CVS 327 Highway Materials 2022/2023

Chapter 4: Bitumen and Tar (Bituminous Materials)

4.1 General Remarks

 Bitumen is a class of black or dark coloured (solid, semi-solid, or viscous) cementitious substances,
natural or manufactured, composed principally of high molecular weight hydrocarbons of which bitumen,
tars, pitches, and asphaltites are typical. Bitumen is a constituent of crude petroleum.
 Bitumen has a density/specific gravity of about 1.02.
 Bituminous materials contain bitumen, which is a hydrocarbon material soluble in carbon disulphide (CS 2).
 Bitumen is obtained from petroleum refinery while tar is obtained from destructive distillation of soft coal.
 Petroleum bitumen is almost entirely composed of bitumen while coal tar has relatively low bitumen content.
Petroleum bitumen for use in pavements is referred to as paving bitumen or asphalt cement to distinguish
it from bitumen made for non-paving uses, such as roofing and industrial purposes.
 There are some crude oils, however, that contain no bitumen. On the basis of their bitumen content, crude
oils are often broadly described or classified as:
1. Bitumen base crude;
2. Paraffin base crude (containing paraffin but no bitumen)
3. Mixed-base crude (containing both paraffin and bitumen).

4.2 Definition of Terms

 There is some intermixing of terms such as asphalt and bitumen. Different countries attach different
meanings to these terms. American terminology uses the name “asphalt” for substances known as “bitumen”
in British terminology.
 In British terminology, bitumen is defined as a viscous liquid, or solid, consisting essentially of
hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which is soluble in carbon disulphide. It is substantially non-volatile and
softens gradually when heated. It is black or brown in color and possesses waterproofing and adhesive
properties. It is obtained by the refinery processes from petroleum, in which case it is known as “petroleum
bitumen”. It is also found as a natural deposit, in which case it is known as “native bitumen” or “natural
bitumen”.
 If found in lakes as Trinidad it is known a 'Lake asphalt',
 lf found in naturally occurring calcareous rock e.g. in Italy and Switzerland it is known as 'Rock asphalt'.
 In American terminology, the materials coming under the British terminology 'Bitumen’ and 'asphalt' are
commonly known as 'Asphalt'.
 A 'straight-run bitumen' is a petroleum bitumen of which the viscosity composition has not been altered
or adjusted by blending or by softening with fluxing or cutting-back oil or by other treatment.
 Penetration grade bitumen is bitumen whose degree of hardness can be measured by the standard
penetration test.
 Blown bitumen is bitumen obtained by further treatment of straight-run bitumen by running it, while hot,
into vertical column and blowing air through it. In this process bitumen undergoes a change as a result of
which it attains a rubbery consistency, has a higher softening point than straight-run bitumen of the same
hardness and has a greater resistance to flow.
4.3 Manufacture of Bitumen
 Crude oils, the main source of bitumen, differ among themselves in their physical and chemical properties.
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 Paraffinic crudes yield a wax, or wax-like residue on distillation.
 Naphthenic crudes yield substantially wax-free bitumen and mixed base crudes yield bitumen containing
wax in some proportions.
 The refining of petroleum crude in refineries is carried out on the principle of fractional distillation. The
crude oil is heated a tube-still/tube heater.
 Volatiles are separated in a fractionating column. Gasoline, kerosene, gas oil and heavy oil got separated
thus.
 Steam is injected into the fractionating column to assist in the process. The residue is collected as bitumen.
 Accordingly, bitumen/asphalt is obtained as a residue or residual product, and is valuable and essential for
great variety of engineering and architectural uses.

Figure 4.1: The distillation process

 In modern refining process, the distillation is achieved in two or three stages.

 In the first stage, the crude oil is first passed through a tube still operating at a relatively low temperature
(less than 350°C), to take off in a fractionating column operating at atmospheric pressure, the light ends of
the crude oil i.e. naphtha and kerosene.

 The topped crude (heavy fraction of the crude petroleum) is then passed through another still for subsequent
transfer to another column operating under vacuum with the assistance of steam injection.

 A solvent extraction process may be used to separate the asphalt fraction from the topped crude.

 A more modern system dispenses with steam injection and relies on dry vacuum only, thus enabling a wider
range of bitumen to be produced.

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 Figure 4.2: Bitumen Manufacture.

4.4 Constitution of Bitumens

 Bitumen in composed of four key fractional components: Saturates, Aromatics, Resins and
Asphaltenes.
 Saturate, Aromatic, Resin and Asphaltene (SARA) is an analysis method that divides crude oil
components according to their polarizability and polarity.
 The saturate fraction consists of non-polar material including linear, branched, and cyclic saturated
hydrocarbons (paraffins).
 Aromatics, which contain one or more aromatic rings, are slightly more polarizable. The remaining two
fractions, resins and asphaltenes, have polar substituents.
Asphaltenes
 Insoluble in n-heptane, black or brown amorphous solids (fairly high molecular weight 1,000 - 100,000)
 5nm - 30nm (30x10-9 m) particle size (polar)
 Principal viscosity enhancing components,
 Constitute 5% - 25% of the bitumen

Resins
 Soluble in n-heptane, dark brown solid or semi-solid (polar)
 Dispersing agents (peptisers) for Asphaltenes
 1nm - 5nm particle size (molecular weight 500 - 50,000)
 Constitute 5% - 20% of the bitumen

Aromatics
 Dark brown viscous liquids with high dissolving ability (non-polar)
 40% - 65% of the total bitumen (lowest molecular
 Molecular weight range is 300 - 2,000.

Saturates
 Viscous oils, straw or white in colour (non-polar)
 5% - 20% of the bitumen.

