/ RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY )

Point-of-Use
and Point-of-Entry
Drinking Water Treatment
Lee T. Rozelle

Point-of-use and point-of-entry water treatment systems that utilize tested and proven occur, modification or installation of con-
methods are an effective alternative to conventional systems for the reduction of chemical ventional water treatment systems may
contaminants to acceptable levels. Reverse osmosis is the most universally effective be too costly for these communities,
technology for reducing inorganic contaminants. Adsorption by activated carbon is the most prompting them to apply for variances
universally effective method for reducing organic contamination. Several technologies and or exemptions. In addition, it has been
their placements are discussed. Field studies concerning point-of-use and point-of-entry water estimated that there are approximately
treatment show this technology to be effective for community application. Thus far, bacterial 850,000 systems with between two and
growth in these devices has not been shown to be a health problem. Preliminary cost fourteen connections+i that are not
information indicates the advantages of point-of-use svstems. esneciallv for small communities. regulated by the SDWA. Also, there are
approximately 9,000,OOO individual rural
Potentially harmful chemicals are highest priority for increased research water systems that are not federally
beingdetected withincreasingfrequency and development, guideline information regulated.
in drinking water supplies. Several to the public, and enforcement include
factors contribute to this increased lead, radon, biological contaminants Point-of-use and point-of-entry
detection, including newly developed and (such as G&&a), and disinfection drinking water treatment
highly sophisticated analytical tech- by-products. Alternatives to conventional water
niques; increased awareness of chemical Thegreatest burdenof complyingwith treatment include drilling a new well,
contamination, resulting in more fre- these regulations will fall on the 38,000 hooking up to another system, installing
quent testing; and better identification small community systems that serve nonconventional treatment, using bot-
of pollution sources. Organic and many fewer than 500 people.3When violations tled water, and installing point-of-use or
inorganic chemical contaminants come
from such sources as underground stor-
age tanks and industrial waste dumps.
Arsenic and radionuclide contamination
in groundwater supplies can originate
from natural geologic sources. Agricul-
tural practices have resulted in increased
nitrate contamination, and lead pipes
and solders contribute to lead con-
tamination in drinking water. More
than 700 specific organic compounds
have been identified in drinking water Figure 1. Placement of point-of-use systems
supplies. l2
The 1986 amendments to the Safe TABLE 1
Drinking Water Act (SDWA) require Common point-of-use and point-of-entry technologies and their placements
that 83 contaminants must be regulated
Technology Normal Placement
by June 1989. The final regulations for
the first set of contaminants, including Particulate filters All point-of-use placements, point of entry
Adsorptive filters All point-of-use placements, point of entry
eight volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), Reverseosmosis Countertop, undersink line bypass
have recently been established. Contam- Ion exchange Point of entry, potentially all point-of-use placements
inants designated by the US Environ- Distillation Countertoo
mental Protection Agency (USEPA) as
OCTOBER 1987 LEE T. ROZELLE 53

Copyright (C) 1987 American Water Works Association

point-of-entry devices. Drilling a new but require frequent replacement. Un- structure and equipment design. The
well may not be feasible because of the dersink cold tap units are connected most common design is a cartridge
expense or because uncontaminated directly to the cold water line of the containing a loose carbon bed. This bed-
water may not be available. Hooking up faucet. Devices that attach to the cold type filter could also contain activated
to another treatment system may be water line through a bypass that pro- alumina as the media for fluoride and
prohibitively expensive if the system is duces water for drinking and cooking at arsenic (V) reduction. Fused carbon
some distance away. A nonconventional a special spigot on the sink are becoming filters and precoat filters are also utilized.
water treatment system, such as direct increasingly popular. In addition to the Precoat filters usually consist of pow-
filtration, may offer a solution for some placement of devices for treating drink- dered activated carbon or diatomaceous
communities. Bottled water is costly ing water at the point of use, placement earth applied to the influent side of the
and inconvenient over the long term; it of suitable devices at the point of entry to filter.
would not satisfy those situations in a house may be important in avoiding Reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis (RO)
which point-of-entry treatment would any perceived risks from inhalation or is known as the “high tech” method for
be required. dermal absorption of highly volatile reduction of dissolved inorganic contam-
The utilization of proven water treat- organic chemicals and radionuclides. inants and higher-molecular-weight or-
ment technologies at the point of use or Five proven technologies are com- ganic contaminants at the point of use.
point of entry offers a potentially viable monly used to effectively reduce specific The performance of RO is based on the
and cost-effective method for reduction contaminants in drinking water at the type of semipermeable membrane used
of chemical contaminants to acceptable point of use or the point of entry. These in the unit; cellulose acetate and poly-
levels in drinking water. The USEPA is technologies and their usual placements amide types are currently the most
now proposing to require point-of-use within a home are listed in Table 1. commonly used. Most reverse osmosis
treatment or bottled water as a condition Particulate filters. Particulate filters systems are placed at the point of use in
of receiving a variance or an exemption.” generally consist of foam-type or string the bypass system. The reverse osmosis
These systems will be used on an interim media and can be designed to retain systems normally consist of a particulate
basis if the contaminated drinking water particles of various sizes from large filter followed by an optional activated
is judged an “unreasonable risk to (30-50 pm) to small (3-5 pm). carbon filter (if a chlorine-sensitive
health” until the central water supply is Adsorptive filters. The most common membrane is used), an RO module, a
compliant with the regulations. adsorptive filter for contaminant reduc- water reservoir containing a pressurized
Placement of point-of-use systems at tion in drinking water is granular acti- rubber bladder, a final activated carbon
the sink for drinking water and cooking vated carbon (GAC). These filters reduce filter, and a special spigot on the sink.
