NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: CSS 246

COURSE TITLE: LEGAL AND SOCIAL FRAMEWORK OF PRIVATE

SECURITY SERVICES IN NIGERIA.

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 COURSE

GUIDE

CSS 246: LEGAL AND SOCIAL FRAMEWORK OF PRIVATE SECURITY

SERVICES IN NIGERIA.

Course Writer/Developer Dr. Niyi Adegoke

NOUN

Course Coordinators Dr. Niyi Adegoke

NOUN

Mr. Igwe, D. O.

NOUN

Mr. C.A .C. Chukwunka

NOUN

Course Editor Dr A. Ikuomola - AAU

Programme Leader Dr. N.Nwabueze - NOUN

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National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2008

First printed 2008

ISBN: 978-058-949-X

All Rights Reserved

Printed by …………………
For
National Open University of Nigeria

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TABLE OF CONTENTS page
Introduction ………………………………………………….……….ii
Course Aims ………………………………………………..................ii
Course Objectives …………………………………………….………ii
Working Through This Course ……………………………….………iii
Course Materials ……………………………………………….…… iii
Study Units…………………………………………………………...iii
Assessment …………………………………………………….……..iv
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMA)………………………………......iv
Final Examination and Grading …………………………...................iv
Course Marking Scheme ……………………………………….…….iv
Course Overview/Presentation Schedule ………………….….…..….v
How to get the most from this course ………………………….…….vi-vii
Tutors and Tutorials ………………………………………….………vii
Summary ……………………………………………………….…….vii

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Introduction
This course is a three-credit unit course for undergraduate students in the arts and social sciences.
The materials have been developed within the Nigerian context. It serves as an overview of what
you will be taught and also provides you with information on the organization and requirements
of the course.
Course Aims
The aims are to help you to understand the nature of crime, theories of crime and crime control
and the practical implications of crime in society. It also empowers you in understanding of the
preventive mechanism put in place by government and civil society in combating crime as well
as to appreciate the sophisticated trends of crime prevention strategies from a global perspective.
These broad aims will be achieved by:

(i) Introducing you to the general concept of crime, and its crucial precursors,
consequences (cause and effect), cost implication and prevention mechanisms.
(ii) Expatiating on the theories of crime and crime control.
(iii) Extrapolating the trends in crime theorisation to crime reduction.
Course Objectives
To achieve the aims set out above, CSS 246: Legal and Social Framework of Private Security
Services in Nigeria has been divided in several different modules, each with its own specific
objectives. It is advisable that you read them before you start working through the unit. You may
want to refer to them during your study of the unit to check your progress).
Here are the wider objectives for the course as a whole. By meeting the objectives, you count
yourself as having met the aims of the course. On successful completion of the course, you
should be able to:

a) Define the term security

b) Appreciate the place of crime in society
c) List the attributes of the criminal justice system
d) Explain some theories of crime and crime control
e) Identify sources of crime and their consequences
f) Differentiate between different types of crime
g) Be able to apply crime theories to reality
h) Know the crime preventive methods used in Nigeria and other countries
i) Differentiate between psychological and sociological theories of crime
j) Discuss the shortcomings of crime theorising
k) Discuss the future of crime theorizing
l) Have a broad understanding of crime control methods in Nigeria and other countries.

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Working through this Course
To complete the course, you are required to read the study units and other related materials. You
will also need to undertake practical exercises for which you need a pen, a note – book, and other
materials listed below. The exercises are to aid you in understanding the concepts being
presented. At the end of each unit, you will be required to submit written assignments for
assessment purposes. At the end of the course, you will write a final examination.
Course Materials

The major materials you will need for this course are:
(i) Course guide.
(ii) Study units.
(iii) Assignments file.
(iv) Relevant textbooks including the ones listed under each unit
(v) You may also need to visit the varied arms of the criminal justice system.
(vi) As a beginner, you need to read newspapers and interact with other mass media as often
as possible.
Study Units
In this course there are twenty units, divided into four modules, (five in each module). Below are
the units:
Module 1
Unit 1: Definition of Security
Unit 2: Types of Security
Unit 3: Meaning of Types of Private Security
Unit 4: Origin and Development of Private Security
Unit 5: Reasons for the growth of Private Security Sector
Module 2
Units 1: Legal framework of Private Security Company
Units 2: Organisation of Private Security Company
Units 3: Prospect and Limitations of the Private Guard Companies Act (1986) To the Effective
Operations of Private Security Companies In Nigeria.
Units 4: Training and Development
Units 5: Equipments and Other Accessories
Module 3
Unit 1: Functions of Private Security
Unit 2: Risk Analysis and the Security Survey
Unit 3: Challenges and Problems of Private Security Service
Unit 4: Computer and Information Security
Unit 5: Nigerian Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC ) ACT NO 2 of 2003
Module 4
Unit 1: List of Private Security Companies in Nigeria
Unit 2: Conflict Management in Private Security Service
Unit 3: Relationship between Police and Private Security Operatives in Nigeria
Unit 4: Regulation and Recommendation of Private Security Service in Nigeria

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Unit 5: Specific Security threat

Textbooks and References

Certain books have been recommended in the course. You may wish to purchase them for further
reading.

Assessment File
An assessment file and a marking scheme have been made available to you. In the assessment
file, you will find details of the assignments you must submit to your tutor for marking. There
are two aspects of the assessment of this course; the tutor marked assignment (TMA) and the
written examination. The marks you obtain in these two areas will make up your final marks.
The assignment must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the
deadline stated in the presentation schedule and the Assignment file. The work you submit to
your tutor for assessment will count for 30% of your total score.

Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs)

You will have to submit a specified number of the Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs). Every
unit in this course has a tutor marked assignment. You will be assessed on four of them but the
best three performances from the Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) will be used for your
continuous assessments (C/A) which is 30%. When you have completed each assignment, send it
together with a Tutor Marked Assignment form, to your tutor. Make sure each assignment
reaches your tutor on or before the deadline for submissions. If for any reason, you cannot
complete your work on time, contact your tutor for a discussion on the possibility of an
extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due date unless in exceptional circumstances.

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination will be a test of three hours. All areas of the course will be examined. Find
time to read the unit all over before your examination. The final examination will attract 70% of
the total course grade. The examination will consist of questions, which reflects the kinds of self
assessment exercises and tutor marked assignment you have previously encountered. And all
aspects of the course will be assessed. You should use the time between completing the last unit,
and taking the examination to revise the entire course.

Course Marking Scheme

This table shows how the actual course marking is broken down.
Assessment Marks

Assignments (Best Three Assignments out of Four) = 30%

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Final Examination = 70%

Total = 100%

Presentation Scheme
The dates for submission of all assignments will be communicated to you. You will also be told
the date for the examinations.
Course Overview and Presentation Schedule
Unit Title of work Weeks Activity

Course Guide Module 1

Unit 1 What is Security Week 1 Assignment 1

2 Types of Security Week 1 Assignment 2

3 Meaning and Types of private Security Week 2 Assignment 3

4 Origin and Development of Private Week 2 Assignment 4

Security

5 Reasons for the growth of Private Week 3 Assignment 5

Security sector

Module 2

1 Legal framework of Private Security Week 4 Assignment 1

Company

2 Organisation of Private Security Week 4 Assignment 2

Company

3 Training and Development Week 5 Assignment 3

4 Week 6 Assignment 4

5 Equipments and Accessories Week 7 Assignment 5

Module 3

1 Functions of Private Security Week 7 Assignment 1

2 Risk Analysis and the Security survey Week 8 Assignment 2

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3 Challenges and Problems of Private Week 8 Assignment 3
Security Service

4 Computer and information security Week 9 Assignment 4

5 Nigerian Security and Civil Defence Week 9 Assignment 5

Corps ( NSCDC) Act No 2 of 2003.

Module 4

1 List of Private Security Companies of Week 10 Assignment 1

Nigeria

2 The Conflict and Conflict Management Week 10 Assignment 2

in of Private Security Service

3 Relationship between Police and of Week 11 Assignment 3

Private Security Service in Nigeria

4 Regulation and Recommendation of Week 11 Assignment 4

Private Security Service in Nigeria

5 Specific security threat Week 12

6 Revision Week 13 Assignment 1

7 Examination Week 14 Assignment 2

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How to Get the most from This Course
In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecture. This is one of the great
advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through the designed study materials at
your own pace, and at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to the lecturer. In the same way a lecturer might give you some reading to do,
the study units tell you where to read, and which are your text materials or set books. You are
provided exercises to do at appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you an in-class
exercise. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to
the subject matter of the unit, and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the
course as a whole. Next to this is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what
you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. These learning objectives are
meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is finished, you must go back and check whether
you have achieved the objectives. If this is made a habit, then you will significantly improve
your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required
reading from other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from a reading
section. The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into any
trouble, do not hesitate to call and ask your tutor for help. Always remember that your tutor’s job
is to help you when you are in need of assistance.

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment.

2. Organize a Study Schedule. Design a ‘Course Overview’ to guide you through the course.
Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to
the units. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide and write in your own
dates and schedule of work for each unit.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything to stay faithful to it. The
major reason why students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you get
into difficulties with your schedule, please, let your tutor know before it is too late to help.
4. Turn to Unit I, and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
5. Assemble the study materials. You will need your set books and the unit you are studying
at any point in time. As you work through the unit, you will know what sources to consult
for further information.
6. Keep in touch with your study centre. Up-to-date course information will be continuously
available there.
7. Well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before due dates), keep in mind that you
will learn a lot by doing the assignment carefully. They have been designed to help you
meet the objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you pass the examination.
Submit all assignments not later than the due date.
8. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you
feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor.
9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you can start on the
next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you
keep yourself on schedule.
10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its
return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is

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 returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the tutor-marked
assignment form and also the written comments on the ordinary assignments.
11. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final
examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of
each unit) and the course objectives (listed in the Courses Guide).

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

Information relating to the tutorials will be provided at the appropriate time. Your tutor will mark
and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties
you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must take your tutor-
marked assignments to the study centre well before the due date (at least two working days are
required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible.

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor if you need help. Contact your tutor if:
• You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings
• You have difficulty with the exercises
• You have a question or problem with an assignment or with your tutor’s comments on an
assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face-to-face
contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any
problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in
discussion actively.

Summary
The course guide gives you an overview of what to expect in the course of this study. The course
teaches you the basic principles of news reporting and writing, and how these principles can be
applied. It also acquaints you with the legal and ethical rules guiding your job as a reporter.

We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it both interesting and useful.

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MODULE 1
Unit 1: What is Security?
Unit 2: Types of Security
Unit 3: Meaning and Types of private Security
Unit 4: Origin and Development of Private Security
Unit 5: Reasons for the growth of Private Security sector

UNIT 1: WHAT IS SECURITY?

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
The issue of security remains important to the continued socio-economic survival of any people
(Hyden, 1995). It is for this reason that there have been different efforts by stakeholders
especially government to develop frameworks in advancing the security of people and mitigating
various threats both human and non-human that can undermine the wellbeing of the people in
any community. The issue of security management has nevertheless experienced a shift from its
traditional conception as an exclusive function of government (Hobbes, 1962) to a more
accommodating security sector that encourages participation of private security organization and
citizens in security planning and practice.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Define the term security
• Examine concepts in security
• Discuss importance of security

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3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Security
The word security emanated from the Greek word se-cura, meaning to be in a state of no fear.
Security is the protection of life and property of a person. The concept of security keeps
changing from its original conceptualization. Traditionally, the state is the custodian and ultimate
beneficiary of the monopoly use of violence especially if we consider the intellectual view(s) of
some theorists like Thomas Hobbes (1962), Max Weber etc. Thomas Hobbes (1962) argued that
the essence of a state is to guarantee the security of lives and property and ensure law and order
through its political sovereignty and monopoly of violence. Security is the degree of protection
against danger, damage, loss, and criminal activity. Security as forms of protection is structures
and processes that provide or improve security as a condition. The Institute for Security and
Open Methodologies (ISECOM) in the OSSTMM defines security as "a form of protection
where a separation is created between the assets and the threat". This includes but is not limited
to the elimination of either the asset or the threat. Security as a national condition was defined in
a United Nations study (1986), so that countries can develop and progress safely. But in
contemporary times, the definition of security goes beyond the traditional military ways of
protecting the state against internal and external aggression. The fact is that since the end of the
cold war, security management has assumed a new dimension.