4.5 General Properties of Bitumen

The general properties of bitumen are enumerated below:-
1) They contain predominantly hydrocarbons with small quantities of sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen and metals
2) They are predominantly soluble in carbon-disulphide. The portion insoluble in CS2 being generally less
than 0.1%
3) Most bitumen are colloidal in nature

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 Bitumen manufactured from the short residue is called straight run bitumen.
 The term “straight run” refers to the fact that this type of bitumen is often produced directly from the vacuum
distillation process, without any further modification.
 The differences in properties between high and low penetration grade bitumen are mainly caused by different
amounts of molecule structures with strong interactions.
 Low penetration grade bitumen contains more of these molecule structures.
 This is the main reason why their viscosity, Fraass breaking point, softening point, etc., is so much higher
than for high penetration grade bitumen.
 The fact that they contain less low viscosity products is of less significance.

4.6.3 Oxidized/ fully-blown bitumen

 Fully blown or oxidized bitumens are often produced by more extensive blowing of a blend of a short residue
with a relatively low viscosity flux.

 They’re relatively stiff and are used as roofing material, flooring mastics, pipe coatings, paints, etc.

4.6.4 Bitumen cut-backs/ liquid asphalt

 All hard penetration grade bitumen requires heating to a specific temperature during use so as to bring
down the viscosity to a value to which the coating of aggregates with the binder film becomes possible.
 In some cases the aggregates also have to be heated. To overcome the difficulty, cut-backs are used.
 A cutback is bitumen whose viscosity has been reduced by addition of volatile diluents/cutter stock.
 On the basis of the relative speed of evaporation, cutback asphalts are divided into three types:

1. Rapid Curing (RC) - bitumen dissolved in light diluents of high volatility, generally in the gasoline or
naphtha boiling point range. These have penetrations ranging from 85 to 100 pens.
2. Medium Curing (MC) - bitumen dissolved in medium diluents of intermediate volatility generally in
the kerosene boiling point range. These have penetrations ranging from 120 to 150 pens.
3. Slow Curing (SC) - bitumen dissolved in oils of low volatility e.g. diesel. These have penetrations
ranging from 200 to 300 pens.

 The cut-back bitumen enables use of binder at relative low temperatures.
 Upon application and use, the volatiles slowly evaporate, leaving behind the original bituminous binder.
 Cutbacks are further classified according to their fluidity by suffixing a number ranging from 0 to 5. A suffix
of 0 indicates the most liquid cutback whereas a 5 indicates the hardest in the series.
 Cutbacks bitumens are used at temperatures above their flash point. Rapid- curing cutbacks may flash as
low as 27℃ (80℉).

What is MC-70 Cutback Bitumen?

 MC-70 cutback bitumen is one of the most widely used grades of bitumen across the world.
 This grade of bitumen is in the category of medium curing cutback bitumen and its viscosity is 70 min.
and 140 max.

What are the Applications of MC-70 Bitumen?

 Designed to be used as a primer in coating roads. This grade of bitumen is usually heated and sprayed on
the road base, before the final layer of asphalt is laid.
 Since the kinematic viscosity of MC-70 ranges from 70 to 140, it will properly coat and bond loosely bonded
and fine grained soils such as well graded sand. It is, thus, not suitable for densely graded base courses.
 For these types of bases, MC-30 cutback bitumen performs better.

 Another use of MC-70 bitumen is for dust control on unpaved roads. Since cutback bitumen contains
hazardous solvents, its application for controlling dust is prohibited in some countries.

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How to Use MC-70 Bitumen?
 The recommended application temperature for MC-70 is 50 °C.
 Before the application of MC-70 in prime coat, the course should be clean and the primer needs to be heated
for spraying.
 When applying MC-70 bitumen on a road base, the surface must be clean and its temperature needs to be
10 °C.

MC-30 Cutback Bitumen

 MC 30 cutback bitumen is the less viscose grade of medium curing cutback bitumen, which contains
approximately 35 to 40% solvent.
 MC-30 bitumen is widely used as a primer in coating roads.
 This grade of bitumen is sprayed over a granular base to prepare it for laying an asphalt mixture. With its
low viscosity, MC- 30 cutbacks will coat and bond loose aggregates on the surface of the base.
 MC-30 will also waterproof the finished base material and enable it to bond to a subsequent pavement layer.
 With its low viscosity, bitumen MC-30 is recommended for being used when the base is dense and hard
to penetrate.
 When the surface is open, we use high viscosity MC grades for prime coating. MC-30 bitumen can be
replaced by slow setting emulsions in some applications such as prime coats; however, using MC-30 is much
preferred to emulsions, since it penetrates deeper into the compacted bases and delivers better results.
 There are a few points that need to be considered before the application of MC-30 cutback bitumen. When
sprayed on a surface, MC-30 bitumen’s temperature should be 30 °C. MC-30 cutback bitumen performs
better in cold regions of high altitude places.
 In comparison to MC-250, cutback MC-30 needs no heating in hot seasons.

How to Use MC-30 Cutback Bitumen?

 The viscosity of cutback bitumen MC-30 is low enough to let spraying at ambient temperature.
 However, to make sure that the bitumen will penetrate the surface well, you need to heat the binder prior to
spraying.
 In the time of heating, it is required to pay attention to the MC-30 bitumen flash point and avoid fire.
 Before using MC-30 cutback as a primer, the surface of the road should be clean and dust-free.
 The surface that is coated with MC-30 cutback must be allowed to dry, before the construction of other
layers.
 The average drying time for MC-30 bitumen is 48 hours. This period of time might extend based on the
porosity of the base or the weather conditions.

Advantages
 Among the many advantages of MC-30 cutback bitumen is its acceptable level of safety. Unlike rapid curing
cutback bitumen, it contains Kerosene as a solvent, which is safer than gasoline and naphtha used in RC
cutbacks.

 In comparison to bitumen emulsions, MC-30 cutback is a better primer. It penetrates the compacted bases
more adequately than many popular grades of bitumen emulsions.

What is the Difference between MC-30 and MC-70 Cutback Bitumen?

 The main difference between MC-30 and MC-70 bitumen is their kinematic viscosity. For MC-30 the
kinematic viscosity is 30 min and 60max, but for MC-70 bitumen it is 70min and 140max.
 Due to the difference in their kinematic viscosity and other items of specifications, the application of MC-
30 cutback bitumen is also different from MC-70. We use MC-30 in cold weather, but MC-70 is preferred
in hot and dry regions.
 When used in prime coats, the recommended spray temperature for MC-30 is 30 °C but for MC-70 cutback
the required temperature is 50 °C.