applications are shown in Figure 1. common tastes and odors, some turbid- Household undersink RO units operate
Countertopdevices attach either directly ity, residual chlorine, radon, and many efficiently at pressures that range be-
or through a flexible pipe to the faucet. organic contaminants with varying de- tween 40 and 70 psi (276 and 483 kPa) on
Faucet-mounted filters are convenient grees of efficiency based on molecular nonbrackish raw waters up to 2,000 mg
total dissolved solids (TDS)/L. The flow
rate through the spigot is between 0.5
TABLE 2 and 1 gpm (0.03 and 0.63 L/s). Other
Average rejection of major contaminants by reverse osmosis* than the normal line pressure, no energy
Average Percent Rejection input is necessary.
Cellulose Acetate Thin-Film Composite Ion exchange. Cation ion exchange for
Contaminant Membrane Membrane water softening has been used at the
Arsenic (III) 37 68 point of entry for many years. It is also
Arsenic (V) effective in the reduction of barium and
Barium ti ii radium. Anion exchange is known to be
Cadmium 93 99 effective for removing nitrates, some
Chromium (III) 90 99
Fluoride arsenates, and uranium anion.
Lead 2 z:: Distillation. Distillation has historically
Mercury (II) 60 62 been known to be effective in producing
Nitrate 94 contaminant-free water. As with other
Selenium (IV) ii 98
Silver 72 98 point-of-use and point-of-entry technol-
Sodium (Cl) 84 97 ogies, design is a major factor in pro-
TDS 84 97 ducing a highly effective unit. In general,
*Data from Culligan Inc., Northbrook, Ill. the energy input required for distillation
tConditions: pressure = 40-70 psi (276-483 kPa), total salt concentration in feed = 1,500mg/L(average), involves a higher operating expense than
pH = 7-8, temperature = 70-74°F (21-23’C) other methods.
Maintenance. Point-of-use and point-of-
TABLE 3
Removal of selected organics from contaminated groundwater by various RO membranes*
entry systems and devices must be
maintained properly for continued ef-
Average
Rejection According to Membrane Type fectiveness for removal of contaminants.
percent Particulate filters must be replaced
Influent
Concentration Cellulose Thin-Film before clogging. Adsorptive media must
Contaminant F&?/L Acetate Polyamide Composite be replaced before becoming saturated
Total organic carbon 2,000 90 91 89 with contaminant. The replacement
Total organic halogen 89 34 64 88 period depends on the contaminant type
Cis-1,2-dichloroethylene 58 <IO 19 25
l,l,l-Trichloroethane 6 <lo 92 >99 and concentration (in the feed), flow
Trichloroethylene 111 <lo 32 78 rate, and volume of water used within a
Benzene 26 cl0 18 15 given period of time. According to the
Operating pressure- National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)
psi (kPa) 235 (1,620) 150 (1,034) 200 (1,379)
Standard 53,6 a GAC filter rated for a
*Test period-13 h; table adapted from Sorg and Love** specific volume must produce water
compliant with the standards at twice
54 RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY JOURNAL AWWA

Copyright (C) 1987 American Water Works Association

the rated volume. This provides a 100
percent safety factor. If there is an
automatic shutoff or alarm based on the
volume of water run through the unit, it
is tested to 125 percent of this rated
volume. The filters and modules must be
periodically replaced on RO systems to
avoid efficiency loss because of mem-
brane fouling or deterioration. According
to NSF Standard 53,6 the RO module
must be replaced when the conductivity
rejection is below 75 percent or at a value
necessary to maintain compliance with
the SDWA. With proper maintenance of
the prefilters, the cellulose acetate
modules are normally replaced after one
and half to two years of service and the
polyamide modules are replaced between
two and four years of service. Ion
exchange units must be regenerated or
replaced periodically. Sodium chloride is
normally used for regeneration of cation
exchange resins. Stills must be cleaned
often to remove scale or other debris and
to provide the greatest efficiency of
operation.
Reducing inorganic contaminants
According to a 1983 survey, high
nitrate was the most important reason
for shutting down wells.7 Fluoride was
the next important reason. To a much
lesser extent than nitrates and fluorides,
the major inorganic (nonradionuclide)
problems in groundwater throughout
the United States were selenium, arsenic, Many consumers have opted to install undersink point-of-use treatment devices,
and barium. These contaminants which either out of concern about water quality OYto please their palates.
come mostly from natural sources, had
specificgeographic distribution patterns, One device used a cellulose acetate (CA) In addition to being reduced by RO,
basically as a result of geologic factors. membrane and the other a thin-film nitrates can be effectively reduced by
Lead contaminates drinking water composite (TFC) membrane. Thin-film anion exchange resins.13 It should be
supplies through lead solders and pipes. composite membranes are a relatively pointed out, however, that commercial
Copper is listed as a contaminant in new development (commercially avail- anion exchange resins select sulfates
phase 2 of USEPA’s regulatory agenda.8 able within the last few years), whereas over nitrates. Thus, when sulfates are
In many cases, these corrosion by-prod- CA membranes have been used com- present in the raw water at significant
ucts of household piping systems may be mercially for almost 20 years. concentrations, the efficiency for nitrate
controlled at the point of use. Table 2 shows that, in general, the removal using anion exchange is consid-
Radionuclide contamination can be contaminant rejections for the TFC erably reduced.
