tell us something about your childhood? How was it?
Ans : My childhood was good. I completed my education in Agra and Indore. My father
came to Pune for work and we all in the family came here and settled.
5. Can you share your relationship with your parents?
Ans : My relationship with my parents was not open. I was not very vocal so I never
spoke much with them. They were not strict but wished that their children should
be well settled, educated.
6. How was your school / college life?
Ans : I enjoyed my college life. I loved to travel, paint and also do photography. I was
always interested in learning new things.
7. When did you start working? Did you enjoy your work?
Ans: As soon as I finished my graduation, I took up a job in Pune. I didn’t enjoy my
work as I always wanted to do my own business and I started my own business in
1977, along with my job. It was a period of struggle, but with my family support,
hard work and will power I was able to overcome it
8. How did you take care of your health in your teens and in your thirties or forties?
Ans : I was always conscious about my health. I used to gym in my teens and forties.
Regular walk exercise is an integral part of my life today also.
9. When did you get married? How is/was your married life?
Ans : I got married in 1975 and by God’s grace my married life is good. I have a good
understanding educated wife.
10. Can you share something about your social life?
Ans :I am socially active. I attend all the family functions as well as social function of
our Jain Samaj. I am actively involved with our temple activities.
11. How are you feeling now? (energetic/lethargic)
Ans: I am feeling energetic at this age also because eating healthy and doing exercise
daily is in my routine. I also actively do the house hold work like cleaning etc and
run my business.
12. What kind of life are you living now? (Retired/working / active)
Ans : As I already mentioned I am living an active life.
13. How is your health now? Are you facing any health issues?
Ans : My health is good as per my age. Yes, sometimes I have back ache, but overall its
good. I do have glaucoma, which I am taking care of with proper medication.

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14. How do you maintain it?
Ans : I maintain my health by being active, happy.
15. What is your philosophy of life?
Ans : Live life to the fullest. Don’t regret the past. Keep yourself busy and always learn
new skills.
16. Do you believe that life actually starts after 60?
Ans : No, Life is always there it starts when you are born and ends when you die.
17. Can you share your relationship with your children/spouse?
Ans : My relationship is healthy with them. As I am not much vocal so children don’t
share about themselves much to me, they are more close to their mother. Bu I am
happy as I have good relations with my wife. We enjoy life together and understand
each other.
18. Are you happy with your life?
Ans : Yes.
19. Are you socially active? Are you associated with any organisations?
Ans : Yes. I am associated with Jain Samaj.
20. Do you have friends? Do you think having friends is necessary to live life fully?
Ans : Yes, I do have friends. Friends help you understand yourself better.
21. Anything you would like to share about your life that will help younger generation?
Ans: Believe in yourself. Never compromise on good food, good clothes and good
people.

Outcomes of the interview (summary of the interview)

Mr. ABC has lived his life on his own terms. He has been a hard worker right from
his childhood. He was conscious of his health during his younger days and that has
helped him to live a healthy life now, when he is 75 years of age. Today also he exercises
daily and is active with his business and social work. He has a healthy relationship with
his wife and his children. All his children are well settled in life. He is active socially
with functions and temple activities.
He believes that to live life fully, healthy and happy one must live in present and do hard
work. One must be physically active throughout his life and maintain a work life balance.

Conclusion
Old age is just a number to many. After meeting this person, we can understand that
if we have to live happily and with good health in the old age, we should make our
foundation, base strong. We should work on our health and relationships in our younger
and middle adulthood age.

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References
➢ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-socialproblems/chapter/6-1-the-
concept-and-experience-of-aging/
➢ https://www.iedunote.com/interview

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 PRACTICAL NO.4

Locus of Control
Concept of Locus of Control

Locus of control is a belief about the primary source of a person's behavior- either
internal (within a person) or external (with in a person's physical and social environment).
Julian Rotter (1966) proposed the concept of locus of control, a cognitive factor that
affects learning and personality development. Distinct from self-efficacy, which involves
our belief in our own abilities, locus of control refers to our beliefs about the power we
have over our lives.

It is a psychological concept that refers to how strongly people believe they have
control over the situations and experiences that affect their lives. In education, locus of
control typically refers to how students perceive the causes of their academic success or
failure in school.

Types of Locus of control

There are two types of locus of control: internal or external.