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4.6.5 Bitumen emulsions
 In the emulsification process, hot bitumen is mechanically separated into minute globules and
dispersed in water treated with a small quantity of emulsifying agent.
 The water is called the continuous phase and the globules of bitumen the discontinuous phase.
 Emulsifying bitumen typically consist of about 60% to 70% bitumen, 30% to 40% water and a fraction of a
percent of emulsifying agent
 The machine used in this process is a colloid mill, and the bitumen globules are extremely small, mostly in
the colloidal size range.
 By proper selection of an emulsifying agent and other manufacturing controls, emulsified bitumens are
produced in several types and grades.
 By choice of emulsifying agent, the emulsified bitumen may be:
1. Anionic- Bitumen globules are electro-negatively charged
2. Cationic- Bitumen globules are electro-positively charged
3. Nonionic- Bitumen globules are neutral
 In practice, the first two types are ordinarily used in roadway construction and maintenance. Nonionics,
however, may be more widely used as emulsion technology advances.

 Cationic emulsions are more widely used as they have superior adhesive properties to a range of mineral
aggregates

 In order to use emulsions in construction operations, they must remain fluid enough for proper application.
 The bitumen globules are kept apart by the emulsifying agent until the emulsion has been deposited on the
surface of the soil or aggregate particles.

 If the bitumen in the emulsion is to perform its ultimate function of cementing and water proofing, the
bitumen phase must separate from the water phase.

 This occurs through neutralization of the electrostatic charges and/or by water evaporation.

 The bitumen droplets coalesce and produce a continuous film of bitumen on aggregate or the pavement.
Coalescence of bitumen droplets occurs more quickly with the rapid setting grades.

4.6.6 Modified Bitumen

 Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve properties of Bitumen
and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers is known as modified bitumen.
 Polymer modified bitumen (PMB)/crumb rubber modified Bitumen (CRMB) should be used only in
wearing course depending upon the requirements of extreme climatic variations.
 It must be noted that the performance of PMB and CRMB is dependent on strict Control on Temperature
during construction.

The advantages of using modified bitumen are as follows:

1. Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variations
2. Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature
3. Better age resistance properties
4. Higher fatigue life for mixes
5. Better adhesion between aggregates and binder
6. Prevention of cracking and reflective cracking.
4.6.7 Foamed bitumen (Read and make short notes)

4.7 Requirements of Bitumen

The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction.

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4.6.5 Bitumen emulsions
 In the emulsification process, hot bitumen is mechanically separated into minute globules and
dispersed in water treated with a small quantity of emulsifying agent.
 The water is called the continuous phase and the globules of bitumen the discontinuous phase.
 Emulsifying bitumen typically consist of about 60% to 70% bitumen, 30% to 40% water and a fraction of a
percent of emulsifying agent
 The machine used in this process is a colloid mill, and the bitumen globules are extremely small, mostly in
the colloidal size range.
 By proper selection of an emulsifying agent and other manufacturing controls, emulsified bitumens are
produced in several types and grades.
 By choice of emulsifying agent, the emulsified bitumen may be:
1. Anionic- Bitumen globules are electro-negatively charged
2. Cationic- Bitumen globules are electro-positively charged
3. Nonionic- Bitumen globules are neutral
 In practice, the first two types are ordinarily used in roadway construction and maintenance. Nonionics,
however, may be more widely used as emulsion technology advances.

 Cationic emulsions are more widely used as they have superior adhesive properties to a range of mineral
aggregates

 In order to use emulsions in construction operations, they must remain fluid enough for proper application.
 The bitumen globules are kept apart by the emulsifying agent until the emulsion has been deposited on the
surface of the soil or aggregate particles.

 If the bitumen in the emulsion is to perform its ultimate function of cementing and water proofing, the
bitumen phase must separate from the water phase.

 This occurs through neutralization of the electrostatic charges and/or by water evaporation.

 The bitumen droplets coalesce and produce a continuous film of bitumen on aggregate or the pavement.
Coalescence of bitumen droplets occurs more quickly with the rapid setting grades.

4.6.6 Modified Bitumen

 Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve properties of Bitumen
and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers is known as modified bitumen.
 Polymer modified bitumen (PMB)/crumb rubber modified Bitumen (CRMB) should be used only in
wearing course depending upon the requirements of extreme climatic variations.
 It must be noted that the performance of PMB and CRMB is dependent on strict Control on Temperature
during construction.

The advantages of using modified bitumen are as follows:

1. Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variations
2. Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature
3. Better age resistance properties
4. Higher fatigue life for mixes
5. Better adhesion between aggregates and binder
6. Prevention of cracking and reflective cracking.
4.6.7 Foamed bitumen (Read and make short notes)

4.7 Requirements of Bitumen

The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction.

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 1) Mixing: type of materials used, construction method, temperature during mixing, etc.
2) Attainment of desired stability of the mix
3) To maintain the stability under adverse weather conditions
4) To maintain sufficient flexibility and thus avoid cracking of bituminous surface and
5) To have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in the mix in presence of water

4.7 Desired Properties of Bitumen

 Bitumen is available in a variety of grades. Specifications are used across the world to define these grades
to meet the needs of the applications, climate, loading conditions and end use.

 For engineering and construction purposes, three properties/characteristics of asphalt are important: (1)
Consistency (also called fluidity, plasticity or viscosity), (2) purity (3) safety.

