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History of
the Canadian
Peoples
Volume 1 | Beginnings to 1867

Sixth Edition

Margaret Conrad • Alvin Finkel • Donald Fyson

University of New Brunswick Athabasca University Université Laval

Toronto
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Editor-in-Chief: Michelle Sartor

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Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 [WC]
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Conrad, Margaret, author
History of the Canadian peoples/Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel,
Donald Fyson.—Sixth edition.
First edition: volume 1 by Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel, Cornelius
Jaenen; volume 2 by Alvin Finkel, Margaret Conrad, and Veronica
Strong-Boag.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Contents: v. 1. Beginnings to 1867
ISBN 978-0-13-299196-4 (pbk.)
1. Canada—History. I. Finkel, Alvin, 1949-, author II. Fyson,
Donald, 1967-, author III. Title.
FC165.C66 2014 971 C2013-907822-3

ISBN 978-0-13-299196-4
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CONTENTS

List of Maps ix I Preface xi I A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: DIVERGING VIEWS OF ORAL

Acknowledgements xiii I Introduction xv TRADITION 29
Notes 30
Selected Reading 31
PART I
BEGINNINGS 1
CHAPTER 3
NATIVES AND NEWCOMERS, 1000–1663 32
CHAPTER 1
The European Cultural Heritage 32
CANADA: A BIRD’S EYE VIEW 2
A Brief Encounter 33
The Physical Environment 2
Early Explorations 34
MORE TO THE STORY: ANCIENT LAKE AGASSIZ 3
MORE TO THE STORY: JOGGINS: EARTH’S HISTORY WRITTEN Fish, Furs, and Whales 35
IN STONE 8 MORE TO THE STORY: SEARCHING FOR ASIA 36
Conclusion 9 English Colonization in Newfoundland 37
Notes 9 France in America 38
Selected Reading 9 VOICES FROM THE PAST: THE FERRYLAND SETTLEMENT IN
NEWFOUNDLAND 39
The Founding of Acadia 40
The Founding of Quebec 41
CHAPTER 2
BIOGRAPHY: ÉTIENNE BRÛLÉ 42
FIRST PEOPLES BEFORE 1500 10
Crisis in New France 43
Writing Native History 11 Civil War in Acadia 43
Millennia of Adaptations 13 A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: CRUELTY VERSUS GERMS 45
MORE TO THE STORY: NAMING FIRST PEOPLES 16
Canada, 1635–1663 46
Spirituality and Society 16 The Emerging Canadian Social Order 46
VOICES FROM THE PAST: DREAMS AND CREE CULTURE 18
Preaching the Word 48
Native Accounts of Creation 19 MORE TO THE STORY: SAINTE-MARIE-DES-HURONS 49
Organization and Governance 20 Female Religious Orders 51
Sex and Sex Roles 22 Missions and Native Culture 51
Native Economies 24 The Wendat–Five Nations Wars 52
Trade and Warfare 27 BIOGRAPHY: MARIE DE L’INCARNATION 53
BIOGRAPHY: DEKANAWIDAH AND HIAWATHA 28 New France in Question 55
Conclusion 29 MORE TO THE STORY: THE CASE OF DOLLARD DES ORMEAUX 55
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iv CONTENTS

A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: THE DESTRUCTION BIOGRAPHY: MADELEINE DE VERCHÈRES 84

OF HURONIA 56
The War of the Spanish Succession 85
Conclusion 57 MORE TO THE STORY: THE MIDDLE GROUND 86
Notes 57 The Imperial Factor 88
Selected Reading 58 VOICES FROM THE PAST: A COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
IN DEBT 88