In Rotter’s view, people possess either an internal or an external locus of control.

Those of us with an internal locus of control (“internals”) tend to believe that most of our
outcomes are the direct result of our efforts. Those of us with an external locus of control
(“externals”) tend to believe that our outcomes are outside of our control.

Externals see their lives as being controlled by other people, luck, or chance. For
example, some people believe that whatever wrong happens in their life happens because
of others. If a husband has a fight with his wife and he faces some negative consequence
he believes that it was because of the fight with his wife. Same is the case in academics
or promotions in office. For their success they thank God and other people in their life
and believe less in their abilities to achieve it.

Internals take the responsibility for their action, e.g., if the fight is between a
husband and wife then and husband faces some negative consequences, he will not blame
his wife. He will take half the responsibility for his actions. Same is the case in academics
or promotions in office. For their success they believe in themselves and take
responsibility for their success or failure and try to improve on their setbacks.

Researchers have found that people with an internal locus of control perform better
academically, achieve more in their careers, are more independent, are healthier, are
better able to cope, and are less depressed than people who have an external locus of
control.

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 (fig taken from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-
2/chapter/learning-approaches/)

Key attributes of external locus of control include

✓ supports a belief that one is helpless,

✓ not in control of one's successes and failures.
✓ Dependent on others for decision making
✓ Not accepting responsibilities, instead blaming others

Key attributes of internal locus of control include:

✓ You are in control of your success and failures

✓ Positive attitude
✓ Accepting responsible for your actions, achievements, and failures
✓ Understanding that your success and failures comes from your own effort

Factors responsible for locus of control (Both external and internal)

1. Childhood Experience: Locus of control is often viewed as an
inborn personality component. It is shaped by childhood experiences—including
children’s interactions with their parents. Children who were raised by parents who
encouraged their independence and helped them to learn the connection between
actions and their consequences tended to have a more well-developed internal
locus of control.
2. Unfortunate Incidents: Unfortunate incidents and extremely disrupting events in
life increase externality. Some persons with strong self- confidence and faith on
competency and sincerity may shift to faith, luck and uncontrollable factors when
they meet failures and frustrations in life events which are totally beyond their
control like sudden death of near and dear ones, divorce, separation, health
problems, constant failure in examinations, inability to get a job inspite of repeated
attempts and many other similar factors. Ultimately such people loose hope in
themselves and leave everything to fate,
3. Old age: People in old age tend to become internal or external depending on their
experience in life. E.g., if a person is successful and living a content life in his old
age tends to be internal whereas a person who has lost his health wealth becomes
external
4. Sometimes externality is necessary, particularly when one feels very helpless and
has to give himself solace and by viewing that he is not personally responsible for

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 such mistakes. By this the ego of the person is able to reduce and resolve a lot of
anxiety.

Review of literature about Assessment and observation of locus of control

➢ Dustin P. Griffin in his study of undergraduate found, when measuring the

relationship between locus of control (LOC) and psychological well-being,
internal and external locus of control have been bound within a single construct.
In this pilot study, it was hypothesized that internal and external locus of control
would each predict unique variance in psychological well-being. University
students (n = 577) took part in a self-report survey through an online data-
collection system. Using simultaneous linear regression analyses, results showed
that external LOC predicted unique variance in self-esteem, depression, and stress.
Internal LOC was found to have no unique association with psychological well-
being. This implies that internal and external LOC should be measured as two
separate constructs, and that external LOC is the main factor in predicting well-
being
➢ Iselin Reknes et al studied about how Locus of Control Moderates the
Relationship Between Exposure to Bullying Behaviors and Psychological Strain.
Data were gathered in 2014–2015 from 1474 Russian employees (44% response
rate), and analyzed using Mplus and SEM modeling. Included measurement scales
were the Negative Acts Questionnaire-Revised, the General Health Questionnaire-
12, and Levenson’s Locus of Control scale. Although the prevalence of high
intensity bullying was low, the results showed the expected positive relationship
between exposure to bullying behaviors and psychological strain. Furthermore,
this relationship was moderated by locus of control. The results showed that
internal locus of control did not have the generally assumed positive effect on
strain when exposed to bullying behaviors. On the other hand, external locus of
control seemed relatively beneficial when facing bullying behaviors. The results
of this study thus supported that exposure to bullying and its associated behaviors
are unique stressors where personal characteristics seem to play a different role
than normally expected when facing other kinds of stressors.
➢ Rana Özen Kutanis Muammer Mesci researched what influences the locus of
control has on the learning performance of students. In this research, quantitative
research method was used by keeping in mind the scope and qualities of the topic.
The data of the research was gathered by the help of standardized survey technique.
At the end of the research, it was concluded that learning performances of the
students with internal locus of control are high, and they are more proactive and
effective during the learning process. On the other hand, the ones with external
locus of control are more passive and reactive during this period.
➢ Sindh Madressatul measured the locus of control of students in order to determine
the degree of their externality or internality of locus of control. The results show