External threat to security resulting from international hostilities and aggression that
characterized the cold war era has been replaced with non-traditional security threats like
information warfare, drug trafficking, nuclear pollutions, disease epidemics like HIV-AIDS,
corruption, human trafficking (internal) insurgency, among others (Kasah, 2009). Although the
term security has been used in previous pages without question, there is no universal agreement
on a definition. But there is basic meaning of security among them, simply denoting the
protection of lives and property. The following definitions of security considered important:

(1) It is an all-encompassing condition in which individual citizens live in freedom, peace and
safety; participate fully in the process of governance; enjoy the protection of fundamental rights;
have access to resources and the basic necessities of life; and inhabit an environment which is
not detrimental to their health and well being (South Africa while Paper on Defence, 1996).

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(2) It is also the degree of protection against danger loss and criminals.
(3) It is the protection of a person, property or organization from an attack. There are people
who have distorted motivations to perform such attacks. The types of protection include
prevention, response and pre-emptive attacks.
Security concepts
Certain concepts recur throughout different fields of security:
• Assurance - assurance is the level of guarantee that a security system will behave as
expected
• Countermeasure - a countermeasure is a way to stop a threat from triggering a risk event
• Defence in depth - never rely on one single security measure alone
• Exploit - a vulnerability that has been triggered by a threat - a risk of 1.0 (100%)
• Risk - a risk is a possible event which could cause a loss
• Threat - a threat is a method of triggering a risk event that is dangerous
• Vulnerability - a weakness in a target that can potentially be exploited by a threat security

THE IMPORTANCES OF SECURITY

1. The objective of human security is to protect the vital core of all human lives. (instead of
the word ‘protect’ we can also use shield, guarantee, defend, maintain, uphold, preserve,
secure, safeguard, etc).

2. The objective of human security is to protect the vital core of all human lives from critical
pervasive threats in a way that is consistent with long-term human fulfillment. (initial
definition was this).

3. The objective of human security is to guarantee a set of vital rights and freedoms to all
people, without unduly compromising their ability to pursue other goals.

4. The objective of human security is to create political, economic, social, cultural, and
environmental conditions in which people live knowing that their vital rights and
freedoms are secure.

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 5. The objective of human security is to keep critical pervasive threats from invading the vital
core of human lives (Alkire, 2003).

4.0 CONCLUSION
From this unit, student of criminology should have a broader knowledge of what is Security. The
concept of security has undergone a change from its original conceptualization. Traditionally, the
state is the custodian and ultimate beneficiary of the monopoly and usage of violence as a form
of security. The use of violence by the state however has proved less effective in the
management of security, as focus in now being shifted to providing empowerment for the people
as an alternative strategy which guarantees a wider range of security.

5.0 SUMMARY
We have been able to explain the meaning of security. We highlighted various definitions of
security as given by different scholars and both concepts and importance of security were
explained.

6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment

Explain three of the following security concepts:
a) Assurance,
b) Risk,
c) Exploit,
d) Vulnerability,
e) Threat ,
f) Counter measure.

7.0 References / Further Reading

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia last modified on 5 April 2011
Alkire, S. (2003) A Conceptual Framework for Human Security Centre for Research on
Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity, CRISE Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford

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UNIT 2: TYPES OF SECURITY

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Security is the requirement to maintain the survival of the state through the use of economic,
military and political power and the exercise of diplomacy. The concept developed mostly after
World War II. Initially focusing on military might, it now encompasses a broad range of facets,
all of which impinge on the military or economic security of the state and the values espoused by
the society. In order to possess national security, a nation needs to possess economic security,
energy security, environmental security, etc. Security threats involve not only conventional foes
such as nation-states but also non-state actors such as terrorist organizations, narcotic cartels and
multi-national organizations; some authorities including natural disasters and events causing
severe environmental damage are in this category.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
Understand the various types security.
.
There are different types of security as listed below:
IT realm
• Application security
• Computing security
• Data security
• Information security
• Network security

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Physical realm
• Airport security
• Port security/Supply chain security
• Food security
• Home security
• Hospital security
• Physical security
• School security
• Shopping centre security
• Infrastructure security
Political
• Homeland security
• Human security
• International security
• National security
• Public security
Monetary
• Financial security

1. Physical Security
Physical security concerns itself with those means by which a given facility protects itself against
theft, vandalism, sabotage, unauthorized entry, fires, accidents and natural disaster. A faculty
means a plant, building, office, institution or any commercial or industrial structures and
functions that are part of integrated operations. It is defined as the measures used to provide
physical protection of resources against deliberate and accidental threats. It can be defined as the
protection of personnel, hardware, programs, networks and data from physical circumstances and
events that could cause serious losses or damage to an enterprise, agency or institution. This
includes protection from fire, natural disasters, burglary theft, vandalism and terrorism. In this
century, it is very clear that old devices may be functional but the use of the burglar alarm and
padlocks may not be enough in a good security program. Good systems combine access controls
with advanced security technologies such as intrusion detection, video monitoring, smart cards

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and biometrics which are integrated systems within a company’s computer network. These give
an excellent total asset protection program.
Physical security planning includes protection of
(1) the grounds around the building
(2) the buildings perimeter
(3) the building’s interior and
(4) its contents.

2. Information Security
Information security can be defined as a means of protecting information systems from any
illegitimate access and use, theft, amendment or malicious attacks or penetration. It can also be
described as the process by which an organization protects and secures its systems, made and
facilities that process and maintain information vital to its operations.
The increasing complexity of the modern state and sophisticated nature of contemporary
business environment and corporations underscore the importance in mounting relevant
mechanisms towards the protection of information and information system.

3. Infrastructure Security
Infrastructure security can be described as that aspect of security designed purposely to provide
protection for specific infrastructure particularly those infrastructure considered critical. The
examples of critical infrastructure may include airports, seaports, railways, network
communications, general hospitals, banks, central banks, armoires, dams, oil refineries,
highways and bridge. It is important to note that any damage done to these critical infrastructures
will have far-reaching effects on the economy and overall security of a country. Threats which
can damage infrastructure are (1) sabotage, (2) terrorism (3) natural disaster (4) information
warfare.

With the events of September 11, 2011, the U.S. and world community became aware of the
power of terrorism as a tool of war. The magnitude of the attack on the world trade Centre has
proved that there is need for protection of critical infrastructure. In the Niger- Delta areas of
Nigeria, adequate infrastructural security provided for the pipeline and refineries by the federal
government have reduced subsequent threats and attack.

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 4. Computer System Security
Along with computer software, the security of hardware and its components is also essential for
overall data protection. Even if the computer is not in use or plugged into a network, as anyone
can access the hard disk, which can later be used on some other computer for the theft of data
5. Economic security
Assured basic income: access to employment and resources.
6. Food security
Physical and economic access to food for all people at all times: Hundreds of millions of people
in the world remain hungry either through local unavailability of food or, more often, through
lack of entitlements or resources to purchase food.
7. Health security
Access to medical treatment and improved health conditions: Poor people in general have less
health security and in developing countries, the major causes of death are infectious and parasitic
diseases.
8. Environmental security
Living in a healthy physical environment, spared from desertification, deforestation and other
environmental threats that endanger people’s survival.
9. Personal security
Individual security from physical violence: Threats can take several forms, for example: threats
from the State, foreign states, other groups of people (ethnic tension), individuals or gangs;
threats directed against women or children based on their vulnerability and dependence; threats
to self (e.g. suicide, drug use, etc.).
10. Community security
Most people derive their security from membership of a social group (family, community,
organisation, political and ethnic group, etc.). Tensions often arise between these groups due to
competition over limited access to opportunities and resources.
11. Political security
Living in a society that guarantees basic human rights and freedom of expression.

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4.0 CONCLUSION
From this unit, students of criminology are expected to know the types of Security. During the
cold war, majority of war at that time were international but now political strife, insurgencies and
civil wars plague most of the countries. The truth is that most of these internal wars are created
by economic deprivation; inter religious violence, ethnic rivalry, maladministration among
others.

5.0 SUMMARY
From this unit, students of criminology should be able to know the various types of Security
ranging from Computing security, Data security, Information security, Network security, Airport
security, Port security/Supply chain security, Food security, Home security, Hospital security,
Physical security, School security, Shopping centre security, Infrastructure security, Homeland
security, Human security, International security, National security, Public security, and Financial
security.

6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment

List all types of Security and discuss only four of them.
7.0 References / Further Reading
http://www.suite101.com/content/different-types-of-computer-security-
a293034#ixzz1J09yNMxi

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UNIT 3 MEANING AND TYPES OF PRIVATE SECURITY
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
The private security industry comprises those actors who provide security for people and
property under contract and for profit. Worldwide, the industry is experiencing a period of rapid
growth, with valuable contribution to the provision of security. It is important to understand the
term private security and the different types therein.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Define the term Private security
Mention types of Private Security companies

3.0 Main Content

There is no universal agreement on the definition of private security, although several attempts
have been made to give acceptable definitions. Private security includes those self-employed
individuals and privately funded business entities and organizations providing security-related
services to specific clientele for a fee, for the individual or entity that retains or employs them, or
for themselves, in order to protect their persons, private property or interests from varied
hazards. It is argued that the profit motives and the sources of profits are basic element of private
security but it hardly seems acceptable as a general definition.

Private security according to Howe (1998) is a board grouping. It is an industry that operates
only on a global market, organized along corporate lines and showing signs of growth rather than

21
contraction (Small, 2006). In other words, private security is an industry that operates along
corporate lines and provides security services that are largely independent of the state. Private
security seeks to protect against hazards which are commonly divided into man-made and
natural. Natural hazards may include fire, windstorm, flood, earthquake and other acts of nature
that could result in building collapse, equipment failure, accidents and safety hazard. It should be
noted that fire is also quite often man-made, intentionally or unintentionally, while man-made
hazards may include crimes against the person (for example, robbery or rape) or crimes against
property (theft and pilferage, fraud and embezzlement). In addition, man also creates problems
through espionage and sabotage, civil disturbances, bomb threats, fire and accidents. The term
private security refers to security services provided to clients by non-state agencies. It is a new
concept in Africa and its growth has been facilitated by the desire to reduce the burden on state
agencies of protecting their citizens. Inadequate resources to equip state organs for their principal
role of protecting the security of their citizens have also been a major decision driver in the
growth of the sector. Another reason has been the increase in numbers of the propertied class that
need a secure environment in order to continue investing.

An examination of the circumstances of the growth of the private security sector reveals that
private security has benefited only wealthy people and business that can afford to pay the bills of
the forms or personnel that provide the security. People in rural area are still exposed to the
security dangers and risk that prevailed before its privatization. The privatization of security has
now become a global phenomenon. From the beginning of the 21st century the world has
witnessed an accelerated break down of the nation state monopoly on violence and the
emergence of market place purveyors of armed forces (Shreier and Caparin, 2005). This is
owning to a number of factors, including general human insecurity, the end of the cold war, the
globalization phenomenon, the marketisation of the public sphere, the downsizing of armed
forces, the professionalization of armed and police force, the drive for profit maximization, the
liberalization of the arms trade, the general unending African conflicts and the events of 9/11. In
the contemporary world, the privatization of security has swept throughout the globe to an
unprecedented magnitude that is no longer possible to ignore, let alone comprehend.

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Types of Private Security
The Private Security Sector is divided into two categories Private Military Companies (PMCs),
sometimes referred to as Privatized Military Firms (PMFs) and Private Security Companies
(PSCs). According to Small (2006:14), PMCs and PSCs represent the contemporary forms of
private security. Schreier and Caparini (2005:2) define PSCs as ‘companies that specialize in
providing security and protection of personnel and property including humanitarian and
industrial assets. To Small (2004:7), PSCs may be defined as having the ability to provide a
proximate capacity for violence, that is, they provide defensive security service, equipment and
training to (mostly) Multinational Corporations, businesses humanitarian agencies and
individuals. Singer (2003:8) who prefers to call them ‘Corporate Warriors’ defines PMFs as
‘business organizations that trade in professionals services intricately linked to warfare’. PMFs
therefore constitute private business-oriented and profit driven warriors who offer diversified
professional services bordering on security issues. Schreier and Caparini (2005:2), PMCs are
private companies that specialize in military skills, including combat operations strategies
planning, intelligence collection, operational support, logistics, training, procurement and
maintenance of arms and equipment. Small (2008:8) further argues that PMCs ‘possess an’
immediate capacity for violence, that is, they offer more active offensive or tactical military and
security service, equipment, advice and training. Furthermore, they are more combat oriented
and are contracted mainly by states or recognized governments to augment their national military
capabilities and specialization.