PART II Louisiana and the Illinois 89

The Pays d’en Haut 90
FRANCE IN AMERICA, 1663–1763 59
The Pacific Coast 91
Louisbourg 91
CHAPTER 4
MORE TO THE STORY: MASTERLESS MEN 93
NEW FRANCE TAKES ROOT, 1663–1689 60
Île Saint-Jean 94
The Age of Absolutism 60 The Fur Trade in Canada 94
Canada 62 Economic Initiatives 95
Acadia 64 VOICES FROM THE PAST: PRIVATE GAIN FROM PUBLIC OFFICE 96
BIOGRAPHY: PHILIPPE MIUS D’ENTREMONT, SEIGNEUR MORE TO THE STORY: THE CHINA CONNECTION 97
IN ACADIA 65
The Fisheries 98
Newfoundland 66
British Newfoundland 99
Colonial Administration 67
Conclusion 100
Paternalism in New France 68 A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: PIERRE LE MOYNE D’IBERVILLE:
Law and Order 68 HERO OR VILLAIN? 100
VOICES FROM THE PAST: GOVERNOR DENONVILLE DENOUNCES Notes 102
GANGS, 1685 70
Selected Reading 102
Religious Establishment 70
BIOGRAPHY: KATERI TEKAKWITHA 71
Mercantilism 72
MORE TO THE STORY: WITCHES AND WARLOCKS IN NEW
CHAPTER 6
FRANCE 73
SOCIETY AND CULTURE IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY
Seigneurialism 74
NEW FRANCE 104
Controlling the Fur Trade 76
The Hudson’s Bay Company 77 Immigration and Society 104
MORE TO THE STORY: DEMOGRAPHY 106
Explorations West and South 78
Town Life 107
Conclusion 78
A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: THEOCRATIC TYRANNY Local Government 108
OR BENEVOLENT PATERNALISM? 79 Arts and Sciences 108
Notes 80 MORE TO THE STORY: MADAME BÉGON, ÉPISTOLIÈRE 109

Selected Reading 80 Canadian Habitant Society 110

The Family under the French Regime 111
MORE TO THE STORY: WERE THE HABITANTS OF CANADA
CHAPTER 5 PEASANTS? 112
STRATEGIC OUTPOSTS, 1689–1744 82 The Family Economy 113
The War of the League of Augsburg 82 Church and Society 114
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CONTENTS v

Class and Society 116 PART III

The Colonial Elite 117
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA, 1763–1821 153
BIOGRAPHY: THE FATE OF FRANÇOIS BIGOT 118
Merchants 119
CHAPTER 8
Artisans 119
MAKING ADJUSTMENTS, 1763–1783 154
Labour 120
Slavery 120 The Conquest and Native Policy 154
VOICES FROM THE PAST: SHIPPING A SLAVE The Royal Proclamation of 1763 156
TO LOUISBOURG 121 MORE TO THE STORY: THE NIAGARA CONGRESS, 1764 157
Conclusion 122 The Conquest and Quebec 158
VOICES FROM THE PAST: MARIE-JOSÈPHE ANGÉLIQUE 123 Civil Government in Quebec 158
A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN
NEW FRANCE 124
The Quebec Act, 1774 161

Notes 125 Anglicizing Nova Scotia 162

VOICES FROM THE PAST: EDUCATION IN PLANTER NOVA
Selected Reading 126 SCOTIA 162
St John’s Island 163
Newfoundland and Labrador 164
CHAPTER 7 Fur-Trade Rivalries in the Northwest 166
EMPIRES IN CONFLICT, 1713–1763 127 The American Revolution 166

Enemies and Allies 127 Quebec in Question 167

British Rule in the Atlantic Region 128 The War in the Atlantic Region 168
BIOGRAPHY: JOSEPH AND MOLLY BRANT 169
The Neutral French 130
Mi’kmaq, Maliseet, and Passamaquoddy 131 An Uneasy Peace 171

War of the Austrian Succession, 1744–1748 132 Conclusion 172

A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: THE EFFECTS OF THE CONQUEST
The Uneasy Peace in Acadia, 1749–1755 134 ON QUEBEC SOCIETY 172
MORE TO THE STORY: EARLY DAYS IN HALIFAX 135
Notes 173
The Southwestern Frontier in Question 137
Selected Reading 174
MORE TO THE STORY: THE FEARSOME CANADIAN MILITIA: THE STUFF
OF LEGEND 138
The British Take the Offensive 139
VOICES FROM THE PAST: CLAUDE BOURGEOIS PLEADS FOR
RELIEF 142 CHAPTER 9
The Seven Years’ War, 1756–1763 142 REDEFINING BRITISH NORTH AMERICA, 1783–1815 176
The Siege of Quebec 144 The Loyalist Influx 176
BIOGRAPHY: JOSEPH BROUSSARD DIT BEAUSOLEIL, ACADIAN Settling the Loyalists 178
RESISTANCE FIGHTER 147
MORE TO THE STORY: BLACK LOYALIST PREACHERS IN NOVA SCOTIA
Surrender and Negotiation 147 AND SIERRA LEONE 179
Conclusion 148 The Constitutional Act, 1791 181
BIOGRAPHY: MONTCALM AND WOLFE 148 Upper Canada, 1791–1812 183
Notes 150 Lower Canada, 1791–1812 184
Selected Reading 151 BIOGRAPHY: EZEKIEL HART 186
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vi CONTENTS