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 that the majority of students were found to be more internal than external in their
locus of control. This result is enlightened with others studies that, locus of control
and academic achievement were related positively to each other. Boys were found
to be more internal than girls at college level however, no gender differences in
locus of control were found at the University level.
➢ Findley, Maureen J. Cooper, Harris M.A studies on the relationship between
locus of control (LOC) and academic achievement revealed that more internal
beliefs are associated with greater academic achievement and that the magnitude
of this relation is small to medium. Characteristics of the participants in the
reviewed studies and the nature of the LOC and academic achievement measures
were investigated as mediators of the relation. The relation tended to be stronger
for adolescents than for adults or children. The relation was more substantial
among males than among females. Stronger effects were associated with specific
LOC measures and with standardized achievement or intelligence tests than with
teacher grades.
Need of the present Study
The present study was conducted in preview of the practicals conducted in the first
year of MA psychology IGNOU course.
It was done to understand what is locus of control, types, factors and assess the locus of
control of participants.

Method
Objective: To find level of locus of control both external and internal of the
participant
Participant Details:
➢ Name : Ms. XYZ
➢ Age : 19 years
➢ Gender : Female
➢ Occupation : Student
➢ Social Strata : Middle class

Details of the test

Rotter’s locus of control test was administered and the participant was briefed about
how the test should be given. He/she was explained that they have to choose any one
answer from the options given. 20 questions were administered and the score was
calculated on the basis of the key given.

Material used: Rotter’s questionnaire, pen, writing pad

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Ethical Guidelines
➢ The consent of the person was taken
➢ Permission from parents was not required as the participant is an adult
➢ Data will be kept confidential
➢ Participation is voluntary
Brief about the study to the participant:
The participant was explained that the study is done as a part of MA psychology
course and no other information about the participant will be shared to anyone.
Setting of the test administered
The data was collected from the home of the participant
Procedure
1. The participant is a student and she was told about the details of the test and its
significance. She readily agreed to it.
2. Following Instructions were given as to how the test will be conducted
i.Sit in a comfortable position
ii.Use a pencil to mark /circle the answers
iii.Thin properly and answer, don’t answer spontaneously
3. The questionnaire (in printed form) was given to the participant. Scores were not
shared.
4. Answers were noted and scores were calculated using the scoring key

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Introspective Report
The participant was clear about the answers she marked except for the question
of Marriage. She completed the test in 10 mins time.
Behavioural observation
The participant was calm while doing the test. She gave the test without any
disturbance or break.
Scoring
Question No. Answer Marks
1 T 5
2 T 0
3 F 5
4 F 0
5 F 5
6 F 5
7 T 5
8 T 5
9 T 0
10 F 5
11 T 5
12 F 5

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 13 T 5
14 F 5
15 T 5
16 T 0
17 T 5
18 T 5
19 T 0
20 F 5