Wairagu et al (2004:17) state that PMCs are better described as private mercenary contractors,
which are corporate entities comprising military and intelligence entrepreneurs whose activities
incorporate the provision of multi-purpose security-related products and services. PSCs are
sometimes subsidiaries of PMCs, and the relationship between firms is interwoven. Small
(2006:8) contends that the division between the services offered by PCSs and PMCs is somewhat
flexible because they are often affiliates of one another. For the reason PSCs and PMCs are
frequent treated as one grouping, the private security industry, which is capable of operating at
domestic and international level independent of the state. Therefore PSCs cannot be treated in
isolation from PMCs. What determines their specific nametag is their level of engagement and
the common dominator remains the promotion of security. By the same token, as soon as the

23
common denominator ‘flips’’ they become something else, as the promotion of security is no
longer present. The private security sector is also characterized by what many writers refer to as
private policing. In an attempt to shed some light on what private policing entail. John (2005:
378-279) divides it into four categories: protective policing; intelligence policing; publicly
contracted policing and corporate policing.

Mercenaries
This is another type of private security. A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed
conflict or hostilities essentially by the desire for private. It is defined as anyone who, not being
national of the state against which his actions are directed; is employed, enrols or links himself
willingly to a person, group or organization.

Contract and Proprietary Services

Private security can also be divided into contract and proprietary services. Proprietary security
operations are those that are “in-house” or controlled entirely by the company establishing
security for its operations. For example, most state and federal government corporations operate
private security services. Contract security services, on the other hand, are those operations
provided by a professional security company that contracts its services to a company. For
example, banks enter agreement with the private security companies to provide specific security
services.

There is another type of private security called hybrid systems. Hybrid system is the combination
of propriety management and contractual line services. For hybrid programme to be successful
according to Fischer and Green (2004), all parties to the contract must be willing to communicate
openly with each other. A good hybrid security operation consists of four components. (1)
incorporation (2) consistent contract management support (3) periodic reviews (4) accurate
quality measurements.
The choice between the first two types of services (proprietary security operations and contract
security services) can be made by considering the advantages of each of them.

24
Advantages of Contract Services
1. Cost
It is economical compare with proprietary security services. Liability insurance, payroll taxes,
uniforms and equipment and the time involved in training, sick leave and vacations are all extra
cost factors that must be considered in deciding on whether to establish a proprietary force.
Contract guards generally received fewer fringe benefits.
2. Administration
Hiring contract guards helps in the development and the administration of a recruitment program,
personnel screening procedures and training programmes. Hence there is little question that the
administration chores are substantially decreased when a contract services is employed.
3. Staffing
In-house forces rarely have flexible staffing. But it easier to have contract guards and lay them
off when the need arises.
4. Unions
Contract guards do not have union and not likely to go out on strike, are less apt to sympathize
with or support striking employees but most unionized guards are proprietary personnel.
5. Impartiality
It is often suggested that contract guards can more readily and more effectively enforce
regulations than in-house personnel. Hence it produces a more consistent and impartial services.
6. Expertise
When clients hire a guard service, they also hire the management of that service to guide them in
their overall security program, thereby providing expertise advice to the management.

Advantages of Propriety Guards

1. Quality of Personnel
Proponents of proprietary guards systems argue that the higher pay and fringe benefits offered by
employers as well as the higher status of in-house guards attracts higher-quality personnel.
2. Control
Managers have much greater degree of control over personnel of in-house guards especially
when they are directly on the firm’s payroll. The presence of contract supervisors between

25
guards and client management can interfere with the rapid, accurate flow of information either
up or down.
3. Loyalty
It is argued that in-house guards develop a keener sense of loyalty to the firm they are protecting
than do contract guards.
4. Prestige
Many managers simply prefer to have their own people on the job. They feel that the firm gains
prestige by building its own security force to its own specifications rather than by renting one
from outside.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Inability of the government to adequately provide for the security of all and sundry brought
about the development and the growth of private security companies. Although the main motive
of Private Security Companies like other business ventures is to make profit. It has become a
global phenomenon although its growth reveals that it has benefited only the wealthy people and
business empires that can afford to pay the bills of the personnel or companies that provide the
security.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to define the term private security. We also mentioned the types
of private security companies. Attention was given to the advantages of the contract services and
that of propriety guards.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

Mention and explain some types of private security.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Richards A and Smith, H. (2007) the role of private security companies with Security Sector
Reform Programmes Journal of Security Sector Management.

26
Fischer, R. J and Green, G. (2004) Introduction to Security. Burlington, Butter worth
Heinemann.

Shreier, F and Caparini, M (2005) Privatising Security, Law, Practice and Governance of Private
Military and Security Companies: Geneva Centre for the Democratic control of Armed
Force. Occasional paper No 6 (march 2005)

27
UNIT 4 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRIVATE SECURITY SERVICE
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
“Security is now the second largest money-spinner in Nigeria, surpassed only by oil and gas”.
This statement by a long-standing observer of Nigerian politics is striking, especially given that
Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country and the world’s seventh largest oil producers. While a
lack of statistics and information make this claim impossible to verify completely, there is no
doubt that the private security industry has grown rapidly in recent years. Private security
personnel are highly visible around the country, guarding businesses, homes and neighbourhoods
and advising transnational companies and embassies on risks and dangers to their assets and
employees. Security has thus become a major part of the nation’s economy (Abrahamsen and
Williams 2005).
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to give brief history and development of private
Security Service in Nigeria.
3.0 Main Content
The Development of Private Security Service in Nigeria.
The involvement of private players in the management of security locally and internationally has
become phenomena in recent times. Considering the historical development of private security
companies in Nigeria, one will not agree that the presence and activities of private security
guards laid the foundation for the emergence of private security companies in Nigeria. The use of
guards working individually or those commissioned by unregistered private security companies
had been in existence prior to the nation’s independence. The use of thugs or some party
members for private security became noticeable at independence and this habit has continued till

28
date in Nigeria. Nigeria Investigation and Security Company (NISCO), the first private security
outfit providing uniformed guards in Nigeria came into being in 1965, and since then the number
of existing private security firms has drastically increased. The recruitment of party thugs as
personal security by politicians prior to 1966 coup (led by Major Kuduna) and their brutal
operations ( excessive use of force) necessitated the clamour to dissolve them. Ohonbamu (1962)
describes the situation thus “in the Western Region there were mass recruitment into the local
force of party thugs and stalwarts for security people against the police whom were supposed to
be giving protection to law abiding citizen’’.

The expansion of private property in Nigeria and African generally is a key factor in the growth
of private security in both size and profile, as property owners have recognized the commercial
benefits of employing their own security forces. They are not only able to specify the functions
performed by the security staff, but to empower them to uphold conditions of access to their
properties and to exclude any unwanted visitors. This is permitted in common law countries as
the law bestows on property owners the right o decide who may have access to their properties or
premises. For the mass private property owner, efficient use of private security services can be
made due to economies of scale and a relative immunity to a free rider effect in their investment
in security. Apart from this, as Stemming (1988) argues, for the commercial user of private
security, any policing strategy must be proven cost-effective, since a business will not adopt a
security solution more costly than the problem. In general, therefore, corporations will seek to
prevent a loss rather than try to recover the loss after it has occurred and to change the situation
in which any problems occur rather than to draw on the slow and costly criminal justice process
in pursuit of sanctions. Thus, private security personnel and the security hardware that they have
at their disposal (such as radio communication and closed circuit television (CCTV) technology),
have become fundamental to the successful governance of such territories, enabling a pre-
emptive approach to security in contrast with the reactive style of state police agencies.

The demand for security and inability of the public security agents to meet the security needs of
various segments of the public have necessitated the growing acceptance being enjoyed by
private security guards in the country. The services of private security guards have continued to
be sought by individuals and corporate bodies to safeguard the security of their lives and

29
properties. Paucity of funds has made it difficult for government in Nigeria to have adequate size
of police and armed forces. The size of police personnel is highly insufficient to meet the
security needs of the people. This situation has led to the privatization of public security agents
especially the police. The commoditization of police services in the country has further
complicated the problem of inefficiency of the police in the discharge of their duties. This
situation reinforces the disconnection between public safety and policing in Nigeria. The interest
and security of the elite, a few wealthy individuals and organizations have remained basic
preoccupations of Nigeria police.

It is worrisome that despite government ban on militia groups, they have continued to be popular
among several ethnic groups especially in South-Western Nigeria; proving for the security needs
of the people. Many wealthy individuals, organizations and communities often seek the services
of Oodua Peoples Congress (OPC) guards to provide alternative security for them when the
public security sector has failed to live up to expectations. It was even an indictment on Nigerian
Police and Federal Government by a former Lagos State Governor, Bola Tinubu. In reacting to
the armed robbery attack of retired Justice Fatai Williams, declared that ‘if Nigeria Police Could
not address the problem of rising incidences of violent crime, particularly armed robbery and
assassination, he would have no choice other than employing the services of Odua Peoples
Congress to Mitigate various activities of Criminals (The Post Express, June 14, 2000).
Nevertheless, security has thus become a major part of the Nigerian economy and it is estimated
that there are currently between 1500 and 2000 Private Security Companies (PSCS) in Nigeria,
with more than 100,000 on their pay roll serving as guards (Abrahamsen and Williams, 2005).
As it were, there is no adequate official record concerning the number of Private Security
Companies existing in the country till date. The reason is that many of the existing private
security outfits are not registered and their activities are not regulated.

Statistically, the major private security companies in Nigeria include prudential security (having
almost 9000 guards with operation covering the entire country). Halogen security (having nearly
4, 000 guards) as well as few other companies like Bemil security and Corporate Guards. The
largest non-indigenous or foreign Private Security Company in the country is group 4 securicor’s
partner Outsourcing Services Ltd (OSL) having its operation in all states of the federation with

30
staff strength of about 3, 000 guards. Apart from the large retinue of police and armed forces,
many oil companies often contract the services of number of private security guards from both
within and outside the country to argument the activities of public security agents, with the aim
of adequately reducing the impact of the risks that may emanate from any unforeseen attack that
can pose a threat to the general security of these companies. The importance of the
complementary roles being played by private security guards is emphasized by many of these oil
companies. For instance, oil companies like Exxon Mobile and Shell usually employ a sizeable
number of private guards who are trained by the Nigeria Police as Spy police (Abrahamsen and
Williams 2005). Apart from intelligence activities, trained guards may be mandated to perform
some other tasks including security of infrastructural facilitates of their employers. The spy
police in Shell, Exxon Mobile and Chevron Texaco alone are more than two thousand.

Due to non-permission of private security guards to carry arms like gun in Nigeria, a number of
clients often employ the services of public security agents to the relevant authorities, so that they
can have armed-unit that will fortify the activities of private security. Many embassies, oil
companies and other organizations complement the services of private security guards (which do
not involve the use of arms) with that of the police. Often they also seek the services of mobile
police to provide armed support for the general security operations. For instance, in Shell alone,
there is nothing less than 600 Mobile Policeman in its operations to complement activities of
private security guards on its pay-roll (Abrahamsen and Williams, 2005). The growth of Private
Security Companies as well as the number of personnel therein is very much evident not only in
Nigeria but also in other part of the globe particularly in Eastern Europe, Middle-East and other
Africa countries (Howe, 1998).
4.0 CONCLUSION
It has been agreed globally that the development of private security companies in world has been
beneficial to most people, corporate bodies and civil societies. This is not to say that the security
situation has improved drastically. Security is therefore a continuous process.
5.0 SUMMARY
From this unit, students of criminology should be able to give brief history and
development of private Security Service in Nigeria .The development started with use of guards

31
working with individual to the current status of registered private security companies in Nigeria
today.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Discuss the development of private security services in Nigeria.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Abrahamsen R. and Williams, M. C. (2005), The Globalisation of Private Security. A Country
Report of Nigeria. Globalisation of Security Research Project (Department of
International Politics, University of Wales, Aberyswyth) and the New Security Challenge
Programme (ESRC, U. K.).

Keku, P. and Akingbade, T. (2003) Industrial Security in Nigeria, Challenges and Prospects for
the 21st Century, (Lagos).

Ohonbamu, O. (1972) The Dilemma of Police Organisation under a Federal System: The Nigeria
Example The Nigeria Law Journal (6): 73-87 The Post Express, June 14, 2000.