found in groundwater supplies through- membrane were higher than those for Arsenic (V) is effectively reduced in
out the United States. Uranium is the CA membrane. There were some water by RO, anion exchange,14 or
highest in the West, radium highest in very significant differences, particularly adsorption onto activated alumina.15
the Midwest and Southeast, and radon in the case of arsenic (III), which ex- Activated alumina is also effective for
highest in the Appalachian Mountains hibited only a 37 percent rejection using reducing fluorides in drinking water.16J7
and New England.g Radon, although the CA membrane compared with a 68 An advantage of RO over activated
found in extremely high concentrations percent rejection using the TFC mem- alumina and ion exchange is that the
in certain locations,‘Ooccurs throughout brane. The nitrate rejections also vary contaminant is rejected to the drain and
the United States. It has been estimated considerably between the CA and the buildup on alumina or resin (if used) is
that if radon were regulated to a level of TFC membrane (39 percent for CA ver- avoided.
1 in 1,000 lifetime risk, approximately sus 94 percent for TFC). It is generally Radium and barium can be reduced
half of the public groundwater systems known that CA membranes can reject effectively by cation exchange.ls Recent
in the United States would not be in nitrates up to 67 percent.12It is important studies using home ion exchange soft-
compliance.” to note that the data in Table 2 were eners show that hardness is an excellent
Reverse osmosis is the most univer- obtained under line pressures; increasing surrogate for radium.‘9 In one test,
sally effective method for reducing all the pressure would increase the rejec- hardness breakthrough occurred at 1,500
inorganic contaminants, except for tion. In many cases, the CA membrane gal (5,678 L), and at 3,000 gal (11,356 L)
radon. It should be remembered that RO may be entirely adequate for reducing the radium in the effluent was less than
rejection efficiency depends essentially contamination below the maximum 1 pCi/L. The raw water exhibited a
on the membrane used for separation. contaminant level (MCL). Certainly, hardness of 15 gr as CaCOdgal (256.5
Table 2 presents data on the rejection of point-of-use RO systems should be con- mg as CaCOdL) and a radium level of 15
current primary inorganic contaminants sidered for efficient removal of inorganic pCi/L. Virtually all of the exchanged
by two undersink line bypass devices. contaminants. radium was removed during regenera-
OCTOBER 1987 LEE T. ROZELLE 55

Copyright (C) 1987 American Water Works Association

tion. The regenerated resin contained entry units would be more appropriate of point-of-use conditions (40-70 psi
0.02 pCi/g (wet), whereas the exhausted for removal of certain contaminants. [276-483 kPa]). Table 3, however, does
resin contained 5.5 pCi/g ( et). The Aeration is effective for removal of indicate that the removal efficiency for
unused regenerated resin contaiTl ed 0.006 VOCs but is generally not used at the VOCs is dependent on the type of RO
pCi/g (wet). Home ion exchange softeners point-of-use level. Aeration is possible, membrane.
can effectively and safely reduce radium however, for point-of-entry applications. In another study, Taylorzg found that
in drinking water supplies. Some of the common methods for TOC could be reduced by 94 percent
Lowry et alzOhave shown that more reducing organics at the point of use are using a “loose” RO membrane* with a
than 95 percent of radon can be removed boiling, oxidation, distillation, RO, and molecular-weight cutoff of 400 at pres-
from water by GAC adsorption and adsorption with activated carbon. sures from 75 to 100 psi (517 to 689 kPa).
diffused aeration. Studies using point- Boiling. Boiling can generally be used This, again, was not directly a point-of-
of-entry units with 2 cu ft (0.06 m3) of as an immediate step for VOC removal useapplication, but was carried out on a
GAC showed that the adsorption-decay until other more effective methods can 25,000-gpd (95-ML/d) pilot plant. It
steady state extends the life of the GAC be installed. supports previous indications, however,
bed indefinitely. Shielding of the GAC Oxidation. A 70 percent reduction of that RO membranes can effectively
unit would not be necessary for the vast VOCs has been reported for oxidation reduce higher-molecular-weight organic
majority of wells, in which the concen- with ozone.z5,26Thishigh-level reduction contaminants. It is generally well known
tration of radon is less than 30,000 was believed to partially be the result of that GAC does not have a high capacity
pCi/L. At very high input concentrations an activated carbon component of the for higher-molecular-weight organics
of radon (e.g., 500,000 pCi/L), shielding system. An ultraviolet (UV)-activated such as humic acid.