Score = 75
Result
She has internal locus of control
Conclusion
The participant has an internal locus of control means she takes responsibility of her
actions.
References
➢ Steca P., Monzani D. (2014) Locus of Control. In: Michalos A.C. (eds)
Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer, Dordrecht.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_1688
➢ Locus of Control and Psychological Well-Being: Separating the Measurement of
Internal and External Constructs -- A Pilot Study Dustin P. Griffin
Undergraduate, Psychology Department, retrieved from
Https://encompass.eku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?Article=1017&context=ugraloc
➢ Locus of Control Moderates the Relationship Between Exposure to Bullying
Behaviors and Psychological Strain, Iselin Reknes, Gintare Visockaite, Andreas
Liefooghe, Andrey Lovakov4 and Ståle V. Einarsen Front. Psychol., 06 June
2019 retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01323
➢ The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an
Academic Organization January 2011, Journal of Economic and Social Studies,
volume 1 ,p113-135 retrieved from
Http://rdonaldson.com/locus_motivation_sc_4/locus_motivation_sc_4_print.html
➢ A Study to Investigate the Relationship between Locus of Control and Academic
Achievement of Students Gujjar, Aijaz Ahmed; Aijaz, Rukhma
Journal on Educational Psychology, v8 n1 p1-9 May-Jul 2014 retrieved from
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1098633
➢ Findley, M. J., & Cooper, H. M. (1983). Locus of control and academic
achievement: A literature review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
44(2), 419–427. Retrieved from Https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1983-25296-001
➢ https://www.uaex.edu/life-skills-wellness/personal-finance/Locus-of-Control.pdf

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 PRACTICAL NO. 6

Halo effect Nisbett and Wilson' Experiment

Concept of Halo effect

The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a
person influences how we feel and think about their character. Perceptions of a single
trait can carry over to how people perceive other aspects of that person.

One great example of the halo effect in action is our overall impression of
celebrities. Since people perceive them as attractive, successful, and often likable, they
also tend to see them as intelligent, kind, and funny.

Another example, a tall or good-looking person will be perceived as being

intelligent and trustworthy, even though there is no logical reason to believe that height
or looks correlate with smarts and honesty.

The term "halo effect" (a.k.a. halo error) was first introduced into psychological-
research circles in 1920 in a paper authored by Edward Thorndike titled “A Constant
Error in Psychological Ratings.” Through empirical research, Thorndike found that when
people were asked to assess others based on a series of traits, a negative perception of
any one trait would drag down all the other trait scores.

The halo effect works both in both positive and negative directions:

If you like one aspect of something, you'll have a positive predisposition toward
everything about it.

If you dislike one aspect of something, you'll have a negative predisposition toward
everything about it.

The halo effect allows us to make snap judgments, because we only have to consider
one aspect of a person or design in order to "know" about all other aspects.

Factors related to Halo effect

1. A person’s attractiveness is among the most common characteristics to produce

cognitive bias.
2. Physical attributes such as weight, hair, and eye color contribute to perceptions of
attractiveness.
3. People who are sociable or kind, for example, may also be seen as more likable and
intelligent.

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Nisbett and Wilson' Experiment

In this experiment, college students as participants were asked to evaluate a

psychology instructor as they view him in a videotaped interview. The instructor would
be evaluated on several different dimensions.

The students were divided into two groups, and each were shown one of two
different interviews with the same instructor who is a native French-speaking Belgian
who spoke English with a fairly noticeable accent.

In one video, the instructor presented himself as someone likeable, respectful of his
students' intelligence and motives, flexible in his approach to teaching and enthusiastic
about his subject matter. In the other interview, he presented himself in an entirely
different way, in an unlikeable way to be specific. He was cold and distrustful toward the
students and was quite rigid in his teaching style.

Procedure

The subjects were 118 University of Michigan students enrolled in introductory

psychology; 62 were males and 56 were females. The subjects participated in the
experiment in groups of 6-17. Sessions were conducted in such a way as to ensure that
no overt communication between subjects took place. (But in any case, conclusions are
not affected when the group rather than the individual was used as the unit of analysis.)
On arrival, the subjects were ushered into a well-appointed conference room with chairs
oriented toward a 19-inch (.48-meter) television monitor. The subjects were told that the
psychology department had recently conducted a large-scale evaluation of teachers of
introductory psychology: At the end of the term teachers were evaluated by their students
on a number of dimensions, ranging from traditional questions of teaching effectiveness
to questions about matters such as physical appearance and mannerisms finding out
whether evaluations of teachers who are seen in brief videotaped interviews at all
resemble the evaluations of these teachers by students who were exposed to them for a
whole semester.

The participants were asked to look at the videotapes and then rate the teachers on
some of the same dimensions employed in the original study. The subjects were then
shown two videotaped interviews. All subjects were first shown a 7-minute filler
interview with a bright and pleasant instructor who answered such questions as, what is
your general educational philosophy? Do you encourage student discussion? How do you
handle evaluations of student work?