4.7.1 Consistency
 Bitumen is a thermoplastic material because it gradually liquefies when heated.
 Various types of bitumen are characterized by their consistency at different temperatures.
 Consistency is the term used to describe the degree of fluidity or plasticity of bitumen at any particular
temperature.
 The consistency of bitumen varies with temperature; therefore, it is necessary to use a standard
temperature when comparing the consistency of one bitumen type with another.
 Bitumens are graded based on ranges of consistency at a standard temperature. When bitumen is exposed to
air in thin films and is subjected to prolonged heating, e.g., during mixing with aggregates, bitumen tends to
harden.
 This means that the consistency of the bitumen increases. A limited increase is allowable.
 However, careless temperature and mixing control can cause more damage to bitumen, through hardening,
than many years of service on finished roadway.
 Consistency of paving bitumen is commonly specified and measured by a viscosity test or penetration test.
 For air-blown asphalts, a softening point test is used.

4.7.2 Purity
 Bitumen is soluble in carbon disulphide.
 Refined bitumen is usually more than 99.5% soluble in carbon disulphide.
 Impurities, if they are present, are inert.
 Normally, bitumen is free of water or moisture as it leaves the refinery.
 Transportation tanks may introduce some moisture into bitumen. If any water is inadvertently present, it
may cause the bitumen to foam when it is heated above 100℃

4.7.3 Safety
 Bitumen foaming can be a safety hazard, and specifications usually require bitumen not to foam at
temperatures up to 175℃.
 Bitumen, if heated to a high enough temperature, will release fumes that will flash in the presence of a spark
or open flame.
 But the temperature at which this occurs is well above the temperature normally used in paving operations.
 However, to be sure there is an adequate margin of safety; the flash point of the bitumen should be known.

4.8 Specification tests for bitumen

4.8.1 Viscosity tests
 Viscosity is the property of fluid that determines the resistance offered to a shearing force under laminar
flow conditions. It is thus the opposite of fluidity

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 Figure 4.3: Viscosity Test setup

 Dynamic or absolute viscosity is the internal friction resulting from unit tangential force acting on planes of
unit area separated by unit distance of the fluid producing unit tangential viscosity
 The unit of measurement of dynamic viscosity in S-I.unit is Ns/sqm (Newton second per square meter).
 Kinematic viscosity is the quotient of the dynamic viscosity and the density of the fluid. The unit being
square meter per second sqm/s.
 The determination of viscosity it generally done by efflux viscometers. They work is the common principles
though they defer in detail. The liquid under test is poured to a specific level into a container surrounded by
water or oil bath providing temperature control. At the base of the container is a small orifice with a simple
valve control. On opening the valve, the time in seconds is recorded for a stated quantity of fluid to discharge
into a measuring cylinder below.
 The efflux viscometers determine viscosity in an indent manner by measuring the time takes for flow through
the orifice. The one measured does not bear any relation with the absolute viscosity. Another disadvantage
of this test is when penetration grade bitumen is tested; it has to be heated to temperatures excess of
those expected during service conditions.
 In order to overcome this drawback, a sliding plate viscometer is used. A thin film of bitumen of thickness
approximately 20-50 microns is formed between the two glass plates 3 × 2 x 0.7cm thick- one plate is fixed
and the other attached to a loading device, the whole assembly is then immersed in a thermostatically
controlled water bath. The degree and the rate of movement of the plate to which load is applied is measured
electronically
 Specifications for viscosity-graded bitumen are normally based on viscosity at 60℃ (140℉).

 Bitumen is thermoplastic, i.e. consistency changes with temperature. Recommended working temperatures
for bitumen are as given below.
i. 149℃ , mixing temperatures
ii. 93℃ to 135℃ , initial rolling temperatures
iii. 60℃ to 82℃ , final rolling temperatures

4.8.2 Penetration test

 An indirect measure of viscosity is the amount of penetration a standard needle under standard conditions
of load, time and temperature.
 The test measures the hardness or softness of bitumen in terms of mm/10 of the standard needle.
 The standard conditions selected are:- Temperature: 25°C (test to be done after sample is kept for one
hour in the water bath at this temperature), Load on needle: 100 gms, Time in which penetration is
recorded: 5 secs

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 iii. Hot mix asphaltic concrete and bituminous macadam in
winter and at high altitudes
5. Cut-back RC i. Surface dressing, seal coat and premixed chipping carpet in
normal summer temperatures and in plains
ii. Surface dressing and seal coat in winter temperatures and at
high altitudes
iii. Cold-mix macadam and carpets at summer and winter
temperatures, both in plains and at high altitudes
6. Cut-backs MC & SC i. Priming
7. Emulsions i. Cold weather works
ii. Remote area works
iii. Wet state aggregates works
iv. Maintenance and patching works
v. Sealing of fine cracks

4.10 Bitumen Mixture and Spraying Temperatures

 The mixing temperature for a hot bitumen mix is governed by placing and compacting requirements. The
lowest temperature that will allow time for the mixture to be hauled, placed and compacted should be used.
 The maximum mixing temperature, however, should never exceed 177℃ (350℉). Both bitumen and
aggregate must be heated before they are combined in the pugmill, to make the asphalt fluid enough
to be pumped and the aggregate dry and hot enough to keep the bitumen fluid while it is coating the
particles.
 The degree of heat in the dried aggregate controls the temperature of the bitumen-aggregate mixture in
the pugmill because the temperature of the bitumen rapidly adjusts to that of the aggregate when the two are
mixed.
 Temperatures for emulsified asphalt-aggregate mixtures and MC and SC cutback bitumen-aggregate
mixtures are substantially lower than those required for hot asphalt plant mixes.
 While these lower mixing temperatures may not provide thoroughly dry aggregates, experience has shown
that they usually are satisfactory.

4.11 Tar
 Coal is carbonized for the production of metallurgical coke needed in the manufacture of steel and
production of town gas. In this process, coal tar is obtained as a by-product.
 Road tar is produced by refining coal tar.

Figure 4.8: Manufacture of Road Tar

Road Tar
1. Tar is a viscous black liquid having adhesive properties obtained when natural organic materials such
as wood, coal, shale, etc. are carbonized or destructively distilled in the absence of air.
2. There are many forms of tar, to distinguish them, the word tar is usually prefaced by the name of the
source material e.g. crude wood tar, crude coal tar, etc.