may be necessary. Although home ion carbon system was also investigated in Activated carbon. Compared with other
exchange softeners are not used cur- the latter study, and the organic reduc- methods, adsorption by activated carbon
rently on a communitywide basis for tions were again attributed to activated is the most efficient and cost-effective
removal of radium from drinking water carbon. Ozonation plus UV has been for point-of-use or point-of-entry reduc-
supplies, these studies show that they shown to be effective for the control of tion of organic contaminants. All organic
can play a safe and effective role for volatile aromatics and alkenes.27 How- compounds, however, are not adsorbed
radium reduction. Human exposure ever, incomplete oxidation has been equally. Adsorption capacities vary by
would be expected to be minimal based observed, and the by-products may also several orders of magnitude. Adsorption
on the above studies. Any potential pose a contamination problem.28 In capacities (milligrams organic contam-
hazards involved with the disposal of general, oxidation has not been effective inant per gram of activated carbon) for
used resin have not yet been considered. for reducing contaminants in drinking various compounds have been published
water applications unless used in com- by Dobbs and Cohen.30Love and Miltner
Reduction of organic contaminants bination with activated carbon. have also determined and calculated
Thegeographic distribution of organic Distillation. Distillation can be an adsorption capacities for a number of
contaminants depends on many factors, effective method for organic reduction at organic contaminants31 Based on Love
such as the location of dump sites and the point of use, particularly when used and Miltner’s data, a calculation using
chemical storage tanks, and agricultural in combination with activated carbon. If single components in distilled water was
practices, and thus does not depend on VOCs are present as contaminants, a carried out to estimate each component’s
geologic factors like many inorganic portion will vaporize and may distill time to saturation for an undersink GAC
contaminants. Surface water supplies over the water, requiring a final activated filter. If 0.5 mg trichloroethylene
tend to have high organics backgrounds carbon filter. However, there is little (TCE)/L were a single component in
of many contaminants, whereas ground- published data on reducing organics by distilled water, the time necessary for
water supplies tend to have a lower point-of-use distillation for drinking saturation of a 5-lb (2.2-kg) GAC filter at
organics background but higher levels of water applications. a flow rate of 5 gpd (19 L/d) would be
specific contaminants. Volatile organics Reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis, approximately 17 years (breakthrough
occur more often in groundwater. Chlo- effective for removal of inorganic con- would probably occur in half that time or
rinated hydrocarbon solvents are found taminants, has potential for reduction of 8.5 years). Using the same calculation
most frequently, and trichloroethylene some organic contaminants depending and assumptions for methylene chloride,
(TCE) is generally the most frequently on the membrane used. Cellulose acetate it would take approximately six months
observed organic contaminant in ground- membranes have not been known to be to saturate the filter or three months to
water supplieszl effective, except for high-molecular- break through at a feed concentration of
Conventional community systems are weight organic contaminants. Noncellu- 0.5 rng/L.= The GAC filter life lasts as
not known to be effective for removal of losic membranes have shown promise long as it is necessary to saturate it with
organic contaminants without major for low-molecular-weight organics as the organic constituent having the lowest
process additions. 22 For small commu- well as high-molecular-weight organics. adsorption capacity. These calculations
nities of fewer than 500 people, central Sorg and LovezHstudied the reduction are useful, however, only as guidelines.
treatment costs may be much more of VOCs usingR0. Table 3 indicates the The effects of complex mixtures on
expensive than point-of-entry or point- differences in percent rejection of adsorption capacity and desorption may
of-use applications. organic constituents in contaminated change a single component’s capacity
Highly volatile organic chemical con- groundwaters using CA, polyamide, and significantly.
taminants may require point-of-entry TFC membranes. The results of their The actual performance of at-the-sink
removal exclusively. A recent study study showed that the removal of commercial GAC units was studied by
indicates that the release of VOCs during l,l,l-trichloroethane, by polyamide and the Gulf South Research Institute (GSRI)
showers may produce a health risk TFC membranes was promising. Total under funding from the USEPA and
because of inhalation.23 It has also been organic halogen content was removed published by Perry et al in 1981.261twas
postulated that there could be some more efficiently by the TFC membrane. further summarized by Bell et al in
absorption of organic contaminants Total organic carbon (TOC), the high- 1984.25Tables 4 through 6 summarize
through the skin (e.g., during a bath) molecular-weight organic background, pertinent results of the study concerning
that may pose some risks.24 If health was removed quite efficiently by all reduction of specific organic contam-
risks resulting from inhalation and three membranes. Removal efficiencies
dermal absorption are proven, point-of- would be less under the lower pressures *N-.50,FilmTec, Minnetonka, Mmn.

56 RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY

JOURNAL AWWA
Copyright (C) 1987 American Water Works Association
 .

percent reduction gives the initial value

TABLE 4 and the ending value based on the rated
Reduction of THMs by commercial GAC units* life of each commercial point-of-use unit.
These values were averaged over all the
Number of Average units tested. Initial reductions were
Type of Unit Units Tested Percent Reduction
excellent for all units. Generally the unit
Faucet and countertop (including pour-through) 7 6-74 with the highest weight of GAC and
Cold tap 4 15-34
Line bypass 12 23-99 highest residence time performed better
*1980 data, adapted from Bell et al2’
at the end of the rated life. The line-
bypass systems exhibited the highest
TABLE 5
consistent performance.
Reduction offour halogenated organics* (spiked in groundwater) by commercial GAC units? Table 6 shows the initial and final
reductions for three representative halo-
Number of genated organics spiked into surface
Type of Unit Units Tested Percent ReductionS water25 (similar to the groundwater
Faucet and countertop (including pour-through) 3 99-40 study). In all three cases, the rated life of
Cold tap 99-80 some units apparently was too long and
Line bypass k 99-93
contaminant reductions for these units
*l,l,l-Trichloroethane; carbon tetrachloride; trichloroethylene; tetrachloroethylene decreased significantly. The adsorption
iAdapted from Bell et al*”
IHighest initial value, lowest ending value; based on rated life of each unit capacity of the units appeared greater
for chlordane than hexachlorobenzene.