32
UNIT 5: REASONS FOR THE GROWTH OF PRIVATE SECURITY SECTORS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, commercially organized security personnel have become an increasingly
common sight around the world, from protecting shopping malls, to providing convoy security
for banks and other financial companies. They are increasingly visible in major companies in
urban centres. They form a complex web of commercial providers of protection services,
operational support in combat, intelligence, interrogation. In this unit we will deal with special
aspect of private security service, the reason for the growth and increasing expansion of private
security.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Give reasons for the growth of private Security Service in Nigeria

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Reasons for the Growth of Private Security Sector

The forces behind the growth of the private security industry are many. The following are the
factors responsible for the rapid growth of the private security sector:
(1) Human Insecurity
General human insecurity has been one of the major factors that have been a serious threat to
Africa society. A lot of threats have always rendered African society insecure such as
colonialism, tribal conflicts, border conflict, disputes over mineral resources, terrorism genocide,

33
wars, foreign domination, post-colonialism, apartheid etc. General insecurity at the domestic
level is usually in the terrain of PSCS while the PMCS addresses insecurity at the international
level.

(2) The End of The Cold War

Human insecurity was intensified after the end of the cold war. Many shared the sentiment that
the dramatic growth of the private security sector in Africa is an aftermath of the cold war.
Singer (2003:9) declared that “the resultant effect on the supply and demand of military services
created a ‘security gap’ that the private market rushed in to fill.
(3) Globalization
Globalization according to Tyetzlaff (1998) is widely seen as the expansionist takeover of the
present-day developing countries by the Western Market-Model in the course of which
traditional cultures disappear, the systems associated with a capitalist market-economy and
formal democracy are disseminated and the less developed economies are forcibly integrated into
a world market dominated by the industrial countries. Globalization allows the rich nations and
corporation to get richer because they have the capital and power to enforce trade agreements
that favour their interest and which further the emergence of a new order from which many
countries in Sub-Sahara Africa are excluded because they cannot compete effectively. Hence
capital, power and the need for profit maximization that characterize the notion of globalization
apply equally to the unprecedented growth within the Private Security Sector.
(4) The Marketization of the Public Sphere
In the contemporary climate, there is a growing trend for marketization of the public sphere.
Many governments opt to outsource some of their responsibilities for a number of reasons. For
instance, learner governments engendered by policies associated with World Bank and
International Monetary Fund, find themselves obliged to adopt a marketization of public sphere
approach. Further, governmental departments may be incapable of undertaking some of their
responsibilities or they may opt to outsource because of economic viability. By marketing their
responsibilities in this way, governments are seen to be ineffective in terms of the delivery of
services to their citizens. The private security addresses the ability or neglect of the state to
provide protection for its citizens.
(5) The Downsizing of Armed Forces

34
Schveler and Caparini (2005:4) stated that, owing to financial constraints, many western forces
have focused on redefining and maintaining only core competencies and resort to outsourcing
non-core activities to the private security sector. This trend has been followed in Africa
especially where the state lack the technical know-how so far as security matters are concerned.
The practice of outsourcing services meritably leads to the armed forces being downsized. The
downsizing of the armed forces to a large extent has inevitably affected the military structure in
some countries. In the South African Defence Force (SADF), for instance, a considerable
number of white defence personnel were left unemployed and were later absorbed into the
private security sector.
(6) Profit Maximisation
The private sector is organized along the capitalist mode of production. The purpose of any
private security company or any private institution is first and foremost the concern on how to
ensure profit maximisation. But public security has sharp contrast, from Private Security
Company, which is normally paid through the collection of income tax, among other things.
Zedner (2006:84) notes, ‘vast security companies seek to exploit market opportunities, expand
their turnover and maximize returns to their shareholders. For this reason, some Marxian
approaches have focused on the private security sector as an industry that provides ‘a
legitimating’ or “buffer” function for the bourgeois state and the fiscal crisis of the state is thus
considered to result in recrudescence of policing for profit. Jones and Newburn (2002:129) refer
to the private sector as commercial policing since their activities are strictly commercialised, as
opposed to mainstream policing. Rigado and Greener (2000:150) note that large corporate
entities thus become legally responsible for the safety and security of “denizens” passing through
their particular “bubbles of governance”. If these large corporations did not provide security to
their customers, business would crumble. The more secure their premises the more business they
get. The use of the Private Security Sector therefore, considerably increases their profit margins.
(7) The Liberation of the Arms Trade
Another important reason for the growth of Private Security Sector is that of arms trade
liberation. International arms trade has opened up to an increasing number of buyers and sellers,
which has not only permitted a larger number and broader variety of actors to access weaponry,
but has also provided more and easier ways for PNICS to profit from conflicts through their
involvement in the arms trade, thus facilitating arms proliferation.

35
Private security industries have often been accused of supplying weapons to African countries,
participates and takes sides in conflicts (as supporters of state government or rebels in
opposition). Others, participates in rendering humanitarian assistance to the victims, participates
in the peacekeeping process and also readily avail themselves in the disarmament,
demobilization and reintegration processes. The involvement of the private security industry in
conflict zones thus become a vicious circle with far reaching implications as a force of
destruction or rather fostering insecurity in many countries i n Africa and other developing
countries.

(8) Insecurity for humanitarian aid Workers

The private security industry provides services to numerous organizations, one of which is aid.
PSCs plays a major role in giving support to humanitarian aid workers in conflict zones. The
greater the involvement of aid workers in humanitarian crisis situations (which are seldom safe),
the greater the need for private security companies to ensure the security of humanitarian
personnel and their property. The security threat that aid workers normally face in conflict zones
has led public and private aid organizations and the UN organizations such as UNCHCR
UNICEF, UNDP and WFP to have PMCs and PSCs to ensure the protection of their operations
and personnel in unstable areas.
(9) Events of 9/11
The events of 9/11 not only changed the world but also fuelled the growth of the Private Security
Sector in general. Within the discourse initiated by the US on foreign policy and the consequent
campaign against terrorism, brought about the need for the reinforcement of the Us military
forces in fighting wars in the name of combating terrorism. As a result of this, private security
organisations are partnered with to enhance the US effort in combating terrorism as well as
governmental-militated operations.
(10) Weak State Capacity
One of the most important enabling factors for the emergence of Private Security Sector is
supposedly weak state capacity and the Concomitant Security Vacuum in large parts of Africa.
This means that PSCs can be seen as to product of long-term historical development rather than a
phenomenon of relatively recent origin. Weak state capacity is due largely to both indigenous
and colonial project of territorial statehood. The Weberian model of the modern, territorial

36
nation-state with its monopoly over the legitimate use of force has not always proved to be an
appropriate way of providing security to the citizens of African states.
Further reasons for weak state capacity and its decline from the late 1980s onward and
throughout the 1990s are the failure of economic liberalization and structural adjustment
programmes that were imposed by international donors such as the World Bank and International
Monetary Fund (IMF) on developing countries. When state capacity is lacking and country’s
legitimate security forces are unable to provide security, alternative security structures must be
put in place.
( 11) Oil Boom
With oil boom in 1970s, a lot of private properties were acquired by individuals and private
organizations. Since then, many people have become involved in economic activities. Crime
increased in such an environment and the need to protect lives and properties intensified. Fear of
crime has driven the demand for private security services. Analysis has proved that companies
using the services of PCSs have a lesser chance of being victims of burglary. The police
population ratio remains very low.
( 12)The Police
It has been seen that numbers of the police and population ratio is below the international ratio
which is 1:400. With such a ratio coupled with inadequate resources in the police force, crisis of
police inefficiency and ineffectiveness were rife, especially from the property owners. It was
therefore necessary to relinquish some police functions to private security organizations as one
way of addressing the problem.
( 13 )Supply and Demand Dynamics
Supply and demand dynamics are fuelling the growth of the private security sector. As crime
remains a high priority issue, many turn to PSCs for their protection. PSCs currently protect
private homes, airports, harbours, banks, transport systems, industries and other critical areas.
Given its growing dependence on the sector, as it is no nation can survive without it.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Recent years have seen growing concern over the proliferation and growth of the private security
sector. Africa was familiar with isolated colonial mercenaries who were hired by colonial
regimes to fight against liberation movements. The Post-Cold War era has awaken the reality of

37
highly organised, corporate type companies that provide military and police services to any
entity with the financial muscle to pay for their services. This reality dawned in tandem with the
post-Cold War liberalisation and privatisation processes. African states, like any other state, had
enjoyed a degree of control over the means and resources of violence hence are now challenged
directly by the proliferation and growth of the private security sector. As a result of this
development that has caught Africa napping and without a functional legal framework to curtail
it, serious efforts are being made to determine the causes of this proliferation and growth as well
as innovative ways to regulate it. The present study focused on how weak states and their rulers
have deliberately invited the private security sector to be part of their innovative strategies for
survival and compensation for weakness.

5.0 SUMMARY
This chapter looks at the reasons for the proliferation and expansion of the private security sector
in Africa. It focuses on general human insecurity, the end of the cold war, globalization, and the
commercialization of the public sphere.

6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Give reasons with examples for the growth of private Security Service in Nigeria.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abrahamsen, R and Williams, W C (2005). Country report: Sierra Leone: the globalisation of
private security.Project on the globalisation of Private Security, Department of
International Relations, University of Aberystwyth.

Sabelo J Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2007) Weak states and the growth of the private security sector in
Africa: Whither the African state? Monograph No 139: Private Security in Africa,
Manifestation, Challenges and Regulation, Institute for Security Studies

38
MODULE 2
Unit 1: Legal Framework of Private Security Company
Unit 2: Organization of Private Security Company
Unit 3: Prospect and Limitations of The Private Guard Companies Act ( 1986) To The Effective
Operations Of Private Security Companies In Nigeria
Unit 4: Training and Recruitment
Unit 5: Equipments and Other Accessories

UNIT 1: LEGAL FRAMEWORK OF PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANY

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This module examines the extent to which Private Security Companies (PSCs) are currently
controlled by national regulation. In Nigeria there has been disregard for the Private Guard
Companies (PGCs) Act (Cap 367) of 1986 which guides the licensing, control and
administration, and Prohibited Activities, Offences and Penalties regarding PGCs. More than two
decades ago, the government of Nigeria set in a motion, and passed an Act that regulates the
establishment of the private guard company. Various elements of the current Act concerning the
licensing process, staff identification, the weapons used and general requirements for PSC
owners and staff. are obsolete and have not been reviewed.

2.0 Objectives
On completion of this unit students should be able:
• To examine legal framework guiding the licensing of PSCs
• To develop an understanding of the features of the PGCs Act

39
3.0 Main Content
Most private security companies are like any other corpotration, they have conventional
corporate structures, operate as legal entities, and maintain Registered Office Address(es),
Internet sites and corporate ties. The frequency with which concerns are raised about the
legitimacy of PSC operations signals a seemingly instinctive reluctance to relinquish the state’s
role as the provider of security. In the words of former UN Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, ‘the
world may not yet be ready to privatise peace’. The roots of that scepticism cannot, however,
simply be reduced to knee-jerk protectiveness about state power and sovereignty.
Apprehensiveness about the provision of private security services relates in principle to two
legitimate and interrelated concerns. First, state dominance of security relations has been
challenged by a variety of non-state actors, the impact of private security actors on the state’s
primacy in the provision and guaranteeing of security raises new questions. States have not
recognize and increasingly accept that they are not the only actors to address international and
national security threats; nor is it perhaps fruitful for them to retain a monopoly in this realm.
Efforts to tackle ‘new threats’—such as transnational crime, environmental hazards or the
proliferation of weapons of mass destruction—require states to act largely through or with
international or regional organizations and NGOs within a broader structure of security
governance. This has taken place without a fundamental redefinition of state capacity. States still
enjoy the leading role in the national/international system and are seen as the sole source (if no
longer the sole object) of legally binding international regulation.

In the realm of security affairs, states still claim the prerogative of creating and judging political
legitimacy. If the state is undercut or marginalized in this respect, there is a risk that one of the
traditional cores of security governance—states’ collective as well as general control of the use
of force—will be destabilized, affecting not only the state actor but also the international system
itself. For the role of the state in security affairs to be maintained in the face of ongoing
‘privatization of security’, the use of private security providers needs to take place within agreed
structures and processes designed to safeguard legitimacy and accountability in security affairs.
Multinational Companies (MNCs) such as Shell and Chevron have contracted private security
firms in Nigeria. At present the legal structures are not effective and efficient; this is visible in

40
the disregard of the PGCs Act Cap 367 laws of the federation by Multinational Companies in the
restive Niger Delta Region and other parts of the country.

Second, the private provision of security sector functions strikes at the core of the debate about
security sector reform (SSR). In striving to uphold the role of the state as the guarantor of
security, the question of what kind of security is to be upheld is crucial? The establishment of
functioning law-and-order and security institutions (military, police and intelligence) is often
cited as a minimum requirement for stability in states. However, when the objective is broadened
to ensuring an equitable distribution of security, the democratic credentials of security
institutions becomes central, recognising that ‘security’ is not merely a question of protecting the
state but also of protecting its citizens. In this sense, the use of private sector actors for providing
security services represents a particular challenge. PSCs are responsible to shareholders rather
than to voters and making fundamentally apolitical actors contribute constructively to the
establishment of democratic and accountable security institutions is a tough circle to square. The
extent to which private security providers can fit into new forms of national security governance
will ultimately depend on the extent to which their capacities can be directed towards a higher,
long-term goal—one that is governed by politics and law rather than simple economics.