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 This property is of great use in designing satisfactory bituminous mixes for use under any given range
of temperature changes.
 The criterion is that bitumen should exhibit as little change as possible in its viscosity in given range of
temperature change.
 The most common method to characterize temperature susceptibility is the Penetration index (PI). Plotting
log penetration against temperature gives
Log (pen) = AT + K
(Find out from literature a typical graph sample)
 The slope A is an indication of the temperature susceptibility.
 Normal road making bitumen have PIs between -2 and +2 with coal tar and pitch less than -2 and blown
bitumen above +2.

4.8.5 Heat Stability

 All bituminous binders undergo changes in their properties with heat.
 The binders become fluid at temperatures around 90°C above their softening point, and up to these
temperatures, such changes in their properties are reversible.
 At higher temperatures more important changes may take place. These effects are studied in three tests:
i. Flash point
ii. Fire point and spontaneous ignition temperatures
iii. Loss on heating
 Flash point is the temperature at which bitumen gives off vapors, which ignite in the presence of a flame,
but do not continue to burn.
 This is an indication of the critical temperature at and above which suitable precautions should be taken to
eliminate fire hazards.
 A test called the Pensky-Martin method is prescribed (illustrated below) which involves a cup into which
bitumen is filled, heated at a rate of 5.6°C per minute stirring the material constantly. A flame is applied at
intervals.
 The flash point is taken at the temperature read on the thermometer when the flame causes a bright flash in
the interior of the cup in a closed system and at the surface of the material in an open system.

Figure 4.6: Flash point test setup

 If heating is continued beyond the flash point, the vapors ignite in presence of a flame and continue to
burn. There is no standard method to determine the spontaneous ignition temperature which can only be
broadly indicated.
 The effect of heat on bituminous binder is in the loss of volatile constituents. This loss causes the binder to
harden. Thus one method of testing a desirable binder is the loss on heating test. This is achieved by an
accelerated heating test.
 A 50gm sample is taken and maintained at a temperature of 163 oC for 5 hours. The loss in weight expressed
as a percentage of the original weight is determined.
 A 1% loss is acceptable for all bitumen except pen 180/200 in which 2% can be accepted. The penetration
after the test is also done and expressed as a percentage of the original, a minimum of 60% is stipulated.

4.8.6 Ductility test

 The ductility of a binder is an indication of its elasticity and ability to deform under load and return to
its original condition upon removal of load.

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 not meet the requirement for traffic and climate and where the economy can support the extra investment since
it undoubtedly yields returns.

5. BASE COURSES
Built-up-spray grout
 BUSG is a method of building up a flexible pavement, in which single size stones are laid in layers of
thickness equal to the size of stones, and a very small quantity of bituminous binder is grouted.
 The binder so grouted smears the surfaces of the stone aggregates and imparts adhesion amongst the
aggregates of one layer as well as between aggregates of one layer and those of the layer above.
 This adhesion takes place only at the contact points between the aggregate inter-faces. The layers are usually
built up in the thickness of 40mm and the total compacted thickness of the course usually built is not above
75mm
 This is however inferior in strength and costly. It may be useful in desert areas

Penetration macadam including full-grout and semi-grout

 A penetration macadam is a compacted layer of coarse stone aggregates into which has been
introduced a binder which is allowed to penetrate into the layer and bind the stone aggregates. A layer
of intermediate aggregates called key aggregates is spread on the surface and rolled. A seal coat is provided
to make the surface impervious.
 A full-grout specification is one in which the binder is allowed to penetrate to full depth of construction.
 A semi-grout case is one in which the binder only penetrates half the depth or less. In the balance, the binder
is let to work up from the bottom.
Premixed macadam
 Pre-coated macadam is a form of premixed work where coarse macadam type of aggregates are mixed
with bituminous or tar binder.
 The stability of the material is mainly due to interlock between the aggregate particles and the frictional
resistance developed at their contact points. The mix is open-graded type and usually used for base
courses and leveling surfaces.
 It is hot-mix hot-laid using a paver finisher.

6. DENSE SURFACING
Asphaltic concrete
Asphaltic concrete: a pavement specification composed of a thoroughly controlled hot-mixed material having
as ingredient: graded mineral aggregates, filler and bitumen. It is both hot mixed and hot laid and is a
superior type of asphalt pavement.
Merits:
1) Durability – high density, resistant to deformation, and high adhesiveness
2) Imperviousness – low voids content, excellent grading, high adhesion
3) Load-spreading capacity – high interlock and hence dense
4) Quickly open-able to traffic – highly compacted during construction
5) Good skid resistance – non-skid surface
Demerits:
1) High cost
2) Needs sophisticated machines
3) Need for high degree of quality control
4) Very high bitumen content – bitumen is scarce and costly

Mastic asphalt
 A mixture of bitumen, mineral filler and fine aggregates in such a proportion as to yield a voidless
compact mass. Its consistency is such that it flows like a fluid at a temperature of about 200 oC, but on
cooling to normal temperature it solidifies. It thus requires no effort in compaction.
 Its mechanical strength is derived by the resistance to strain of the continuous matrix of fine aggregate,
filler and bitumen. The bitumen used is a hard grade which impacts toughness to the material. The final
product is very hard, fully impermeable, highly durable, resistant to deformation and self-healing.
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5) No guidance is available for appropriate viscosity of bitumen for mixing and compaction.

Viscosity Grades
 Traditionally, paving bitumens have been specified in terms of their penetration, but the measurement of
viscosity provides a more accurate method of specifying binder consistency and a more effective method of
determining the temperature susceptibility of the bitumen.
 AASHTO has 2 series of viscosity grade bitumens. One is denoted AC (Asphalt Cement), followed by a
number indicating the viscosity in hundreds of poises at 60° C.
 The second series is denoted AR (aged residual) followed by a number indicating the viscosity in poises (no
hundreds of poises) at 60° C after the bitumen has been aged.
 The aging is obtained by exposing a film of bitumen in a revolving jar to a jet of hot air for a prescribed
period of time.
 The procedure is intended to subject the sample to hardening conditions approximating to those that occur
in a hot-mix asphalt plant, and is known as the ‘rolling thin oven test’ (RTFOT)

Performance Grading (PG)

 In principle, it stipulates a temperature window within which the bitumen meets certain criteria.
 For instance, a PG 64 -16 bitumen meets these criteria at temperatures between +64 ° C and -16 °C, while a
PG 82-28 will meet them between +82 °C and -28 °C.
 The wider the temperature window, the more stringent the requirements on bitumen.
 The PG grading required in any one region will depend on the climate and the seasonal temperature
variations , as well as the intensity of traffic.