The Maritime Colonies 187 The Immigrant Experience 225

Newfoundland and Labrador 189 VOICES FROM THE PAST: ORAL HISTORY 226
Prelude to War 189 The Domestic Economy 229
The War of 1812 191 The Commercial Economy 230
VOICES FROM THE PAST: THE LEGEND OF BROCK AND THE LOYAL MORE TO THE STORY: THE TALE OF TWO RURAL
MILITIA 192 ECONOMIES 232
The Legacy of the War of 1812 194 Colonial Cities 234
Class and Culture in Colonial Society 196 Class and Culture 236
MORE TO THE STORY: ARTISTS IN A NEW WORLD 198
Poverty in a Cold Climate 236
A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: THE LOYALISTS 200
VOICES FROM THE PAST: “A DAMN POOR LAW” 237
Conclusion 201
Gender and Society 239
Notes 201 VOICES FROM THE PAST: SUSANNAH MOODIE DESCRIBES AN UPPER
Selected Reading 202 CANADIAN CHARIVARI 240
Aboriginal Peoples 241
BIOGRAPHY: SHINGWAUKONSE 242
CHAPTER 10 BIOGRAPHY: SHANAWDITHIT 243
NATIVES AND THE FUR TRADE IN Blacks 244
THE WEST, 1775–1821 204 BIOGRAPHY: MARY ANN SHADD CARY 246

Fur-Trade Rivalries in the Northwest 204 Conclusion 246

MORE TO THE STORY: THE LIVES OF VOYAGEURS 205 A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: THE MARITIME ECONOMY: THE
LEGACY OF MERCANTILISM IN THE MARITIMES 247
Native Peoples and the Fur Trade 207
MORE TO THE STORY: SAMUEL HEARNE AND MATONABBEE 209 Notes 248
The Founding of the Red River Settlement 211 Selected Reading 249
MORE TO THE STORY: THE SPREAD OF DISEASE 212
MORE TO THE STORY: NATIVE AGRICULTURE IN THE
NORTHWEST 214
Trade on the West Coast 214 CHAPTER 12
BIOGRAPHY: A TALE OF TWO MAQUINNAS 216
REBELLIONS, REFORM, AND RESPONSIBLE
Conclusion 217
A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: NATIVE WOMEN AND THE FUR GOVERNMENT, 1815–1855 250
TRADE 217
Emerging Political Cultures 250
Notes 219
The Road to Rebellion 252
Selected Reading 220
Rebellion in Lower Canada 252
VOICES FROM THE PAST: DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
PART IV OF LOWER CANADA, FEBRUARY 1838 256
MATURING COLONIAL SOCIETIES, Rebellion in Upper Canada 257
1815–1867 221 MORE TO THE STORY: GENDER, RACE, AND REBELLION 258
BIOGRAPHY: PAPINEAU AND MACKENZIE: REBELS
WITH A CAUSE 262
CHAPTER 11
Reform Movements in the Maritimes 264
DEVELOPING COLONIES, 1815–1867 222 MORE TO THE STORY: JOSEPH HOWE ON TRIAL, 1835 266
Drawing Boundaries 223 The Colonial Condition in Newfoundland
Postwar Immigration 223 and Labrador 266
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CONTENTS vii

The Struggle for Responsible Government 267

Responsible Government in Action 270 CHAPTER 14
Conclusion 271 THE WEST, 1821–1867 302
A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: CAUSES OF THE REBELLIONS The Northwest after 1821 303
IN LOWER CANADA 272
MORE TO THE STORY: LIFE AT A FUR-TRADING
Notes 273 POST 304
Selected Reading 274 Monopoly and the Natives 304
BIOGRAPHY: GEORGE SIMPSON 306
Monopoly and the Métis 307
BIOGRAPHY: JAMES (“JEMMY JOCK”) BIRD 309