This is not consistent with the order of
TABLE 6 adsorption capacities (hexachloroben-
Reduction of three halogenated organics* (spiked in surface water) by commercial GAG units?
zene > chlordane) determined by Dobbs
Number of and Cohen”’ and probably indicates the
Type of Unit Units Tested Percent Reduction% effects of concentration and solution
Faucet and countertop (including pour-through) 3 99-20 mixture on the adsorption capacity.
Cold tap 1 79-30 In the study conducted by Bell et al,*5
Line bypass 6 99-45
RO units combined with GAC reduced
*p-Dichlorobenzene, hexachlorobenzene, chlordane spiked organics by 99 percent. Trihalo-
tAdapted from Bell et a12”
$Highest initial value, lowest ending value; based on rated life of each unit methanes were reduced between 74 and
99 percent. The higher reductions were
based on the amount and placement of
TABLE 7
Partial list offield studies concerningpoint-of-use or point-of-entry units
the GAC in the system. Nonpurgeable
total organic halogens were reduced by
Site Contaminant Method Status 80 percent by the RO units alone. This
San Ysidro, N.M. Arsenic, fluoride Point of use (reverse osmosis) Completed* supports the hypothesis that RO reduces
Fresno, Calif. Dibenzochloropropane Point of entry In progress higher-molecular-weight organics more
(granular activated carbon) consistently than GAC.
Long Island, N.Y. Aldicarb, nitrate, Point of entry and point of In progress
and others use (reverse osmosis, Field studies
granular activated carbon,
ion exchange) Several field studies using point-of-
Silverdale, Pa. Trichloroethylene, Point of use Completed use or point-of-entry drinking water
perchloroethylene (granular activated carbon)
Rockaway Township, NJ. Various VOCs Point of use Completed treatment devices are currently in pro-
(granular activated carbon) gress or have been recently completed
Emington, III. Total dissolved solids, Point of use (reverse osmosis) Completed for small communities over an extended
fluoride period of time (one year or more). Table 7
*Report not available at press time gives a partial list of these pilot studies.
Results are summarized for those com-
pleted studies from which the informa-
inants for various at-the-sink models a few cases the preceding conditions tion is available.
(Figure 1). were met, but low THM reductions Long Island, N.Y. For several years,
Most studies concentrated on the occurred.2” Intermittent flow conditions Suffolk County (on Long Island, N.Y.)
reduction of trihalomethanes (THMs) prevail in point-of-use applications, and has utilized point-of-entry GAC units to
using unspiked New Orleans, La., tap in most cases actual residence times are remove aldicarb from its drinking water
water. Influent THM concentrations muchgreater than the empty bed contact supplies. The units contained 1 cu ft
ranged from 110 to 239 mg/L. The per- time (EBCT) that exists under constant (0.03 m3) of activated carbon, and the
cent reductions for THMs obtained with flow conditions. raw water feed averaged 87 pg/L aldi-
commercial GAC units are shown in This part of the GSRI study on New carb/L. Three thousand units have been
Table 4. The line-bypass GAC units Orleans tap water showed that most of tested for approximately four years.
exhibited the highest THM reductions- the devices tested did not remove the Considerable variability in GAC life has
up to 99 percent. The highest organic higher-molecular-weight organics effec- occurred. Moran and Lykins34.35calcu-
reductions were observed for those units tively. Only in two cases was higher- lated that at 10 pg aldicarb/L in the raw
with the greatest weight of GAC com- molecular-weight nonpurgeable total water, the theoretical GAC filter life
bined with the longest residence time in organic carbon (NPTOC) reduced by >50 before breakthrough (at 7 pg aldicarb/L)
the filter. In general, these studies percent. The remaining units reduced would be 60,000 gal (227 ML). At a raw
showed that a residence time of more NPTOC between 2 and 41 percent. water aldicarb concentration of 100pg/L,
than 35 s combined with a GAC weight The reduction of four representative the life was calculated to be 45,000 gal
of more than 1.5 lb (0.7 kg) gave the halogenated organics spiked intoground- (170 ML) before breakthrough.
highest THM reductions. Overall design water using lOcommercial GAC units is Silverdale, Pa., and Rockaway Township,
was also important, however, because in shown in Table 5.25 In this case, the NJ. A National Sanitation Foundation
OCTOBER 1987 LEE T. ROZELLE 57

Copyright (C) 1987 American Water Works Association

 (NSF) study funded by the USEPA tested higher for the effluent than for the use and point-of-entry water treatment
commercial GAC filters (line-bypass influent. This growth was attributed to systems with thoseof central treatment.