Guide to selection of bituminous binders

The selection of appropriate grade and type of binder is key in the success of the specification. The selection
itself depends on a number of factors, namely:
i. Type of application – whether by spraying or mixing,
ii. Climatic conditions – especially temperature range,
iii. Traffic characteristics – whether light traffic or heavy traffic,
iv. Plant availability – whether hot- mix or other equipment is available, and
v. Nature of work – whether it is maintenance works of small magnitudes or large-scale jobs.

Table 4.1: Applications of specific grades of bituminous binders

S/N Type of Binder Application
1. 30/40 Pen Grade i. Penetration macadam in normal summer temperatures and
in plains
ii. Hot mix asphaltic concrete in normal summer temperatures
and in plains
iii. Bituminous macadam (hot mix) in normal summer
temperatures and in plains
2. 60/70 Pen Grade i. Penetration macadam in winter and at high altitudes
ii. Hot mix asphaltic concrete in normal summer temperatures
and in plains
iii. Hot mix bituminous macadam in normal summer climate
and in plains
3. 80/100 Pen Grade i. Surface dressing, seal coat and premixed chipping carpet in
normal summer temperatures and in plains
ii. Penetration macadam in summer temperatures and in plains
iii. Hot mix asphaltic concrete and bituminous macadam in
normal summer temperatures and in plains
iv. Hot mix asphaltic concrete and bituminous macadam in
winter and at high altitudes
4. 180/200 Pen Grade i. Surface dressing, seal coat and premixed chipping carpet in
winter temperatures and at high altitudes
ii. Penetration macadam in winter and at high altitudes

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 iii. Hot mix asphaltic concrete and bituminous macadam in
winter and at high altitudes
5. Cut-back RC i. Surface dressing, seal coat and premixed chipping carpet in
normal summer temperatures and in plains
ii. Surface dressing and seal coat in winter temperatures and at
high altitudes
iii. Cold-mix macadam and carpets at summer and winter
temperatures, both in plains and at high altitudes
6. Cut-backs MC & SC i. Priming
7. Emulsions i. Cold weather works
ii. Remote area works
iii. Wet state aggregates works
iv. Maintenance and patching works
v. Sealing of fine cracks

4.10 Bitumen Mixture and Spraying Temperatures

 The mixing temperature for a hot bitumen mix is governed by placing and compacting requirements. The
lowest temperature that will allow time for the mixture to be hauled, placed and compacted should be used.
 The maximum mixing temperature, however, should never exceed 177℃ (350℉). Both bitumen and
aggregate must be heated before they are combined in the pugmill, to make the asphalt fluid enough
to be pumped and the aggregate dry and hot enough to keep the bitumen fluid while it is coating the
particles.
 The degree of heat in the dried aggregate controls the temperature of the bitumen-aggregate mixture in
the pugmill because the temperature of the bitumen rapidly adjusts to that of the aggregate when the two are
mixed.
 Temperatures for emulsified asphalt-aggregate mixtures and MC and SC cutback bitumen-aggregate
mixtures are substantially lower than those required for hot asphalt plant mixes.
 While these lower mixing temperatures may not provide thoroughly dry aggregates, experience has shown
that they usually are satisfactory.

4.11 Tar
 Coal is carbonized for the production of metallurgical coke needed in the manufacture of steel and
production of town gas. In this process, coal tar is obtained as a by-product.
 Road tar is produced by refining coal tar.

Figure 4.8: Manufacture of Road Tar

Road Tar
1. Tar is a viscous black liquid having adhesive properties obtained when natural organic materials such
as wood, coal, shale, etc. are carbonized or destructively distilled in the absence of air.
2. There are many forms of tar, to distinguish them, the word tar is usually prefaced by the name of the
source material e.g. crude wood tar, crude coal tar, etc.

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 3. The road tar generally used is that sourced from crude coal tar. The others do not produce satisfactory
results when used on the road.

Production of road tar

There are three stages of production of road tar:
- Carbonation of coal to produce crude tar;
- Refining or distillation of crude tar; and
- Blending of distillation residue (road tar) with distillate oil fractions to obtain desired road tars (road tar
type S and road tar type C).
Carbonation of coal
1. Crude tar is produced in industries which carbonize coal to produce;
o Metallurgical coke, and
o Town gas
2. Carbonization of coal consists of heating a thin layer of coal enclosed in a chamber of refractory brick-
work for several hours at about 1000 oC. (Thus the process is called high temperature carbonization).
Coal tar produced from cold processing is unsuitable for road works
3. In the high temperature process, the coal softens on heating and coalesces to form a solid coke. Gas and
condensable vapor are also given off, cooled to condense and form liquid products, watery and tar-like
products.
4. These products are stored in a tar-well where aqueous liquor and non-aqueous components separate out.

Grades of road tars (RT) and their purposes

RT-1 Used for surface dressing for very cold weather conditions and at high elevations on hill roads
RT-2 Used for surface dressing under normal climatic conditions
RT-3 (A) used for surface dressing and renewal coats
(B) used for premixing chippings and light chipping carpet
RT-4 Used in premix tar macadam
RT-5 Used as grouting

Difference between bitumen and tar

The following are the differences between bitumens and tars:
1 The weathering properties of bitumens are superior to those of tars. Generally greater deterioration is
produced in tar than in bitumen when exposed to equal weather conditions. Bitumens have a better
durability and resistance to weathering than tars.