CHAPTER 13 Visions of the Northwest 309

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA’S REVOLUTIONARY The Northern Fur Trade 310
AGE 275 The Franklin Expedition 312
The Fur Trade in British Columbia 313
The Industrial Revolution 275
The Close of the Fur-Trade Era 315
Free Trade, Reciprocity, and Protection 277
MORE TO THE STORY: MARKETS AND WILDLIFE 316
VOICES FROM THE PAST: THE ANNEXATION MANIFESTO 277
Gold Rush Days 317
Transportation and Communication 278
BIOGRAPHY: SIR JAMES DOUGLAS 318
Mobilizing Capital 281
Settler Society 319
Labour and Industry 281
VOICES FROM THE PAST: NATIVE VIEWS OF EUROPEAN
Law and Industry 282 LAND CLAIMS 322

The Structure of Industrial Capitalism 283 British Columbia after the Gold Rush 322
Intellectual Revolutions 284 Political Developments 323
BIOGRAPHY: WILLIAM DAWSON 285 MORE TO THE STORY: EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT IN BRITISH
COLUMBIA IN AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT 324
Reinventing Education 286
Conclusion 324
Religion and Culture 287 A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: AFTER THE GOLD RUSHES: THE
The Rage for Social Reform 289 IMPACT OF SETTLEMENT ON BRITISH COLUMBIA NATIVE
PEOPLES 325
The Rise of the Institution 289
Notes 326
Social Conflict 291
Selected Reading 327
Public and Private Worlds 292
MORE TO THE STORY: MUMMERING 293
Women’s Rights 294
The Creative Arts 295 CHAPTER 15
MORE TO THE STORY: MECHANICS’ INSTITUTES 296 THE ROAD TO CONFEDERATION 328
Sports and Leisure 297
Nationalism and Colonial Identity 328
Conclusion 298 MORE TO THE STORY: THE LIBERAL ORDER
A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: RELIGION FRAMEWORK 330
AND CULTURE 299 The Canadas: Economic Success and Political
Notes 300 Impasse 331
Selected Reading 300 The Canadians Make Their Move 333
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viii CONTENTS

BIOGRAPHY: JOHN A. MACDONALD: THE CHANGING FACE MORE TO THE STORY: THE BNA ACT AND THE QUESTION OF POWER
OF TORYISM IN CANADA WEST 334 IN THE NEW DOMINION 344
BIOGRAPHY: A.A. DORION: THE CHANGING FACE OF QUEBEC The Meaning of Confederation 345
LIBERALISM 335
Conclusion 346
Great Expectations in the Maritimes 335
A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL DEBATE: ECONOMIC ELITES
External Pressures 336 AND CONFEDERATION 346
MORE TO THE STORY: CANADIANS AND THE AMERICAN CIVIL Notes 348
WAR 338
Selected Reading 348
Planning Confederation 339
Selling Confederation 340 Index 350
VOICES FROM THE PAST: JOSEPH HOWE ON
CONFEDERATION 342
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LIST OF MAPS

Map 1.1 The Last Ice Age 3 Map 9.2 British North America, 1791 182
Map 1.2 Physiographic Regions of Canada 5 Map 9.3 The War of 1812 190
Map 1.3 The Arctic 6 Map 9.4 The French and American Treaty Shores after
Map 1.4 Canada in the Twenty-First Century 7 1818 195
Map 2.1 Natives at the Time of First Contact 11 Map 10.1 The Voyageur Presence in the West,
1821 206
Map 2.2 Native Subsistence at the Time of First
Contact with Europeans 15 Map 11.1 The Province of Canada at Mid
Century 223
Map 3.1 European Settlements in the Atlantic Region,
1632 41 Map 11.2 The Atlantic Colonies at Mid Century 224
Map 3.2 New France in 1663 47 Map 11.3 Maine–New Brunswick Boundary
Claims 225
Map 4.1 The European Presence in North America,
1685 63 Map 12.1 Selected Sites of the 1837–38 Rebellions 252
Map 5.1 European Claims in North America, Map 13.1 Canals and Railways in the Province of
1713 89 Canada before Confederation 280
Map 7.1 France in America, 1755 129 Map 14.1 The Western Fur Trade Region at Mid
Century 303
Map 7.2 Nova Scotia/Acadia in the Eighteenth
Century 130 Map 14.2 Palliser’s Triangle 311
Map 8.1 North America, 1763 156 Map 14.3 British Columbia, 1870 323
Map 9.1 British North America, 1783 177 Map 15.1 British North America, 1866 345
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PREFACE