The crux of the private security sector’s capacity to be a legitimate actor on the national scene
thus lies in the relative capacity of states to manage the use of private companies and to ensure
that it is compatible with the promotion of good governance, both domestically and
internationally. The effective use of private security companies remains partially blocked as long
as this challenge is unresolved. The need to take account of the context in which private security
actors operate also arises from the basic, significant point that the ultimate consumers of the
services at the end may not be the actual contract holders or clients of private security firms, but
rather the local populations. The consequences of the provision of security by the private sector
are global, involving the formulation of basic premises of international security politics.

3.1 Understanding what constitute a private security company

Private Security Company (PSC) is taken to refer to companies offering defensive services,
intended mainly to protect individuals and properties. Private security services fall into two

41
categories: (1) proprietary or corporate security; and (2) contract or private security firms.
Corporate security generally refers to the security departments that exist within businesses or
corporations. Contract security firms by contrast sell their services to the public, including
businesses, homeowners, and banks. Private security is not a monolithic entity. Just as
differences exist between state and local law enforcement, private security performs functions
that are differ considerably. IACP’s (2004) summit report notes that “A security practitioner
could be an experienced director of security at a major multinational corporation, a manager of
contract security officers at a client site, a skilled computer crime investigator, an armed
protector at a nuclear power plant, or an entry-level guard at a retail store.

However the legitimacy of any private security company is defined by the Private Guards
Companies Act Cap 367 of 1986 Laws of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Section 1(1) of the
Private Guard Companies Act which states that:
As from the commencement of this Act, no organisation shall perform the service of watching,
guarding, patrolling or carrying of money for the purpose of providing protection against crime
unless the organisation concerned –
(a) is registered as a company under or pursuant to the Companies and Allied Matters Act;
(b) has applied for and has been granted a licence by the Minister in accordance with the
provision of this Act; and
(c) is wholly owned by Nigerians in accordance with the Schedule to the Nigerian Enterprises
Promotion Act.
This implies that any organisation which performs the services of watching, guarding, patrolling
or carrying of money for the purpose of providing protection against crime and meets with the
requirements of subsection of the Act is free to operate. However, the statue of a private security
companies is further clarified by the Part IV – Supplementary Section 36 subsection 3 which
states that:
(1) This Act shall not be construed as requiring any of the following persons to hold a licence
under or to observe any of the conditions of this Act, that is to say –
(a) any legal practitioner while acting in the ordinary course of his profession or any of his
employees while acting in the ordinary course of his employer’s profession;

42
(b) any inspector, guard, watchman or other person employed to do inspecting, guarding,
watching or inquiring work for one employer only (such employer not being a private guard
company) in respect of inspecting, guarding, watching or inquiry, work done for that employer
for the protection of persons or property arising out of the function or business exercised or
carried on by the employer; or
(c) any person whose duties when employed by a private guard company consist of no more
than clerical or secretarial work, the giving of information over the telephone on request on
matters obtained from existing records of the company or the receipt in the office

The “proprietary or corporate security” has been exempted by subsection 1b of the Act for the
definition of “Corporate security generally refers to the security departments that exist within
businesses or corporations” matches the criteria of exemption in the subsection 1b.
It should be noted however that new security structures and legal regimes are potentially
evolving, yet traditional structures are slow to adapt. The security framework is more
sophisticated today than in the past. It has been observed that the Nigerian Police Force could not
always guarantee Nigerians security as an important part of proactive crime prevention because
of inadequate manpower, advanced technological and programmatic means for fear reduction;
therefore the continuous agitation for Corporate Private Security Organisations to assist the
Nigeria Police in safety business (Ekhomu, 2004). Reasons are not farfetched as evidences are
bound showing the technological means under their kitty for proactive crime control such as
intruder alarms, close circuit monitors, access control to mention just a few. There is the need to
review the legal framework of the Private Security Companies.

3.2 Legal framework guiding licensing of PSCs

Currently, the Act regulating the licensing of Private Security Companies (PSC) in Nigeria is the
Private Guard Companies Act Cap 367 Laws of the Federation 1986. The Act is divided into
four sections namely:
Part I – Licensing of Private Guard Companies
Part II – Control and Administration
Part III – Prohibited, Offences and Penalties etc.
Part IV – Supplementary

43
The regulation and licensing of PSC fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Interior.
However, the recommendation of licensing of PSC has to be made by the Nigeria Security and
Civil Defence Corps as stated in its Mission by the enactment of the Act called “the Corps” to:
a) recommend to the Minister the registration of private guard companies;
b) inspect the premises of private guard companies, their training facilities and appliance
designed for their use;
c) supervise and monitor the activities of all private guard companies and keep a register for
that purpose;
The stipulated requirement for the licensing of Private Guard Companies is stated in Section 1
subsection (1) and (2) of the Private Guard Companies Act that:
1. (1) As from the commencement of this Act, no organisation shall perform the service of
watching, guarding, patrolling or carrying of money for the purpose of providing protection
against crime unless the organisation concerned –
(a) is registered as a company under or pursuant to the Companies and Allied Matters Act;
(b) has applied for and has been granted a licence by the Minister in accordance with the
provision of this Act; and
(c) is wholly owned by Nigerians in accordance with the Schedule to the Nigerian Enterprises
Promotion Act.

(2) Notwithstanding subsection (1) of this Section, where on the coming into operation of this
Act, any company in carrying on private guard business in Nigeria, such company may apply
within 6 months thereafter to be licensed but shall cease to carry on private guard business of any
description in Nigeria after the expiration of 12 months from the coming into operation of this
Act unless, prior to the expiration of the said period such company, being a registered company,
is licensed to continue the particular class or classes of private guard business in respect of which
application had been made by the company concerned.
The core of the application for licensing is elaborated in Section 2 subsection (1), (2), (3) and
(4) which states that:
2. (1) An application for licence shall be made in writing through the licensing authority to the
Minister in the manner and giving such particulars as specified in Form A in Schedule of this
Act.

44
(2) The Minister may, before considering any such application require from the applicant –
(a) further evidence, as the Minister may specify, concerning the good character, competence
and integrity of any director or other person responsible for or in charge of the operation of the
company concerned;
(b) where Alsatian or other guard dogs are to be employed in the services of the company,
sufficient evidence that all existing regulation relating to animal health and certification have
been complied with; and
(c) such further information as the Minister may specify.
(3) An application for licence shall be accompanied by such fee as the Minister may prescribe.
(4) An application for a licence shall be accompanied by a statement setting out the conditions of
service (including salaries) of the employees or prospective employees of the company making
the application.

3.3 To develop an understanding of the features of PGCs Act

The last quarter of this century is characterised by a widespread outsourcing of many policing
activities. Many policing tasks have been picked up by privatised ‘policing’ agencies, a world-
wide phenomenon that has attracted no little academic attention in recent years. Today, private
sector employees are globally recognised as vital players in preventing, detecting and
investigating crime. The commercial demand for private contract security specifically, and
private policing more generally, thus grows steadily upwards, and there is no part of the globe
that has not been affected. This aspect of the legal framework of Private Security Companies
examines the present and the future issues to be covered in Private Guard Companies laws in
order to encourage and sustain an integrated, efficient and workable security system
management. Given the rapid expansion of the presence of private personnel in policing
activities, one might assume that careful attention would have been paid to the legal framework
within which these cooperative activities take place. Sadly, this has not been the case.

The consequence of this neglect is that the legal authority, rights and powers of private security
providers is determined more by a piecemeal array of legal privileges and assumptions than by
clear law. True, there has been legislation passed concerning the registration, licensing,
identification and training of private legal personnel. However, the main aim of this legislation is

45
to regulate those who operate within the industry, and to check those who wish to enter it against
certain criteria and minimum training standards. The legislation does not deal with powers per
se. There is very little in Nigerian legislation, and even less in the common law, that permits
security guards, even licensed guards, to wield specific powers. Indeed, in two jurisdictions this
fact is specifically mentioned in security licensing legislation. Section 1 of the Private Guard
Companies Act 1986 (PGC) says that the holder of any licence can carry out the functions
authorised by the licence.

The lack of legislation is confusing for security personnel and the public alike. Nowhere do
specific ‘policing’ laws directly and consistently focus on the way that private security personnel
are empowered to act or to be given immunity from civil suit or criminal charges. Moreover,
there are few legal decisions and precedents emerging from the courts. Hence it is difficult for
anyone to find a satisfactory body of law on the subject. In contrast, public police have coercive
and intrusive powers that are delineated ‘in more or less clearly defined circumstances.’ These
delineations reveal distinct differences between the powers of public and private officers and
agents. For example, public police are given statutory immunity from civil suit in circumstances
where their beliefs and acts are ‘reasonable.’ Private personnel are afforded no such luxury.
Indeed, private security remain vulnerable and constantly run the risk of being sued in the torts
of assault, false imprisonment, intentional infliction of mental distress, defamation, nuisance and
trespass to land and to person. This is not to say that police do not run these risks, but because
they have immunities in place, the police are far less likely to find themselves on the losing end
of a civil suit brought by an aggrieved person. Moreover, public police may act to prevent the
commission of an offence before it actually happens (acting upon a suspicion). This concession
is not granted to private security personnel (or anyone else for that matter). Public police powers,
duties, rights, responsibilities and immunities have been so often debated in the courts that there
is now a large and continually expanding body of law on these issues. The same cannot be said
for private security law.

Legal Authority
The legal powers, rights and immunities of private security personnel are obscurely and
confusingly located across a range of fields: the criminal law; the law of property; the law of

46
contract (both in terms of contracts of employment, and the contracts that apply to paying
customers whenever they enter a private sports or entertainment venue); and employment law.
The consequence of this is that there are many bits and pieces of common law, general law and
legislation that come together to form what could loosely be referred to as ‘the law of private
security.’ The law of property, for example, grants to the owner of private property the power to
require visitors to leave the premises (using reasonable force if necessary), or to subject visitors
to stipulations (such as a search) prescribed and advertised by the property owner. Similar
powers exist for employers over employees. Each of these powers can be delegated to agents
(private security) who are entitled to wear uniforms, and even to carry a firearm if they have the
correct training and licence. Other possibilities for confusion emerge from the common law
rights of persons to sue others for breach of their rights of liberty. For example, store detectives
who detain shoplifters and thieves upon reasonable suspicion of theft have had damages awarded
against them (paid to wrongly accused suspects) in some cases, but not in others. The outcome, it
seems, depends upon the level of restraint, the length of time involved, and the extent to which
the accused person was given an opportunity to allay suspicion. Sometimes the courts protect the
public against invasions of privacy by private sector security personnel, but in other
circumstances they do not. The legal reasoning is often unclear.

The confusion generally stems from the fact that the laws that apply to private personnel have
developed over the years to apply not to those doing similar work to the police but to private
citizens, landowners and employers. They translate into something potentially quite different in
the hands of the agents of these individuals. There are thus some justifiable concerns such as ‘If
private security personnel are in reality no different from ordinary citizens, a law which treats
them alike seems most appropriate. But if in reality they are not, and the law still treats them as
they are, it becomes inappropriate.’ Private security personnel are different from the public in
general. On a daily basis they search bags, forbid entry, bar exits, ask probing questions, detain
people, confiscate property, carry out inquiries and operate covert surveillance equipment, most
significantly CCTV. Yet the powers under which they operate were designed for other purposes.
Is there another way forward that can remedy the malaise? These are questions for thought.

47
Manifestations of Empowerment
There has been, in the past decade or so, some attempts by governments to grant powers to
persons other than to the sworn officers. Some of these may be able to provide a model of
legislation that could settle some ambiguities. A common manifestation of empowerment is
where a parliament or legislative body creates specific legislation giving the right to certain
trained operatives, who have been employed for specific tasks, to engage in a particular state-
sponsored task or role. These tasks carry with them specific, albeit limited, powers. There are a
number of current examples that come to mind internationally as well as nationally.