Then half the subjects saw the Belgian instructor answer the same questions in his
warm guise and half saw him answer the questions in his cold guise. Each of these
interviews also lasted about 7 minutes.

The warmness or coldness of the instructor was apparent in his answers to virtually
all the questions. For example, in his warm guise the instructor answered the question

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about student discussion by saying that, yes, he encouraged discussion and that he was
stimulated by the give and take it provided and felt that it enhanced student interest in the
lecture material. The instructor also answered the question about evaluation of student
work by saying that he gave paper assignments that the students seemed to like and profit
from and gave exams that were a mixture of objective questions and thought questions.

In his cold guise he answered the question by saying that he didn't allow much
discussion because "there's a time to be a student and a time to be a professor" and he
wouldn't be the professor if he didn't know more than they did. He said he gave weekly
multiple-choice quizzes because otherwise "you can't trust them to do the reading”

After seeing each interview, all subjects were asked, "How much do you think you
would like this teacher?" and were asked to rate him on an 8-point scale ranging from
"like extremely" to "dislike extremely." The questionnaire then read: "Listed below are
some characteristics of the teacher you saw. Please indicate how you think you would
feel about each of the characteristics if you were to take a course from the teacher" The
characteristics included physical appearance, mannerisms, and for the Belgian instructor,
accent. The subjects rated each characteristic on the scale below:

— extremely appealing

— very appealing

— somewhat appealing

— slightly appealing

— slightly irritating

— somewhat irritating

— very irritating

— extremely irritating

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In addition, 34 subjects were told that the investigators were interested in knowing "how
much, if at all, your liking for the teacher influenced the ratings you just made." The
subjects indicated their answers on scales of the following type: My liking for the teacher
caused me to rate his
⎯ physical appearance:
⎯ much higher
⎯ higher
⎯ slightly higher
⎯ had no effect
⎯ slightly lower
⎯ lower
⎯ much lower
Another 56 subjects were asked to indicate "how much, if at all, the characteristics you
just rated influenced your liking of the teacher." The subjects indicated their answers on
scales of the following type: Physical appearance made me like him:
⎯ much more
⎯ more
⎯ slightly more
⎯ had no effect
⎯ slightly less
⎯ less
⎯ much less
After responding to the questionnaire, the subjects were quizzed intensively about their
reactions to the videotapes and to the questionnaire items, and then were debriefed.

Results

The results demonstrate that global assessment of a person can powerfully alter
evaluations of particular attributes. That is, this is the case if one is willing to make the
assumption that the attributes manifested by the confederate were in fact constant across
experimental conditions. Although this is a reasonable assumption, it is by no means
indisputable. It might have been the case, for example, that the teacher smiled a lot in his
warm guise, thus making his appearance more appealing and/or frowned a lot in his cold
guise, thus making it less appealing. Similarly, his mannerisms, both physical and verbal,
might have differed when he was playing the two roles. It is even conceivable that his
accent might have been less pronounced and harsh when he was playing the warm role
than when playing the cold role. The present results support the strong interpretation of
the halo effect phenomenon. They indicate that global evaluations alter evaluations of

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attributes about which the individual has information fully sufficient to allow for an
independent assessment.
Conclusion

From the results, the subjects were obviously unaware of the halo effect and the
nature of the influence of global evaluation on their ratings. The results also indicate that
global evaluations alter evaluations of attributes about which the individual has
information fully sufficient to allow for an independent assessment. The subjects were
convinced that they made their judgment about the lecturer's physical appearance,
mannerisms and accent without considering how likeable he was.

Key Takeaways/ Learning outcomes of the experiment

Through this experiment we learn that
➢ Halo effect exists and it influences the decisions of persons. Even the learning of
students differs if the teacher is attractive or unattractive. Many a times people give
their judgements or opinions without even knowing that they are influenced by the
halo effect.
➢ Halo effect helps us to convey our messages effectively to others.
➢ It has a positive impression on others.

Advantages of Halo effect

➢ It helps to influence people.
➢ It helps doctors to treat their patients
➢ Teachers can use it to influence students positively and teach them effectively.
➢ Politicians can influence people to vote for them.
➢ Marketing people can use it to sell their products.