The fi rst edition of the two-volume text History of the competition with Great Britain—to establish a North
Canadian Peoples was published in 1993. Our objective was American Empire, while Part III, “British North America,
to write a survey of Canadian history that incorporated 1763–1821,” focuses on the establishment of British colo-
new research in Canadian social history and included nies across the territories of today’s Canada. Part IV,
developments in the lives of all Canadians, not just the rich “Maturing Colonial Societies, 1815–1867,” takes the story
and powerful. The stories of Aboriginal peoples, women, of British North America to the point where commercial
racial and ethnic minorities, the poor, and regions outside and social development led to Confederation.
of the St Lawrence–Great Lakes heartland shared centre In constructing and revising this text, we maintain
stage with the stories of European explorers and colonial the pedagogical features found in previous editions.
politicians and warriors. While it was enthusiastically “Historiographical Debates” alert readers to differing
endorsed, our text and many of the writings upon which it interpretations of key events in Canadian history. Other
was based drew criticism from some historians who features, “More to the Story,” “Biography,” and “Voices
lamented the demise of a cohesive narrative of the nation’s from the Past” supplement our narrative. A timeline
history. Five editions later, we continue to draw upon an appears at the beginning of each chapter to place events
ever-expanding literature on Canada’s social, political, in chronological perspective, and maps and illustrations
and cultural history that is constantly introducing new give visual support to the written word.
themes and new challenges for an understanding of the In this edition, we welcome a third member to our
past of today’s Canada and its various peoples and regions. writing team: Donald Fyson, a historian of Quebec, is an
History of the Canadian Peoples attempts to introduce equal partner with Margaret Conrad and Alvin Finkel,
readers to the complexity of the past—the conflicts and fail- the authors of the five earlier editions, and has contrib-
ures, as well as the common goals and successes that make uted to every chapter of this edition of the book and all
Canada what it is today. We also want to expose students to facets of its production.
the way history is constructed, using endnotes to document Before tackling the sixth editions of History of the
some of our sources and calling attention to conflicting Canadian Peoples, the three of us prepared a third edition
interpretations of the past. By focusing on economic, politi- of the one-volume counterpart to “HCP,” which now has
cal, social, and cultural themes, we hope to provide a bal- the title, Canada: A History. The sixth edition of History
anced view of conditions that faced Canadians in the past. of the Canadian Peoples largely follows the organizational
We, of course, recognize the limits of a national framework principles of Canada: A History but with expanded cover-
in assigning significance to events, but we stand firm in our age of major events and themes.
conviction that a critical examination of the past helps to Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel, Donald Fyson
develop a historical consciousness and sense of human
agency that serves us well in our efforts to shape the future. NEW TO THE SIXTH EDITION
Volume 1 is divided into four chronological sections.
In Part I, “Beginnings,” we focus on the geography that ■ More coverage is given to pre-contact First Nations
helped to shape the experience of Canadians, the early and to the diversity of these populations.
history of Aboriginal peoples, and their interaction with ■ “Part I: Beginnings” is rewritten to present an over-
Europeans before 1663. Part II, “France in America, view of Canadian geography and link it to the rest of
1663–1763,” explores the efforts of France—often in the text, especially Canada’s environmental history.
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xii PREFACE