4.0 Conclusion
As policing moves more and more into private hands, the traditional legal powers that apply to
‘policing’ are becoming outdated. The powers and immunities of private security personnel are
often unclear and inconsistent, dependent upon fine distinctions and differ remarkably from
those of the public police even though they are often carrying out many of the same tasks. What
should be done to remedy this situation? There is a good argument to continue to explore the
development of private security laws with specific powers and immunities granted to certain
personnel who have been suitably trained, whether Community Support Officers or Contracted
Protective Security Officers. Whatever path is chosen, the exercise in making the choices and
debating the required legislation would, arguably, lift the profile of private operators and their
associations, bolster training standards and accountabilities, improve public confidence, and
enhance policing effectiveness and cooperation generally.

5.0 Summary
Private security personnel and private operatives are now undertaking some of the roles
previously and solely in the realm of public policing, but the laws that apply to empower and
restrict them are not in the same league. They are, for the most part, vague and inconsistent.
Private security/ legal issues rarely come before the courts and there is little legislation that
applies. This situation creates a rather opaque ‘policing’ world. There is no broadly based
legislation giving specific powers to all licensed guards. Parliaments have avoided legislation
other than to set up licensing regimes. They have not specifically set out immunities, preferring
to infer that they apply once the powers under legislation have been exercised appropriately. It is

48
a difficult task to specify private guard powers across the board, given the many forms and
varieties of private operatives and the multitude of activities in which they may be engaged at
any one time or over a period of time. The most common option for private guards is the ‘do
nothing’ option. There are common law provisions and ad hoc legislation that applies to issues
such as use of force, trespass to land, defence of property, search and seizure, and breach of
privacy which apply now to all people including security personnel. Leaving these areas legally
ambiguous encourages fewer suits against ‘private’ police, forcing those aggrieved to negotiate
more and litigate less.

6.0 Tutor-marked assignment

a. The Control and Administration of Private Guards Companies lies with the Ministry of
Interior. Define and Examine the Sections of the Private Guards Companies Act that
empowers it.
b. Examine the licensing procedure of the Private Guard Companies vis-a-viz the role of
National Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC).
c. Discuss issues in the present features of Private Guard Companies and propose the way
forward.

7.0 References/further readings

Ayoob, M. 1997. Defining Security: A Subaltern Realist Perspective. In K. Krause Williams. M.
C. (eds.) Critical Security Studies, Minneapolis Mn. University of Minnesota Press.
Button, M. 2007, “Security Officers and Policing: Powers, Culture and Control in the Governance
of Private Space”. Ashgate
Ekhomu, O. 2004. “Outsourcing Non Core Police Functions to Private Security Companies:
Lessons from Elsewhere. Crime and Policing in Nigeria: Challenges and Options. E.O.
Alemika and I.C. Chukwuma. Eds. Ikeja: NOPRIN. 128-139
Johnston, L and Shearing C.D. 2003, “Governing Security: Explorations in Policing and Justice”
Routledge
Jones, T and Newburn T. 2006, “Plural Policing: a Comparative Perspective”. Routledge
McLaughlin, E. 2006, The New Policing (Sage, 2007)

49
Odinkalu, C.A. 2004, “Changing Roles of Civil Society in Nigeria: Crime and Policing in
Nigeria: Challenges and Options”. Eds. Ikeja Malthouse Press Limited. Chapter 20: 349-
366. (ed.) Nigeria.
Private Guard Companies Act, CAP 367 of 1986 by the Law of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
Sarre, R. 1995, “Keeping an Eye on Fraud: Proactive and Reactive Options for Statutory
Watchdogs”
Van Steden, R. 2007, “Privatizing Policing”. BJU Legal Publishers
Wakefield A. 2003, “Selling Security: The Private Policing of Public Space”. Willan Publishing.
Zedner, L. 2006, “Liquid Security: Managing the Market for Crime Control” (2006) 6(3)
Criminology & Criminal Justice 267

50
UNIT 2: ORGANIZATION OF PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANY
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
Private security is different from public security in several significant ways. Private security is
provided to clients for a fee, and except in special circumstances, has its jurisdiction limited to
the property owned by the client. Rather than service provided in the interests of the public,
security is provided to protect the interests of the client. Traditionally, legislation in Nigeria has
recognized these differences and has not extended the same powers of detention, arrest, search
and seizure to security service providers as the police. Private security includes measures taken
by individuals, partnerships and corporations designed to protect their interests. Generally
speaking, these measures involve the protection of property (such as the things produced by the
client and the facilities and equipment used in its production), personnel (including both the
people that work on the site and members of the public having access to it), and information
about the products, property, facilities, process and so on (industrial security is rapidly becoming
one of the most important aspects of private security).

Companies wishing to have private security without the costs associated with developing their
own security unit will often choose to contract the services of an outside security company. By
contracting the services of these agencies, a company avoids incurring the costs associated with
managing and administering the function. For example, the costs associated with monitoring the
performance of individual security guards, training, providing benefit packages, and so on, are
avoided. These administrative and other costs are divided among all of the clients of the security
firm, decreasing the cost of providing these services to any one client. Companies choosing to
employ contract security also can avoid any difficulties that may be encountered through union

51
and employee contract negotiations. These concerns remain with the owners of the private
security firms.

Private security firms also operate independently of the politics of the host company. Employees
may feel that they can trust a security guard from outside the company, and therefore the
employee may be more cooperative during investigations than they would be if internal agents
were used. Finally, independent security companies may be able to develop expertise beyond the
range of experiences usually associated with in-house security operations. Depending on the
nature of the security needs of the host company, it may be more beneficial to go to the experts
rather than use in-house or general contract personnel. The organisation and category of Private
Security differs from organisation to organisation.
2.0 Objectives
The aim of this unit is for student to:
• Understand the structural organisation of PSCs
• Understand the job specialisation
• Understand Staff Overturn and Job Equalities
3.0 Main Content
Organizing is the process of structuring human and physical resources in order to accomplish
organizational objectives, which involves dividing tasks into jobs, specifying the appropriate
department for each job, determining the optimum number of jobs in each department, and
delegating authority within and among departments. One of the most critical challenges facing
security managers today is the development of a responsive organizational structure that is
committed to quality. The framework of jobs and departments that make up any organization
must be directed toward achieving the organization’s objectives. In other words, the structure of
a security business must be consistent with its strategy. Managers give structure to a security
firm through job specialization, organization, and establishment of patterns of authority and span
of control.

The Organizational chart describes the command structure and responsibilities of officers of a
limited-service security firm. As their client grow in size, security managers are faced with the
need to specialised jobs in order to ensure efficient coordination and control of activities. These

52
job groupings are usually called departments. In general, departments might be grouped as
Office (those departments in which employees have contact with client, such as supervisory
staff), and field (where employees have little client contact, such as mechanical and electronic
unit). However, separating departments by function is the most common method of organizing a
security business. Figure 1a and 1b outlines the departmental structures of a limited-service
security firm and a multi-service security firm with more than 500 operational staff. There may
be as few as 2 or as many as 50 employees in a particular department.

Chairman/ Managing
Director

Secretary / Supervisory Operations Unitary Subordinate

Records Keeping Department Department Staff Staff
Figure 1a: Limited-Security Service Firm Structure

The Wage Structure of the Private Guard

The wage structure of the private guard is determined by the company they work for. The
minimum wage has not been adhered to in the security industry. However, since the NSCDC
took control of regulating the sector a structure of N10,000 minimum wage is currently been
worked on, no matter how low the client company is paying. Besides bonuses for time spent with
the company, a further series of additional payments are expected to be added to the basic salary
package:
Danger
Escort bonus
Armoured car bonus
Bonus for surveillance or transport team leader
Bonus for night work
Additional overtime
Bonus for weekends and public holidays.

53
 Chairman/Chief Executive
Officer

Managing Director

Director Director Director Director M&E Unitary Subordinate

Administrative Supervisory Operations Security Staff Staff
Department Department Department Department

Monitoring Guarding
Scheduling Patrolling
Head, Human Head, Marketing Head, Head, Technical
Resource and Sales accounting
Response Escorting and Maintenance
Department Department Department Surveillance Department

Recruitment
Training
Labour relations
Payroll
Benefits
Figure 1b: Multi-Security Service Firm Structure

54
There are also provisions made for transport and clothing maintenance of. In this way, for the
categories mentioned, the total salary package, i.e. basic wage plus adjustments for danger,
armoured vehicle, activity, transport and clothing are:
Health and Safety
Uniforms are compulsory.
The carrying of arms is not authorised. It is reserved for public police in certain cash or
valuables in transit operations and for surveillance and protection of high-risk facilities.
Shooting practice is compulsory for public police.

3.1 Structural Organisation of Private Security Companies

The structural organisation of security firms can be classified depending on service/function
in 7 categories.
a) Administrative Department
Coordination is bedrock of the Administrative department. The administrative department has
subunits such as Human Resources, Marketing and Sales, and Accounting. The human
resources department serves no customers, guard no post, and prepares no proposal, yet it
plays a vital role in a security firm’s efficient operation. As shown in Figure 1b, the three
functions of the human resources department are employee recruitment, benefits
administration, and training. The head of human resources is also expected to be an expert on
federal and state labour laws and to advise managers in other departments on these topics.
The human resources department’s major challenge is in its interactions with other
departments. Although the human resources department recruits, interviews, and screens
prospective employees, the final hiring decision rests within the department in which the
potential employee will be working. The same is true of promotion and disciplinary
decisions; the human resources department’s input is, in most cases, limited to advice and
interpretation of legal questions. The human resources department’s effectiveness depends on
its head’s ability to form effective working relationships with heads of other departments.

The primary responsibility of the heads that make up the marketing and sales department is
sales, or the selling of the security equipment and services to individuals and groups. Sales
managers sell equipment and services to potential clients through advertising, attendance at
association and conference meetings, and direct contacts. The marketing and sales
department is also removed from most of the day-to-day operational problems faced by other
departments.
55
 In many security firms, the accounting department combines staff functions and line
functions, or those functions directly responsible for servicing clients. The accounting
department’s traditional role is recording financial transactions, preparing and interpreting
financial statements, and providing the managers of other departments with timely reports of
operating results (line functions). Other responsibilities, carried out by the assistant controller
for finance, include payroll preparation, accounts receivable, and accounts payable (staff
functions). Another dimension of the accounting department’s responsibilities deals with
various aspects of operations, cost accounting, and cost control throughout the firm.
b) Supervisory Department
Typically, the supervisory Staff in a limited-security firm includes principally Chairman and
a team. Responsibilities of the supervisor include monitoring, staffing and recruitment,
training and orientation. However, in multi-security service firm the sole responsibility of the
supervisory department is to monitor the fielded security guards as well as electronic
surveillance unit. The department has subunits such as monitoring, scheduling and response
unit. The heads of these units need a good interaction with the heads of operations department
to effectively function.
c) Operations Department
The operations department carries the core responsibility of a security firm. The operation of
the guards is their key function. Their main responsibility is to field specialized and trained
guards for all purposes including general guarding, patrolling, escorting, surveillance and
responses to alarm breaking and entering. Other responsibilities are to draft a detailed
operation and scheduling/duty shift for fielded guards, and to liaise with the public police
whenever the need arises.
d) Mechanical and Electronic Security Department
Typically, the mechanical and electronic security department’s responsibilities include
preventive maintenance; repair; replacement; improvement and modification to equipment;
and ensuring uninterrupted provision of alarm and tracking system. Other responsibility
includes the notification of the operations department in events of alarm breaking and
entering as well as GPS tracking of properties or persons and CCTV monitoring.
e) Unitary Staff (Staff with various positions)
This includes secretaries and other generally staff who do not belong to specific department
but assist in the day-to-day running of the organisation. They are labelled secretaries,

56
personal assistant and public relations officers. Their responsibilities are diverse; however,
they usually assist the top management with secretarial, records and communication issues.
f) Subordinate staff
The primary function of subordinate staff is clerical and cleaning jobs.
g) Managing Director
In addition to being in charge of overseeing all of the departments that have been discussed,
the Managing Director (MD) is responsible for defining and interpreting the policies
established by top management i.e. the Owner/Chairman/Chief Executive Officer. The
general manager serves as a liaison to the owner or corporate parent, sets (or communicates)
the overall strategic course of the firm, sets goals, coordinates activities between departments,
and arbitrates interdepartmental disputes. The MD also has corporate-level responsibilities,
participates on civic boards and committees, and engages in industry-related activities such as
serving on the association. In addition to possessing a high level technical skill (i.e., a
thorough understanding of each operating department in the firm), the general manager must
also be decisive, analytical, and skilled with both computers and people. He or she must be
able to see the big picture and ensure all of the parts of the firm fit into the overall
organization.
3.2 Job Description and Specialisation
There are as many degrees of job specialization within the security industry as there are types
of organizations. This ensures total control over a project from beginning to end, and many
people find it motivating to see the results of their efforts. However, as the demand for
additional services increases (i.e., if additional clients are added or another area of security
service), it becomes more and more difficult for an individual to do his or her job well. One
benefit of the increased workload is increased revenue.
As a general rule, specialization increases workers productivity and efficiency. On the other
hand, delegating jobs increases the need for managerial control and coordination. A crucial
element of security management is coordinating the many specialized functions within and
outside the firm so that the organization runs smoothly.