Application of Halo effect

Halo effect can be successfully used in following fields:

1. In Education

Research has found that the halo effect may play a role in educational settings.
Teachers may interact with students differently based on perceptions of attractiveness.
The halo effect can influence how teachers treat students, but it can also impact how
students perceive teachers. E.g., a good-looking well-mannered student gets more
attention of the teacher and this can affect his exam results positively.

2. In the Workplace

There are a number of ways that the halo effect can influence perceptions of others
in work settings. People with pleasing personality, good communication skills, beautiful

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women are more likely to get appraisals and promotions in the workplace area. On the
other hand, people who don’t have a good personality or communication skills may not
be promoted even if they are working hard.

Job applicants are also likely to feel the impact of the halo effect. If a prospective
employer views the applicant as attractive or likable, they are more likely to also rate the
individual as intelligent, competent, and qualified.

3.In Marketing

Marketers take advantage of the halo effect to sell products and services. When a
celebrity spokesperson endorses a particular item, our positive evaluations of that
individual can spread to our perceptions of the product itself.

4.In politics

A person who speaks well and is able to engage his audience positively is more
likely to win an election than his counterpart who is not able to do so.

5.In Business

The halo effect can be seen in the business e.g., Imagine a company that is doing
well, with rising sales, high profits, and a sharply increasing stock price. The tendency is
to infer that the company has a sound strategy, a visionary leader, motivated employees,
an excellent customer orientation, a vibrant culture, and so on. But when that same
company suffers a decline—if sales fall and profits shrink—many people are quick to
conclude that the company’s strategy went wrong, its people became complacent, it
neglected its customers, its culture became stodgy, and more. In fact, these things may
not have changed much, if at all. Rather, company performance, good or bad, creates an
overall impression—a halo—that shapes how we perceive its strategy, leaders,
employees, culture, and other elements.

Relation between learning behaviour and halo effect

Learning is highly affected when the instructor or teacher is having a pleasing

personality, is polite and confident. The teacher makes a good rapport with the students
if he/she positively engages the students and thinks for their benefit in their way. On the
other hand, if the teacher doesn’t have good communication skills or a pleasing
personality, he/she is less likely to engage students. The students don’t pay much
attention in the class and this affects their learning.

A pupil's attractiveness also influences a teacher's judgment on that student's IQ,

social status with peers, parental attitude toward school, and future educational
accomplishments. If the student is good in academics along with good communication
skills, he/she is more likely to get the attention of the teachers. If the parents are actively
involved in the child’s progress then the teachers tend to teach that student with more

MPC007 – Enroll No – 2001665128 (Ms RINKU JAIN) : Page 36 of 37

interest. Students with indiscipline and poor communication skills are ignored by the
teachers and this negatively affects their learning.

Conclusion

To conclude this experiment shows that Halo effect exists and it does influence
people. It may be sometimes biased and decisions may go wrong just based on the halo
effect.
References
➢ https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/92158/TheHaloEffect.p
df
➢ The Halo Effect: Evidence for Unconscious Alteration of Judgments by Richard
E. Nisbett and Timothy DeCamp Wilson (Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 1977, Vol.35, No.4, 250-256) retrieved from
http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/92158
➢ A constant error in psychological ratings by Edward, Thorndike, teacher’s
college, Columbia university retrieved from
http://web.mit.edu/curhan/www/docs/Articles/biases/4_J_Applied_Psychology_2
5_(Thorndike).pdf
➢ Jean Ritter, Rita Casey, and Judith Langlois. "Adults' Responses to Infants Varying
in Appearance of Age and Attractiveness." Society for Research in Child
Development 62(1991): 68-82. Retrieved from
http://www.envisionsoftware.com/articles/Halo_Effect.html
➢ Lindgaard, G. & Dudek, C. (2002). High appeal versus high usability:
Implications for user satisfaction, HF2002 Human Factors Conference,
Melbourne, Australia, November 25–27.
➢ Rosenzweig, P. (2007). The Halo Effect: ... and the Eight Other Business
Delusions That Deceive Managers. The Free Press.
➢ Thorndike, E.L. (1920). A constant error in psychological ratings. J. Appl.
Psychol., 4, 25-29.
➢ The Halo Effect: . . . and the Eight Other Business Delusions That Deceive Managers,
New York: Free Press, 2007.retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/business-
functions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/the-halo-effect-and-other-
managerial-delusions
➢ https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-halo-effect-2795906

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