units) in two areas that have VOCs in a GAC unit located before the tap but
after an RO module. Issues for community application
their groundwater. A summary of the
organic contaminant removal results A two-year study funded by the USEPA The USEPA has stated several condi-
follows. and the Water Quality Association has tions for the application of point-of-use
Rockaway Township. Wells in this been carried out at Yale University on and point-of-entry equipment to treat
community contain l,l,l-trichloroethane the health significance of bacteria asso- drinking water on a communitywide
and trichloroethylene, each in concen- ciated with point-of-use GAC filters.38 A basis for regulatory purposes. This and
trations of up to 240 pg/L; l,l-dichloro- selection of 180 homes was divided into other conditions have been published in
ethylene up to 21 pg/L; tetrachloroethyl- three groups. One test group utilized the Federal Register.5 Monitoring and
ene up to 12 pg/L; and l,l-dichloroethane faucet GAC filters and another used maintenance of these devices for com-
up to 10 pg/L. Twelve GAC devices were undersink line-bypass filters. The con- munity use remain major issues but are
tested. After 24 months of operation, trol group for both types of point-of-use being addressed by current demonstra-
essentially no VOCs were observed in filters consisted of empty GAC car- tion programs. It is beyond the scope of
the effluent (~1 pg/L). tridges. The heterotrophic bacterial den- this article to discuss these and other
Silver-dale, Pa. Wells in this com- sities averaged more than 800 colony issues relating to community mainte-
munity contain mean concentrations of forming units (cfu)/mL for effluent from nance and operation of point-of-use and
trichloroethylene up to 130 pg/L and both types of units. Gastrointestinal and point-of-entry systems. The institutional
tetrachloroethylene up to 50 pg/L. dermatological symptoms were moni- and jurisdictional issues are being ad-
Forty-seven GAC devices were tested tored. No significant difference in symp- dressed at the federal, state, and local
’ (five models). After 14 months, no VOCs tom rates was found between the filter levels, generally on a case-by-case basis.
were observed in the effluent (‘1 pg/L). groups and the control group.
In a study conducted by Geldreich et Conclusion
Emington, III. In another NSF study,
RO point-of-use units were used to treat al,“” bacterial growth in point-of-use GAC Point-of-use and point-of-entry water
waters with high TDS (mean raw water filters was measured under worst-case treatment utilizing tested and proven
concentration-2,529 mg/L) and fluoride conditions. Filters were also challenged methods is an effective alternative for
levels (mean raw water concentration- with various opportunistic bacteria. the reduction of chemical contaminants
4.5 mg/L).s6 Sixty-three line-bypass RO Considerable bacterial growth was ob- to acceptable levels. Small systems, in
devices from one manufacturer were served, but the concentration of oppor- particular, could realize the cost effec-
used in this one-year demonstration. tunistic pathogens released into the tiveness of such devices. Technologies
The RO membrane was a spiral-wound water did not approach an infectious commonly used and proven effective in
polyamide membrane in a typical RO dose.It was recommended that the filters point-of-use water treatment include
system for point of use (described pre- be flushed for 30 s prior to use. particulate filters, adsorptive filters,
viously). Over a one-year period, the In general, although bacterial growth reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and dis-
fluoride concentration was reduced by a has been observed, no harmful effects tillation. These units are placed at the
mean value of 86 percent and TDS was have been noted and no infectious doses sink in several configurations and some
reduced by 79 percent. The prefilters have been observed with point-of-use can be used at the point of entry to a
required additional maintenance because GAC filters. house. Point-of-use and point-of-entry
of iron fouling. devices require periodic maintenance for
Preliminary cost information long-term effectiveness.
Microbiological considerations A recent (1985) estimate of point-of- Reverse osmosis is the most univer-
Point-of-use and point-of-entry devices, use costs for the homeowner was carried sally effective technology for the reduc-
particularly those with activated carbon, out by the NSF studies at Silverdale and tion of all inorganic contaminants (except
provide surfaces for bacterial growth. Rockaway County Township.3s The GAC radon) from drinking water at the point
Increases in the pour plate count have line-bypass unit cost $5.78 to $7.53 per of use. The effectiveness for specific
been observed, particularly under stag- month, amortized over a 20.year period inorganic contaminants is dependent on
nant conditions. Regunathan et aP7have at a 10 percent interest rate. These costs the type of membrane used; thin-film
shown, however, that under stagnant were calculated based on actual condi- composite membranes exhibit generally
conditions, the pour plate count at a tap tions for maintenance and monitoring, higher rejections. Distillation is also
without a GAC point-of-use device can plus an estimated administrative cost. universally effective for the reduction of
be equivalent to that with a GAC point- In the Emington study, the point-of- inorganic contaminants but requires
of-use device. Flushing is important in use cost was compared with estimated electrical energy input. Other technolo-
both cases. central treatment costs for the RO gies effective for the reduction of specific
Bellen,x5using GAC point-of-use filters process.3” The average monthly cost for inorganic contaminants include ion ex-
in the Silverdale field studies, found an RO point-of-use treatment in Emington change for barium, radium, nitrate, and
average two orders of magnitude (two- was $12.48, and the estimated monthly arsenic (V) and activated alumina for
log) increase in the pour plate count in cost for RO central treatment was $28.50 arsenic (V) and fluoride. Radon can be
the effluent after an overnight quiescent per customer (based on 63 service con- reduced easily by GAC and aeration.