Specialization has its own set of problems; it can result in workers performing the same tasks
over and over again. A point can be reached where the degree of specialization narrows a
job’s scope that the worker finds little or no satisfaction in it. Signs of overspecialization
include workers’ loss of interest, lowered morale, increasing error rate, and reduction in
service and product quality. One solution to this problem is to modify jobs so that teams can
57
perform them. Instead of a single security post attendant being assigned to a post, a work
team might be assigned to the post. Some establishments use teams regularly throughout the
organization; others use teams more selectively. Teams can be directed by a head or can be
self-headed. The idea behind self-headed work teams is for workers to become their own
managers, which increases their self-reliance as well as develops a talent pool. This brings
about the concept called ‘quality circle’-which emphasizes the belief that the people, who
actually do the work, rather than their managers, are the ones who are well informed in
identifying, analyzing, and correcting problems in the course of operation. The idea
originated in Japan in 1962. The quality circle is a group of employees, usually fewer than
ten, who perform similar jobs and meet once per week to discuss their work, identify
problems, and present possible solutions to those problems. For example, a quality circle
might be formed among front desk agents. The group forwards its findings and proposals to
management for evaluation and action. Quality circles are most successful when they are part
of an organization-wide improvement effort. Nigerian business organisations picked up on
the quality circle concept in the mid-1990s.
3.3 Pattern of Authority
The delegation of authority creates a chain of command, which is the formal channel that
defines the lines of authority from the top to the bottom of an organization. The chain of
command consists of a series of relationships from the highest position in the organization to
the lowest. The chain of command specifies a clear reporting relationship for each person in
the organization and should be followed in both downward and upward communication.
Following the chain of command enables new employee, no matter what his or her position,
to know exactly for whom and to whom he or she is responsible. Managers consider the
distribution of authority in this manner. Authority defined simply, is the organizationally
sanctioned right to make a decision. Authority can be distributed throughout an organization
or held in the hands of a few selected employees. Decentralization is the process of
distributing authority throughout an organization. In a decentralized organization, an
organization member has the right to make a decision without obtaining approval from a
higher-level manager. Centralization is the retention of decision-making authority by a high-
level manager.

Traditionally, security management has been very centralized, probably due to its roots in
small, owner-operate management style. In recent years, as the security industry has
expanded, decentralization has become a more frequent style of operation. Decentralization
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has several advantages. Managers are encouraged to develop decision-making skills, which
help them advance in their careers. The autonomy afforded by this style of operation also
increases job satisfaction and motivation, especially when employees are encouraged with
free hands to perform their duties. In this case the profitability of the organization is bound to
increase. Many security organizations have begun to empower employees and supervisors to
make decisions that typically have been made by managers. Additional challenges, control of
the process, and quality assessment become part of everyone’s job, and each employee is
given the authority to take positive actions that will lead to high quality and improved
performance.
Span of Control
Span of control refers to the number of people who report to one manager or supervisor. A
wide span of control results in a flat organization— that is, a large number of employees
reporting to one supervisor. A narrow span of control results in a tall organization, in which a
small number of employees report to a supervisor, necessitating a larger number of
supervisors. Note that these different controls can be implemented with the same number of
employees. No formula exists for determining the ideal span of control. The following factors
determine the most appropriate span of control: task similarity, training and professionalism,
task certainty, frequency of interaction, task integration, and physical dispersion.
When a large number of employees perform similar tasks, the span of control can be
increased. When the employees perform very different tasks, the supervisor must give each
subordinate more individual attention in order to keep in touch with the different types of
tasks; this requires a narrower span of control. For example, the supervisory department
manager might easily manage the electronic surveillance agents and fielded operational staff
until the increase in complexity and the standards for the various types of services provided
increase. At this time, the supervisory department manager’s span of control must be
narrowed. The better trained and more skilled a subordinate is, the less supervision is
required. Task certainty refers to the predictability of a task. Routine tasks allow management
to devise standard procedures for subordinates to follow, minimizing questions about the job
and widening the span of control. On the other hand, close supervision is called for when
tasks are ambiguous and uncertainty is great.
4.0 Conclusion
The most important strength of a functional organization is efficiency. The performance of
common tasks allows for work specialization, which increases overall productivity. Workers
develop specialized skills and knowledge more rapidly. Training is easier because of the
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similarity of tasks and the resulting opportunities for inexperienced workers to learn from
experienced workers. This helps new employees to quickly learn the skills and behaviour that
lead to success and promotion in an organisation.

Coordination of activities within functional departments is easier than in more broad and
complex organizations. A functional organization fosters efficiency, teamwork, and
coordination of activities within individual units. However, the functional organization’s
most important strength is also the source of its greatest shortcoming. The success of security
provision as a business is measured by its overall performance and not by the performance of
any one department. It is sometimes difficult for each department to fully appreciate its role
in the overall success of the organization. Some means must be found to coordinate the
activities of functional departments and to set strategies and goals. This suggests that a
functional organization demands strong leadership.
5.0 Summary
The four basic components of organizational structure include job specialization,
departmentalization, patterns of authority, and span of control. Job specialization includes
increased workers productivity and efficiency, the need for managerial control and
coordination. Work teams can be used to alleviate the routine caused by job specialization. A
similar concept, the quality circle, can also enhance employee productivity. The department
heads report directly to the managing director. In smaller security firms, all departments
might report directly to the Chairman. While patterns of authority remain centralized in many
security businesses, increasingly employees have become empowered to make decisions that
typically have been made by managers. Decentralization is the distribution of authority
throughout an organization. Centralization is the retention of decision-making authority by a
high-level manager. Span of control refers to the number of people who report to one
manager or supervisor. In a narrow span of control, fewer subordinates report to each
supervisor, resulting in a tall organization. In a wide span of control, a larger number of
subordinates report to each supervisor, resulting in a flat organization. Staffing is an ongoing
challenge in the security industry because of the high percentage of employee turnover.
Successful staffing depends on providing adequate job descriptions, including job
specifications, as well as realizing that job descriptions must be flexible. In some cases, it
becomes necessary to redesign jobs; this can involve job rotation, job enlargement, job
enrichment, and flex-time. Employees must be properly trained; effective training includes
problem solving, problem analysis, quality measurement, feedback, and team building.
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6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
1. Compare and contrast the concepts of centralization and decentralization in a security
organisation.

2. Examine the relationship between span of control and chain of command a security
organization?

3. List the principal functions of each department in a Multi-service Security firm.

4. A customer notifies the management that the security officers are not at their post and
during which a force entry was made and goods stolen. List the departments to which this
information must be conveyed and the actions they must take.

7.0 References/further readings

Abrahamsen, Rita / Williams, Michael C. 2005. The Globalisation of Privatised Security.
Country Report Nigeria.

Barton Cunningham J. and Ted Eberle, “A Guide to Job Enrichment and Redesign,”
Personnel (February 1990): 56–61.

Brian Dumaine, “The New Non-Managers,” Fortune, February 22, 1993, pp. 80–84; and “A
Checklist of Qualities That Make a Good Boss,” Nation’s Business (November 1984):
100.

Bruneau, Thomas C. / Tollefson, Scott D. (eds.). 2006. Who Guards the Guardians and How:
Democratic Civil-Military Relations. Austin, University of Texas Press.

Dann D. and Timothy Hornsey, “Towards a Theory of Interdepartmental Conflict in Hotels,”

International Journal of Hospitality Management, 5 (1986): 23.

Frank D. Borsenik and Alan T. Stutts, The Management of Maintenance and Engineering
Systems in the Hospitality Industry, 4th ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1997).

Frank Shippes and Charles C. Manz, “Employee Self-Management Without Formally

Designated Teams: An Alternative Road to Empowerment,” Organizational
Dynamics (Winter 1992): 48–61.

John M. Ivancevich, Peter Lorenzi, and Steven J. Skinner, with Philip B. Crosby,
Management: Quality and Competitiveness (Boston: Richard D. Irwin, 1996), 254.

Raymond J. Aldag and Timothy M. Stearns, Management (Cincinnati: Southwestern, 1987).

61
Richards, Anna / Smith, Henry. 2007. Addressing the role of private security companies
within security sector reform programmes. Journal of Security Sector Management.
5:1.

Robert D. Dewar and Donald P. Simet, “A Level-Specific Prediction of Spans of Control

Examining the Effects of Size, Technology, and Specialization,” Academy of
Management Journal (March 1981): 5.

Schreier, Fred / Caparini, Marina. 2005. Privatising Security: Law, Practice and Governance
of Private Military and Security Companies. DCAF Occasional Paper, 6.

Singer, Peter W. 2003. Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry.
Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press.

Tom Peters, Thriving on Chaos (New York: Knopf, 1988).

Vines, Alex. 2000. Mercenaries, Human Rights and Legality. In: Abdel-Fatua Musah / J.
‘Kayode Fatemi. Mercenaries: An Africa Security Dilemma. Sterling, Pluto Press.
169-197.

62
UNIT 3: HUMAN RIGHT AND PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANY
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
Fundamental Human Rights & Its Abuse
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
7.0 References/further readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, state has monopoly and the legitimate use of force. But sometimes beyond the
state’s control of particular circumstances, private security organisations become more
helpful especially when it comes to providing security for corporate persons or entity.
Because these private security are big business and sometimes it becomes easier for state to
give up those responsibilities. The implications of this proliferation of private security
companies for international law and human rights are only beginning to be appreciated, as
potential violations and misconduct of their employees have come to light in Africa. This
Unit examines risk posed by private security company’s activity with respect to violation of
human rights.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to :
• explain the term Human Rights
• describe the types of Human Rights
• explain various ways in which human rights are violated by private security
companies.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 HUMAN RIGHTS

There is no definite definition of Human rights but we shall consider some of them.
According to Prof. Osira Eze, “Human right represent demands or claims which individuals

63
or group made on society, some of which are protected by law, while others remain
aspirations to be attained in future. It also means the freedoms, immunities and benefits that
according to modern values, all human beings should be able to claim as a matter of right in
the society in which they live. Human rights means no more than that:
a) All states have a duty to respect the fundamental rights and freedom of all persons
within their territories.
b) States have a duty not to permit discrimination by reason of sex, ethnicity, religion or
language and
c) States have a duty to promote universal respect for human rights and to cooperate
with each other to achieve this objective.

The struggle for fundamental human rights dated back to the period of the great Magna Carta
of England (1215) the United State Declaration of Independence (1776), the French
Declaration of the Rights of man and the citizen (1789) and the American Bills of Rights of
1791, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). The essence of these is the revolution
against authoritarianism, tyranny, slavery, discrimination and all other ways by which rights,
which are innate to all human beings have been suppressed.