2 Tars are more susceptible to temperature changes than bitumens. Hot weather will soften a tar surface more
than a surface made with bitumen of the same viscosity, and it will become more brittle at low temperatures
than bitumen. In other words tar becomes brittle in cold weather and the surface treated with tar is apt to
bleed in hot weather if a little extra quantity has been used. Tar is therefore considered unsuitable for
locations with wide temperature changes.

3 Surface dressings with bitumen are more prone to failure by water displacement than those made with
tar. Tars generally adhere better than bitumens on wet aggregate.

4 Tars can be brought to a spraying condition at lower temperatures than those needed for bitumens; stones
need not be heated to high temperatures.

5 Setting time for tars is more than that of bitumens and this property is useful in the production of pre-coated
aggregate which can be transported to large distances or kept for sometime before spreading.

6 Tars have higher specific gravity than bitumens and lower viscosity and these properties give them greater
penetrating power and which are more marked during summers. Higher viscosities can generally be used
with tars than with bitumens.
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7 Tars produce a less slippery surface than bitumens.

8 Road tars do not dissolve in a petroleum distillate such as petrol, kerosene, diesel oil. As such tar carpets
have proved to be good material for parking sites as it remains unaffected by spillage of oil and petrol from
automobiles.

Tar-Bitumen mixtures
 Tar and bitumen possess certain individual characteristics which if combined by proper blending of the two
materials can provide a road binder of excellent quality.
 Bitumen has greater durability and lower temperature susceptibility than tar. But bitumen has poor
adhesion with certain stone aggregates esp. in the presence of water, resulting in stripping. Tar has
better adhesion with aggregates because of the presence of phenols. Tar, when exposed, weathers and
hardens. Tar mixtures show better skid resistance than bitumen mixtures.

Tar-bitumen blends exhibit the following improvements:

1) As more and more bitumen is blended with tar, the benzene insolubles which are normally not a binding
material are decreased. The mixture has thus a better binding property.
2) The softening point is increased and the penetration is lowered. Thus the temperature susceptibility of
the bitumen is lowered. The viscosity-temperature relationship is considerably improved.

3) Rheological nature of the binder is altered.

 There are however problems with these mixtures such as incompatibility since the tar and bitumen are
chemically different. But with careful control, the materials can ne beneficially blended.

Rubberized tar and bitumen

 The addition of small quantities of rubber vastly changes the properties of tar and bitumen to great advantage.
 The important change is that the change in viscosity with temperature for bitumen is reduced.
 The softening point of the binder is increased and the brittle point reduced.
 The elasticity of the binder is increased.
 In locations such as bus stops, rotary intersections and steep grades where frequent acceleration and
deceleration are caused, it is advantageous to add rubber so that the flow of the mix is checked and
the mixture is toughened.
 Rubber increases the resistance to brittle fracture at low temperatures. Rubber also improves the adhesion
between the binder and the stone aggregates.

Tar-Polymer blends
Coal-tar is found to be compatible with polymers like styrene and polystyrene, and an addition of small quantity
of these brings about significant changes in the rheological properties of the binder. The temperature
susceptibility is considerably modified. Higher stability mixtures are produced, durability increases and the
resistance to deformation at high temperatures is also improved considerably.

Types of Bituminous Courses

Bitumen and tar are used as a binder in a variety of specifications. The specifications can be classified as
follows:-
1. Prime coats and tack coats
2. Surface dressing and seal coats
3. Thin premixed surfacing
a. Thin premixed open textured carpets
b. Coarse graded mix-seals
c. Semi-dense carpet

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 4. Base courses
a. Built-up-spray grout
b. Penetration macadam including full-grout and semi-grout
c. Premixed macadam
5. Dense surfacing
a. Asphaltic concrete
b. Mastic asphalt
c. Rolled asphalt
d. Sheet asphalt
6. Stabilizing courses containing bitumen/tar

Figure 4.9: Bituminous courses by layer

I. Prime coats – this is an initial application of a low viscosity liquid bituminous material to an absorbent surface
preparatory to any super-imposed treatment or construction.
Objective of priming;
1) It assists in promoting and maintaining adhesion between the roadbase and a surface dressing by pre-
coating the roadbase and penetrating surface voids.
2) It helps to seal the surface pores in the roadbase thus reducing the absorption of the first spray of binder
of the surface dressing.
3) It helps to strengthen the roadbase near its surface by binding the finer particles of aggregate together.
4) If the application of the surface dressing is delayed for some reason it provides the roadbase with a
temporary protection against rainfall and light traffic until the surfacing can be laid.
Choice of binder for priming
The binder used for priming is generally a medium curing (MC) or slow curing (SC) cutback. The viscosity of
the binder and the quantity depend upon the porosity of the surface.
Table 4.2: Recommendations
Porosity Surface description Viscosity of binder Quantity in kg
(Standard tar per 10m2
viscosity at 60oC)
Low Tightly bonded surface, 0–5 7.3 – 9.8
containing hard stones well-
graded crushed rock, and
gravel with clayey soil
Medium Pavement with silty soil 6 – 12 9.8 – 12.2
binder
High Open –textured surfaces 16 – 32 12.2 – 14.6

II. Tack coats – an application of a bituminous binder to an existing surface (blacktopped or otherwise) to ensure
a bond between the new construction and the old surface.

Objective of tack coats

The difference between a tack coat and a priming coat is that unlike the latter, the binder does not
penetrate the lower layer in the former. It remains at the interface between the old and the new application
and promotes necessary bond between the two. Such a bond becomes very crucial if the old surface is dry and
hungry and if the new layer is very thin. Thin carpets have a tendency to peel off under excessive tangential
stresses, unless they are adequately bonded with the old surface.

Binder for tack coats

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 Tack coats can be done with road tar (RT-3), penetration grade bitumen (80/100), cutbacks and emulsions. The
quantity being 5 – 7.5kg per 10 m2 for blacktopped surfaces and 7.5 – 10kg per 10m2 for untreated water bound
macadam surfaces.