“Part II: France in America” contains more coverage

■

of First Nations during this period and of the impact

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For their contributions to this edition, we extend thanks Dirks, Darren Ferry, Gerald Friesen, Alan Gordon, Adam
to our editors Richard di Santo, Joel Gladstone, Charlotte J. Green, David J. Hall, Roger Hall, Lorne Hammond,
Morrison-Reed, Leslie Saffrey, Deana Sigut, Rashmi Larry Hannant, Jim Hiller, Norman Hillmer, Raymond
Tickyani, and Karen Townsend. Thanks also to our per- Huel, Sharon Jaeger, Cornelius Jaenen, Greg Kealey,
missions researchers Cordes Hoffman and Anna Waluk. Linda Kealey, Linda Kerr, Jeff Keshen, Larry Kulisek,
In earlier editions, we also benefited from the editorial Kiera Ladner, Edward MacDonald, Heidi Macdonald,
contributions of Karen Bennett, Robert Clarke, Gail Greg Marquis, Mark McGowan, Sheila McManus, Kathryn
Copeland, Dawn du Quesnay, Curtis Fahey, Sally Glover, McPherson, Carmen Miller, Jim Miller, David Mills,
Brian Henderson, Jeff Miller, Lisa Rahn, Adrienne Shiff- Wendy Mitchinson, Barry Moody, Peter Moogk, Suzanne
man, and Barbara Tessman. Morton, Del Muise, Ken Munro, David Murray, Jan Noel,
We are grateful to each of the following for providing Peter Nunoda, Gillian Poulter, Jim Pritchard, Robert
formal reviews of parts of the manuscript during the Rutherdale, Eric W. Sager, John Sandlos, Marda Schindeler,
development process for this edition of History of the Adrien Shubert, Ron Stagg, Kori Street, Veronica Strong-
Canadian Peoples : Alan Gordon, University of Guelph; Boag, Robert Sweeny, Georgina Taylor, Brian Young, and
Peter Russell, UBC Okanagan Campus; and Marty Suzanne Zeller.
Wood, Laurentian University at Georgian. We also thank
individuals who generously gave of their time when we
consulted them on various issues: Jerry Bannister, Susan NOTE ON STYLE
Blair, Yvon Desloges, Dan Horner, Talbot Imlay, Alain
Laberge, Roch Legault, John G. Reid, Étienne Rivard, Throughout the text, we have generally italicized non-
Marc St-Hilaire, Marc Vallières, and Thomas Wien. English words and phrases (but not the names of institu-
We also thank reviewers and contributors to earlier tions or Aboriginal groups) only when they do not appear
editions of History of the Canadian Peoples as well as to in either of the major dictionaries in English, that is
various editions of its one-volume counterpart. These Oxford and Webster. We have limited capitalization to
include Douglas Baldwin, Stephanie Bangarth, Marilyn the full formal names of institutions, but not capitalizing
Barber, Matthew Barlow, Michael Behiels, John Belshaw, when we use short forms such as “the church” or “the
Rusty Bitterman, Clarence Bolt, Ruth Brouwer, Sean commission.” For dates that precede 0 on the Gregorian
Cadigan, Shawn Cafferky, Robert Campbell, Cynthia calendar, we use the initials “BCE” which refer to Before
Comacchio, Cecilia Danysk, George Davison, Graham the Common Era rather than BC, which is short for
Decarie, Catherine Desbarats, John Dickinson, Patricia Before Christ.
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INTRODUCTION

In 1829, Shanawdithit, the last surviving Beothuk on At the same time that professional historians were
the island of Newfoundland, died of tuberculosis. honing their craft, the production of history continued
Thirty-eight years later, three British North American outside the academy. Oral transmission of historical
colonies united to form the Dominion of Canada. The knowledge flourished, especially in families and small
second of these two events has always had a central place communities, and enthusiastic amateur historians often
in Canadian history textbooks. The first, until recently, proved as adept as their academic counterparts in find-
has been ignored. For students of history, it is important ing, assessing, and interpreting historical sources. As lit-
to understand why the focus of historical analysis changes eracy increased, the public interest in history grew,
and what factors influence historians in their approaches leading to the founding of local history societies, the pub-
to their craft. lication of popular history books, and the commemora-
tion of historical events. Meanwhile, governments at all
levels tried to sustain historical memory for civic pur-
WHAT IS HISTORY? poses by building monuments, museums, and historic
sites and by encouraging the teaching of Canadian his-
Simply stated, history is the study of the past, but the past tory in the nation’s schools.
is a slippery concept. In non-literate societies, people In the twenty-fi rst century, historians have many
passed oral traditions from one generation to the next, tools in their kit bag to help them understand the past. To
with each generation fashioning the story to meet the fi ll the gaps in written documents, they draw upon other
needs of the time. When writing was invented, history disciplines (including archaeology, anthropology,
became fi xed in texts. The story of the past was often demography, and geography) to answer their questions.
revised, but earlier texts could be used to show how inter- Oral traditions and the findings of archaeological excava-
pretations changed over time. Although ordinary people tions, for example, have enabled historians to explore the
continued to tell their stories, they were considered less lives of the silent majority in past times. When personal
important than “official” written histories that reflected computers became widely available in the 1970s, histori-
the interests of the most powerful members of society. ans were able to process more efficiently large amounts of
Some of the official texts, such as the Bible and the Koran, information found in such sources as censuses, immigra-
were deemed to be divinely inspired and therefore less tion lists, and church registers. The science of demogra-
subject to revision than the accounts of mere mortals. phy, which analyzes population trends and draws upon
In the nineteenth century, history became an aca- vast quantities of data, has proven particularly useful in
demic discipline in Europe and North America. Scholars helping historians trace changes in family size, migration
in universities began to collect primary historical docu- patterns, and life-cycle choices.
ments, compare texts, develop standards of accuracy, and Writing history is a creative process. Even identical
train students to become professional historians. At first, twins would not produce the same narrative when pre-
professional historians focused on political and military sented with the same set of historical sources to analyze.
events that chronicled the evolution of empires and This truth has led some critics to conclude that history is
nation-states. Gradually, they broadened their scope to just another branch of fiction, but this is not the case.
include economic, social, cultural, and environmental Good historians, like good lawyers, must base their con-
developments. clusions on solid evidence.
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xvi INTRODUCTION