period. A 0.26-gal(l-L) flush reduced the nections). These costs were based on an Adsorption by activated carbon is the
pour plate count by one log. The pour amortization period of 20 years at an most universal method for organic con-
plate count in the effluent after a 2-min interest rate of 10 percent. taminant reduction from drinking water
flush was equivalent to that of the An interesting comparison was made in point-of-use and point-of-entry sys-
distribution system. In Rockaway, the between point-of-use and bottled water tems. Not all organic contaminants are
pour plate count in the effluent was less costs. Assuming 1 gpcd (3.8 L/d per adsorbed equally on activated carbon,
than one log higher than the count from capita), 2.6 people per household, and and such variables as the adsorptive
the influent. In both studies, there was $0.85 per gallon, Leonard40 calculated capacity and the composition of mix
no evidence of coliform colonization in the bottled water cost to be approxi- must be considered. Studies have shown
any of the homes. mately $67 per month. Studies are being that commercial point-of-use GAC units
In Emington,36 the pour plate count conducted in small communities to with a combination of high residence
for unflushed taps was one to two logs compare accurately the costs of point-of- time and weight of GAC are effective for
58 RESEARCHANDTECHNOLOGY JOURNALAWWA
Copyright (C) 1987 American Water Works Association
the reduction of THMs, TCE, and other taminants From Water. Envir. Sci. & 30. DOBBS,R.A. & COHEN,J.M. Carbon Ad-
specific organic contaminants. Reverse Technol., 20:11:1072 (Nov. 1986). sorption Isotherms for Toxic Organics.
osmosis may complement the organic 13. CLIFFORD,D. & WEBER, W. JR. Nitrate USEPA 600/880-023,Ofce. of Res. and
Removal From Water Suoulies bv Ion Devel., Waste Water Treatment Div.,
reduction capabilities of GAC by more Exchange. USEPA-600/8:77-015, Natl. Cincinnati, Ohio (Am. 1980).
uniform reduction of total organic car- Tech. Info. Svce., Springfield, Va. (Nov. 31. LOVE,O.T. JR.& MIL+NER,R.J. Controlling
bons and the possible reduction of 1977). Volatile Organic Compounds in Ground-
specific contaminants. 14. CLIFFORD,D. Processes for Removal of water Used for Drinking. USEPA 625/4-
Several field studies have been and are Inorganic Contaminants From Water. 85/016 (Sept. 1985). -
beingconducted todetermine the efficacy Water Engrg. &Management-Reference 32. ROZELLE,L.T. Point-of-Use Treatment of
of using point-of-use treatment as a Handbook Issue, R-312 (1982). Oraanics.Fourth DomesticWater Qual.
community system for reducingcontam- 15. ROSENBLUM, E. & CLIFFORD,D. The Equi- Sym., Water Qual. Assn., Lisle, Ill. (1985).
inants in drinking water supplies. These librium Arsenic Capacity of Activated 33. MORAN, D. Report on GAC Treatment
Alumina. PB84-110527, Natl. Tech. Info. Units Used for Removal of Aldicarb
studies are indicating that when properly Svce., Springfield, Va. (Feb. 1984). Residues and Private Wells. Suffolk
maintained, point-of-use and point-of-en- 16. CLIFFORD,D.; MATSON,J.; & KENNEDY,R. County Dept. of Health Services(1983).
try devices can be effective for commun- Activated Alumina: Rediscovered Adsor- 34. LYKINS.B.W. IR. & BAIER.I.H. Granular
ity application to reduce primary drink- bent for Fluoride, Humic Acids, and Activated Carbon and Reverse Osmosis
ing water contaminants. Silica. Indus. WaterEnrrrrr.. 15:12:6(Dec.
Y Yl
Treatment for Three Recommended Con-
Although bacterial growth has been 1978). taminant Levels. Conf. on Current Re-
observed in point-of-use and point-of- 17. SINGH,G. & CLIFFORD, D. TheEquilibrium search in Drinking Water Treatment,
entry devices (particularly GAC), no Fluoride Capacity of Activated Alumina. USEPA,Cincinnati, Ohio (Mar. 1987).
harmful effects have been noted and no PB81-204075, Natl. Tech. Info. Svce., 35. BELLEN,G.; ANDERSON,M.; & GOTTLER,
Springfield, Va. (1981). R. Point-of-Use Reduction of Volatile
infectious doses have been observed. A 18. SNOEYINK, V.L. ETAI..Barium and Radium Halogenated Organics in Drinking
short flushing time (possibly 30 s) is Removal From Ground Water bv Ion Water: Final Rent. NSF. Ann Arbor.
recommended after quiescent periods. Exchange. PB84-189810,Natl. Tech: Info. Mich. (Nov. 1985):
The costs of communitywide point-of- Svce., Springfield, Va. (1984). 36. BEI.LEN,G.; ANDERSON,M.; & GOTTLER,
use units are currently being estimated. 19. COLE. L. & CIRRINCIONE.I. Radium Re- R. Defluoridation of Drinking Water in
The National Sanitation Foundation movai From Groundwater by Ion Ex- Small Comunities: Final Rept. NSF, Ann
determined a cost between $5.78 and change Resin. Water Qual. Assn. Tech. Arbor, Mich. (Nov. 1985).
$7.53 per month for small communities Paper, Lisle, Ill. (1987). 37. REGUNATHAN,P.; BEALJMAN,W.H.; &
(basedon approximately 50 installations) 20. LowRY,J.D. ETAL.Point-of-Entry Removal KREUSCH,E.G. Efficiency of Point-of-Use
of Radon From Drinking Water. Jaw. Treatment Devices. Jaw. A WWA, 75:1:42
using actual test data from GAC units A WWA. 79:4:162 (Am-. 1987). (Jan. 1983).
collected during a 14-to 24-month period. 21. HESS, A.F.; DYKS~N:J.E.; & DUNN, H.J. 38. CALDERON,R.L.; DUFOUR,A.F.; & MOOD,
Groundwater Contamination: Challenge E.W. Health Significance of Bacteria
References of the 80s. Water Technol., 10:9:40(1983). Associated With Point-of-Use Granular
1. The Occurrence of Volatile Organics in 22. DYKSEN,J.E.; HESS, A.F.; & SCHAEFER, Activated Carbon Filters. Presented at
Drinking Water. Briefing Paper, USEPA J.K. The Capabilities of Standard Water the Water Qual. Assn. Conf., Dallas,
Ofce. of Drinking Water, Cincinnati, Ohio Treatment Processes to Meet Revised Texas, March 1987 (in press).