III. Surface dressing: is also termed as surface treatment. It is a process whereby thin film of bituminous binder
is sprayed on the road surface, covered with a coat of mineral aggregates and well rolled.
Functions
Surface dressing is used in a variety of situations to perform a number of functions. These are:
1) As a dust palliative, especially over gravel and water-bound macadam roads,
2) To protect the freshly laid WBM (water bound macadam) surfaces from the action of pneumatic tyre
vehicles which tends to suck the loose binder and deprive the stones of stability.
3) To water proof a WBM layer and prevent entry of water into the pavement and subgrade
4) To increase skid resistance of smooth surfaces
5) To renew the worn out surfaces periodically as part of routine maintenance operations
6) To act as a temporary bituminous surfacing specification on newly constructed roads so as to allow for
settlements due to traffic before costlier specifications are provided
It should be noted that the surface dressing is a thin treatment on top of a pavement and does not restore good
riding surface to a road which is full of irregularities.

Categories of Surface Dressing

Depend on the number of SD applications and whether the chips are pre-coated or not
Factors governing performance of SD
1) Binder – type and viscosity
2) Aggregates – their type, size, gradation, shape, strength, texture, porosity, dryness, dustiness and affinity
to binder
3) External conditions – old road surface, traffic, weather, season etc
4) Construction techniques – quantity and rate of spread of binder and aggregates, weight of roller and time
interval before opening of traffic

IV. Seal Coat: an effective treatment for the protection and preservation of asphalt/bituminous pavements done on
all pavements. If not protected the pavements become too expensive to repair and have to be replaced to keep it
functional.

4. THIN PREMIXED SURFACING

Thin premixed open textured carpets
1) A thin surfacing layer usually 20mm in thickness, a seal coat may precede. It compares with a two-coat
SD but is superior for the following reasons:
2) This effectively coats the full surface of aggregates
3) There is no loss of aggregates due to traffics
4) It is thicker and better than the SD
Disadvantages:
1) Two-coat SD is cheaper than the 20mm carpet
2) Equipment requirement for carpet includes a mixer unlike the boiler and hand sprayer for the SD
Mix-Seal Surfacing
- Is an open graded surfacing similar to the premixed carpets but differ as follows:
o Unlike the 20mm premix carpet, there is no separate seal-coat in the mix-seal. Materials are
mixed in one operation
o The aggregates are more closely graded in the mix-seals than in the carpets

Semi-Dense Carpets
A dense asphaltic concrete is a very costly specification, because of the rigorous specifications for mix design,
aggregate gradation, binder content and stability. Usually recommended where the 20mm chipping carpet may

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 not meet the requirement for traffic and climate and where the economy can support the extra investment since
it undoubtedly yields returns.

5. BASE COURSES
Built-up-spray grout
 BUSG is a method of building up a flexible pavement, in which single size stones are laid in layers of
thickness equal to the size of stones, and a very small quantity of bituminous binder is grouted.
 The binder so grouted smears the surfaces of the stone aggregates and imparts adhesion amongst the
aggregates of one layer as well as between aggregates of one layer and those of the layer above.
 This adhesion takes place only at the contact points between the aggregate inter-faces. The layers are usually
built up in the thickness of 40mm and the total compacted thickness of the course usually built is not above
75mm
 This is however inferior in strength and costly. It may be useful in desert areas

Penetration macadam including full-grout and semi-grout

 A penetration macadam is a compacted layer of coarse stone aggregates into which has been
introduced a binder which is allowed to penetrate into the layer and bind the stone aggregates. A layer
of intermediate aggregates called key aggregates is spread on the surface and rolled. A seal coat is provided
to make the surface impervious.
 A full-grout specification is one in which the binder is allowed to penetrate to full depth of construction.
 A semi-grout case is one in which the binder only penetrates half the depth or less. In the balance, the binder
is let to work up from the bottom.
Premixed macadam
 Pre-coated macadam is a form of premixed work where coarse macadam type of aggregates are mixed
with bituminous or tar binder.
 The stability of the material is mainly due to interlock between the aggregate particles and the frictional
resistance developed at their contact points. The mix is open-graded type and usually used for base
courses and leveling surfaces.
 It is hot-mix hot-laid using a paver finisher.

6. DENSE SURFACING
Asphaltic concrete
Asphaltic concrete: a pavement specification composed of a thoroughly controlled hot-mixed material having
as ingredient: graded mineral aggregates, filler and bitumen. It is both hot mixed and hot laid and is a
superior type of asphalt pavement.
Merits:
1) Durability – high density, resistant to deformation, and high adhesiveness
2) Imperviousness – low voids content, excellent grading, high adhesion
3) Load-spreading capacity – high interlock and hence dense
4) Quickly open-able to traffic – highly compacted during construction
5) Good skid resistance – non-skid surface
Demerits:
1) High cost
2) Needs sophisticated machines
3) Need for high degree of quality control
4) Very high bitumen content – bitumen is scarce and costly

Mastic asphalt
 A mixture of bitumen, mineral filler and fine aggregates in such a proportion as to yield a voidless
compact mass. Its consistency is such that it flows like a fluid at a temperature of about 200 oC, but on
cooling to normal temperature it solidifies. It thus requires no effort in compaction.
 Its mechanical strength is derived by the resistance to strain of the continuous matrix of fine aggregate,
filler and bitumen. The bitumen used is a hard grade which impacts toughness to the material. The final
product is very hard, fully impermeable, highly durable, resistant to deformation and self-healing.
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 It is useful in heavy duty areas, bridge girder decks and areas of high volume traffic.

Rolled asphalt
 This consists of mortar of fine aggregate and penetration grade bitumen to which is added a quantity of
coarse aggregates. If the quantity of coarse aggregates is low, it is used as wearing course. If the quantity
is high, about 60%, it is used as base course or road base material.

 It exhibits considerable strength and stability and has a long life. But quite costly.

Sheet asphalt
 Also known as sand-sheet.
 It is a mixture of well-graded fine aggregates (sand), mineral filler and bitumen. It is used as a superior
type of surface course, generally for heavily trafficked city streets.
 It is generally 40mm thick. It makes a noiseless and smooth surface. It is however costly.

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