Whether they articulate it or not, historians are also is written. At the beginning of and at various points
influenced in their selection and interpretation of evi- throughout each chapter, we cite from primary sources
dence by theories that help them to shape their thinking that historians use. We also discuss historiography—that
on the past. Scholars who study minorities, women, and is, reflections on historical interpretation—in sections
the working class, for example, bring insights from mul- entitled “A Historiographical Debate.”
ticultural studies, feminism, and Marxism to their analy- Ultimately, our goal in this textbook is to create a
ses. The current scholarly preoccupation with the study synthesis that helps readers to develop a clearer under-
of historical consciousness, historical memory, and pub- standing of how the past unfolded in Canada. There is,
lic uses of the past suggests that we are entering a new we maintain, nothing inevitable about historical pro-
phase in our understanding of history, one that not only cesses. At times in this text, the limitations on an indi-
acknowledges the limits to the truth-seeking goals of his- vidual’s behaviour may appear to suggest that many,
torical inquiry but that also addresses, sometimes in perhaps most, of our ancestors were hopeless victims of
unsettling ways, the role that history plays in shaping forces beyond their control. A closer reading reveals that
present identities and imagining future goals. people sought in various ways to transcend the limits
In short, history is a dynamic and evolving disci- placed on their lives. Social struggles of every sort
pline. Debates rage, methods come and go, new sources changed, or at least sought to change, the course of his-
are discovered, and different conclusions are drawn from tory. As you read this book, we hope that you will gain a
the same body of evidence. We want students who use greater appreciation of how earlier generations of people
this text not only to learn about developments in Canada’s in what is now called Canada responded to their environ-
past but also to gain some understanding of how history ment and shaped their own history.

MORE TO THE STORY

What’s in a Name?

Contemporary political movements that are changing the face Many scholars complained loudly about being asked to
of Canada are also forcing historians to think about the words abandon words long established in their vocabularies. A few even
they use. A half-century ago, most textbooks referred to people argued that “political correctness” restricted freedom of speech.
with black skin as Negroes. In the 1960s, the term was replaced We do not hold such views. Since English is a living language and
by Black and more recently by African Canadian. Similarly, the changes over time, we see no reason why it should not continue
words used to describe Aboriginal peoples have changed in to reflect the new consciousness of groups in Canadian society.
recent years. Savages was quickly dropped from textbooks in In our view, “politically conscious” more accurately describes
the 1960s. Although the misnomer Indian has particular appli- attempts by groups to name their own experience.
cations that seem as yet unavoidable, the Constitution, 1982, Language, of course, is not only about naming things; it is
uses the terms First Nations, Inuit, and Métis to describe the also about power. Attempts by oppressed groups to find new
three major branches of Canada’s Aboriginal peoples. words to fit their experiences should be seen in the context of
Women, too, have insisted on being described in more their struggles for empowerment. In this text, we attempt to
respectful terms. Feminists have objected strongly to the use keep up with the changing times while bearing in mind that
of the word girl when adult women are being discussed, and people in the past used a different terminology. We are also
dismiss lady as condescending or elitist. Because man was aware that in the future we may revise the words we use, as
adequate for the male of the species, woman, they argued, was groups continue to reinvent their identities. Even the word
the most appropriate term, although some radical feminists Canada has changed its meaning over the past 500 years, and
prefer a different spelling, such as wymyn. Only the most hide- it is our job as historians to shed light on the way this term
bound of scholars still insist that the word man can be used to came to be applied, for a time at least, to all the people living
describe the entire human species. on the northern half of the North American continent.