(Mar. 6, 1980). Drinking Water Regulations. Proc. 39. GELDREICH,E.E. ET AL. Bacterial Coloni-
2. Contamination of Groundwater by Toxic AWWA 1986Ann. Conf. Denver, Colo. zation of Point-of-UseWater Treatment
Organic Chemicals. Council on Envir. (1986). Devices.Jaw. A WWA, 77:2:72 (1985).
Qual., Washington, D.C. (Jan. 1981). 23. COUCH,A.F. Assessing Human Inhalation 40. LEONARD,R.L. Coping With Neighbor-
3. COTRUVO,J.A. & VOGT, C. Development Exposure to Trichloroethylene Volatiza- hood and Individual Water System Prob-
of Revised Primarv Drinking Water tion From Contaminated Residential lems. Presented at Tri-State Conf. on
Regulations.. JOUY. .A WWA, ?6:11:34 Water System Supplies. Master’s thesis, Problem Waters and Their Treatment
(Nov. 1984). Univ. of Pittsburgh (1984). for Individual and Small Water Systems.
4. FRANCIS,J.D. ET AL. National Statistical 24. BROWN,H.S.; BISHOP,D.R.; & ROWAN, Univ. of Connecticut. Storrs, Conn., May
Assessment of Rural Water Conditions. C.A. The Role of Skin Absorption as a 15, 1985.
Cornell University for USEPA (1981). Route of Exposure for VOCs in Drinking
5. National Interim Primary Drinking Water. Proc. AWWA 1985 Ann. Conf..
Water Regulations-Volatile Synthetic Denver, Colo. (1985). About the author:
Organic Chemicals: Para-dichloroben- 25. BELL, F.A. JR. ET AL. Studies on Home Lee T. Rozelle, asso-
zene. Fed. Reg., 52:12876 (Apr. 17, 1987). Water Treatment Svstems. lour. A WWA. ciate director, Olin
6. NSF Standard 53, Drinking Water Treat- 76:4:126 (Apr. 1984j. - Co@,, 350 Knotter
ment Units: Health Effects. NSF, Ann 26. PERRY,D.L.; SMITH, J.A.; & LYNCH,S.C. Dr., P.O. Box 586,
Arbor, Mich. (revised June 1982). Development of Basic Data and Knowl- Cheshire, CT 06410,
7. CLIFFORD,D.; SORG,T.J.; & FKANK, P. edge Regarding Organic Removal Capa- has been active in
Survey of Inorganic Contaminants. Proc. bilities of Commercially Available Home water-related research
AWWA 1983 Ann. Conf. Denver, Colo. Water Treatment Units Utilizine Acti-
vated Carbon. Phase 3: Final Rep;, Gulf and development for
(1983).
8. COOK,M.B. & SCHNARE,D.W. Amended South Res. Inst., New Orleans, La. (Oct. much of thepast20year.s. He haspublished
SDWA Marks New Era in the Water 1981). more than 40 articles, the majority of
Industry. Jour. A WWA, 78:8:66 (1986). 27. GLAZE,W.A. Reaction Products of Ozone. which are related to water-based separa-
9. AIETA, E.M. ET AL. Radionuclides and Second Intl. Sym. on Health Effects of tions using membrane technology. Rozelle
Drinking Water: An Overview. JOUY. Drinking Water Disinfection and Disin- is active on two AWWA committees-
A WWA. 79:4:144 (Am-. 1987). fection Byproducts. Cincinnati, Ohio Controlof Water Quality in Transmission
10. LOWRY,‘J.D. & M&EAU, E. ‘Removal of (Aug. 1985). and Distribution Systems, and Taste and
Extreme Radon and Uranium From a 28. SORG, T.J. & LOVE, O.T. JR. Reverse Odor. As a member of the Water Quality
Water SUDD~V.Proc. 1986 ASCE Natl. Osmosis Treatment to Control Inorganic
and Volatile Organic Contamination. US Association, he was chairman of the
Conf. on E%r. Engrg., Cincinnati, Ohio
(July 1986). Dept. of Commerce. PB84-223528, Natl. Science Advisory Committee for three
11. COTHERN,C.R. Estimating the Health Tech. Info. Svce., Springfield, Va. (1984). years. Rozelle is on the board of directors of
Risks of Radon in Drinking Water. JOUY. 29. TAYLOR,J.S. THMFP Reduction by Low the Pacific Water Quality Association and
A WWA, 79:4:153 (Apr. 1987). Pressure Membranes. USEPA Conf. on has recently been appointed a member of
12. CLIFFORD,D.; SUBRAMONIAN, S.; & SORG, Current Research in Drinking Water the National Drinking Water Advisory
TJ. Removing Dissolved Inorganic Con- Treatment. Cincinnati, Ohio(Mar. 1987). Council.
OCTOBER1987 LEE T. ROZELLE 59
Copyright (C) 1987 American Water Works Association