In Nigeria, the rights recognized by the constitution in Chapter IV are:

1. Right to life: Every person has a right to life and no one shall be deprived
intentionally of his life, save execution of the sentence of a court in respect of a
criminal offence of which he has been found guilty in Nigeria – Section 33
2. Right to dignity of human person: Every individual is entitled to respect for the
dignity of his person and accordingly:-
a. No person shall be subjected to torture or to human or degrading treatment
b. No person shall be held in slavery or servitude and
c. No person shall be required to perform forced or compulsory labour – Section
34.
3. Right to personal liberty: Every person shall be entitled to his personal liberty and
no person shall be deprived of such liberty save in the following cases and in
accordance with a procedure permitted by law – section 35.
4. Right to fair hearing: In the determination of his civil rights and obligations,
including any question or determination by or against any government or authority, a
person shall be entitled to a fair hearing within a reasonable time by a court or other
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 tribunal established by law and constituted in such manner as to secure its
independence and impartiality – section 36.
5. Right to private and family life: The privacy of citizens, their homes,
correspondence, telephone conversations and telegraphic communications is
hereby guaranteed and protected – section 37.
6. Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion: Every person shall be
entitled to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, including freedom to change
his religion or belief and freedom (either alone or in community with others and in
public or in private) to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship,
teaching, practice and observance – Section 38.
7. Right to freedom of expression and the press: Every person shall be entitled to
freedom of expression including freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impact
ideas and information without interference – section 39.
8. Right to peaceful assembly and association: Every person shall be entitled to
assemble freely and associate with other persons and in particular s/he may form or
belong to any political party, trade union or any other association for the protection of
his interests – section 40.
9. Right to freedom of movement: Every citizen of Nigeria is entitled to move freely
throughout Nigeria and to reside in any part thereof and no citizen of Nigeria
shall be expelled from Nigeria or refused entry thereto or exist there from – section
41.
10. Right to freedom from discrimination: A citizen of Nigeria of a particular
community, ethnic group, place of origin, sex, religion or political opinion shall not,
by reason only that he is such a person – section 42.
11. Right to acquire and own immovable property anywhere in Nigeria: Subject to
the provisions of this constitution, every citizen of Nigeria shall have the right to
acquire and own immovable property anywhere in Nigeria – section 43.
12. Protection from compulsory acquisition of private property: No movable
property or any interest in an immovable property shall be taken possession of
compulsorily and no right over or interest in any such property shall be acquired
compulsorily in any part of Nigeria except in the manner and for the purposes
prescribed by a law that among other things (a) requires that prompt payment of
compensation therefore and (b) gives to any person claiming such compensation a

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 right of access for the amount of compensation to a court of law or tribunal or body
having jurisdiction in that part of Nigeria - section 44

Types of Private security companies

Private Security companies Private Military Companies
1. Industrial/Commercial site protection 1. Military training
2. Humanitarian aid protector 2. Military intelligence
3. Embassy/Mission protection 3. Offensive combat
4. VIP/close protection
5. Surveillance and investigation
6. Risk assessment and analysis

In Nigeria, the private Guards Act of 1986 prohibits private security companies from carrying
firearms. But private security companies are nevertheless able to provide an armed
component to their services through various arrangements with the Nigeria Police and most
PSCs of any size and standard have a number of mobile police officers (Mopol) permanently
seconded to their operations. Mopol Officers are equipped with fully automatic weapons
usually AK-47s or FNs.The reliance on Mopol for armed private security raises a number of
operational and ethnical challenges.
1. Right to life: The use of armed guards present particular risks in terms of legitimate
(i.e. in lawful self defence), illegitimate (e.g. use of excessive force and accidental
(e.g. negligent discharge), killing of local people and/or employees.
2. Right not to be subjected to torture, cruel, inhuman and/or degrading treatment
or punishment: Many private security companies have poor human right records;
they run a serious risk that they may be complicit in acts of inhuman treatment or
torture. Often times personnel of private security companies have been found wanting
in detaining and subjecting criminal suspects to torture before they are handed over to
the police.
3. Right to a fair treatment: Private security companies are likely to detain individuals
in the course of carrying out their duties. Sometimes, the detainee’s rights are likely to
be violated if they are held and placed in an inhuman environment or condition, for
example without food or water, or in extreme heat or cold environment.
4. Right to freedom of movement: In some cases, security companies may infringe on
people’s right to free movement. For example, illegitimately obstructing access roads
66
 using check points and road-blocks, thereby making land inaccessible to the local
population. This could constitute an infringement to human rights.
5. Right not to be subjected to slavery, servitude or force labour (including sexual
and economic exploitation): In extreme case, private security companies may
forcibly enlist the local people, either for their own purposes (for example the
provision of food, domestic services or sex) or for purposes that indirectly benefit a
company (for example land clearance and other forms of unskilled labour). Private
security companies may also be posted to ensure that company’s employee are unable
to leave the factory, creating a situation of forced labour.

4.0 CONCLUSION
This Unit sees fundamental human right as the freedom, immunities, and benefits that
according to modern values, all human beings should be able to claim as a matter of right in
the society they live. Hence government has a duty to respect the fundamental rights and
freedom of all persons within their territories. And no person or persons have right to violate
these rights.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed the meaning of the term Human Rights as well as the various
types of rights and how not to violate this rights as enshrined in the nation’s constitution.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the relevance of fundamental human rights to private security.
2. How best can these rights be ensured by security companies?

7.0 REFERENCES
Brooks, D. (2002) Protecting People. The PMC Potential, comments and suggestions for the
UK Green paper on Regulating Private Military Services (Alexandria International
Peace Operations Association).

Constitution of Federal Republic of Nigeria

Sokefun et al (2008). Human Rights Law Lagos: National open University of Nigeria

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UNIT 4: TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Training is intended to provide persons with the occupational and behavioural skills and
attitudes necessary to professionally function as a security guard as required by provincial
acts, regulations and in accordance with other legislation. Successful completion of basic
training should provide security guards with the concepts and knowledge that they may
function effectively and efficiently as security staff. The subjects covered should be intended
to provide security guards with a sound basis on which to deal with a myriad of on-the-job-
responsibilities in an appropriate manner. Many tasks performed are quasi law enforcement
in nature, where good public relations and awareness of the limits of legal powers and the use
of force are extremely important. On the successful completion of training, security guard
candidates should be able to properly:
a. deal with the public in a professional and ethical manner;
b. arrest/detain people within the limits specified under the Criminal Code (Nigeria),
and be aware of the rights and freedoms of individuals;
c. communicate effectively, both verbally and in writing;
d. present verbal and material evidence in Court;
e. write reports, protect evidence and conduct themselves appropriately in court;
f. direct traffic;
g. detect or prevent thefts and vandalism;
h. report and deal appropriately with perimeter protection systems, intrusion, fire,
carbon dioxide, water, smoke, alarms, etc.;
i. react and take appropriate measures in all emergency situations;
j. respond to bomb threats; and
k. perform other duties as required of security guards

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2.0 Objectives
This unit will help the students:
• Understand the training criteria in security operation,
• Understand terminologies and content of training course for private security guards
• Examine the importance of basic training for private security guards in general
3.0 Main Content
In Nigeria, private security legislation is in place defining several criteria which must be
fulfilled before an individual is allowed to perform guarding activities and private security
services. Once these criteria are fulfilled, this individual is officially authorised by a
competent authority to perform such activities. One of these prerequisites is basic training for
private security guards, exclusively conducted by an officially licensed or recognised training
institute. This basic guard training covers chapters related to the basic legal framework,
security procedures, health and safety provisions, conflict management, customer care and
communication, quality, first aid and other indispensable information and skills.

A second prerequisite includes a background screening of criminal records. Both criteria

ensure that private security staff performing private security services are equipped with the
relevant skills and know-how and to be familiar with the basic ‘rules of engagement’ when
accessing the profession. They also ensure that private security guards comply with public
expectation of how they should serve society as a whole. In addition to basic guard training, a
great number of additional specialised training requirements exist, depending on the specific
environment in which a private security guard carries out his/her duties, e.g. shopping
centres, alarm receiving centres, airports, ports etc. In order to be able to perform private
security services in these specific areas (often part of national critical infrastructure) most of
these additional specialised training courses are also obligatory by law. The reasons thereof
can be multiple. Accordingly, the national legal systems, ‘regular’ private security guards
operate under the governance of the Ministry of the Interior. In the same way, the Ministry of
the Interior, is responsible for ‘regular’ private security services, which may decide that the
basic guard training does not apply to those segments of the security industry that are already
governed by specific and detailed Regulations.
3.1 Training Criteria

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In addition to providing the framework for effectively selecting private security officers, the
Ministry of Interior and NSCDC on Guidelines calls for a formal mechanism to establish
minimum training requirements certified by a regulatory body. Although the regulatory body
should mandate the minimum training requirements, there should be cooperative efforts by
these companies to mandate consistent requirements. All entities or persons providing
security officers training should also be certified by a regulatory body. Training Criteria are
the proposed training topics considered essential for proprietary or contract security agency to
consider in the training of their private security officers. This guideline prescribes specific
recommended hours of training and acknowledges different ways in which a security officer
may receive this training or demonstrate proficiency to perform the duties of a private
security officer. For example, training may be computer based, classroom, self-study, or other
methods of delivery. Consideration should be given to providing the appropriate length and
content of pre-and-post assignment training dependent upon each officer’s assignment. It is
further recommended that all training be accompanied by an appropriate assessment and
evaluation to measure the security officer’s knowledge of the training subject. Further, testing
should be appropriate to subject matter, that is, written or performance. The following
outlines are some of the envisaged criteria:
• Entry qualifications
For security guards:
– Primary education certificate, Secondary Education Certificate, Vocational Training
Certificate Level 1, or other equivalent or higher level qualifications.
– Meet the necessary requirements for carrying and using firearms.
For security supervisors:
– Secondary Education Certificate, completion of A levels, Vocational Training Level 2,
professional technician qualifications, or any qualifications which might be required, or
equivalent or of a higher level.
• Basic training
Both theoretical and practical is compulsory for security guards. They must work through a
series of vocational training modules in cycles. Once they have passed official knowledge
and skill tests, the relevant regulatory bodies confer the correct authorisation.
Continuing Vocational Training
The law sets down the provision whereby security companies have to guarantee the
organisation of refresher courses and the attendance of their staff in areas which have been

70
modified or substantially changed, or those in which a greater degree of specialisation is
advisable.
In-house vocational training or through registered training centres
For security guards, refresher or specialisation courses must be 20 study hours minimum.
Every security guard must do at least one course per year. This regulation is still to be
approved by the Ministry of Interior.
• Training bodies
Training centres (which can be set up by security companies themselves) must have the
necessary authorisation from the Ministry of Interior and State Security Department. The
centres must meet a series of requirements in terms of infrastructure and teaching staff
qualifications.
Vocational training during or outside working hours
Private security companies are obliged to pay their staff for hours spent on vocational training
outside working hours and these may not be compensated through reductions in the number
of hours worked.
• Financing training
Prior training is usually organised and financed by companies in the sector. In the case of
training carried out in registered training centres, the costs of training are met by the trainee.
• Training recognition/evaluation
There are official titles of security guard and security manager.
3.2 The content of training course for private security guards
There is need for private guards to know the basics so that they can work safely and carry out
duties in a professional way. The law in Nigeria states that they must receive adequate
training. This unit outlines all the important areas needed for this basic training. Training
courses are designed to help private guards pass the provincial exam and earn security guard
certificate. The course is written directly to trainees, the user. This means that trainees should
actively work with their books. Feel free to underline important ideas, write comments in the
white spaces, and answer questions right in the book. This will help remember the
information better than if it is just read for the sake of it. The course workbook should be
written in plain language, have a number of study aids that will help trainees learn faster and
absorb the content in the material.
Before the content of each unit:

71
 • a list of the objectives for the unit should be outlined. These are the main things that
will be learnt in the unit;
• in some chapters a pre-test is designed so that trainees can already know about the
material in the unit;
• an outline of what’s coming up in the unit.
At the end of each unit:
• a review of the important points from the unit.
Content Outline and Proficiency Certification
For the various personnel to be properly certified in order to be enhanced in terms of
promotion and elevation, certificates, diplomas and degrees have to be awarded to trainees.
Researchers recommend the award of a bachelor degree, or master degree or even a doctor of
philosophy for anyone who occupies the position of Director of Security Management and
Head of Planning and Coordination division. In addition to these the award of a diploma and
certificate to any of the above personnel, through long-term courses and short-term courses
may be an added advantage. Conversely, private guards in law enforcement section,
patrolling, traffic control, monitoring units, schedule planning, design coordination and
customer care unit may have a bachelor degree from a relevant discipline or its equivalent.
Additional certificates and diplomas from long-term and short-term training courses may be
added advantage.
The Security Guard and the Legal System
An Introduction to Criminal Law
The Common Law and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Powers of Arrest
Use of Force
Common Offences
Common Defences
Access Control and Alarm Systems
Access Control Systems
Technology Used to Control access and Egress
Materials Access
Alarm Systems
General Operating Procedures
Traffic Control

72
 Legal Authority to Control Traffic
Principles of Traffic Control
Correct Hand Signals
Note Taking, Reports and Evidence
Observation Skills of the Professional Security Guard
Powers of observation
How to Improve your Senses
Taking Notes
Introduction to Reports
Evidence
Protecting a Crime scene
Response to Immediate Crisis
Fire Safety
Fire Classification Symbols
Fire Extinguishers
Methods of Alarm Activation
Bomb Threats
Bomb Threats by Telephone
Written Bomb Threats
Evacuation
General Patrol Tactics and Techniques
Patrolling
What to watch for while on patrol
Liability for breach of duty
Labour Disputes
What is Labour Dispute?
Duties of a Security Guard During a Strike

Common Terminologies in Security Operations

Armed – As used in this guideline, armed refers to a private security officer who is equipped
with a weapon (firearm), such as a pistol or rifle, from which a shot can be discharged
when necessary.

73
Armoured Car Company – A company which, for itself or under contract with another,
transports currency, securities, valuables, jewellery, food stamps, or any other item that
requires secured and insured delivery from one place to another with armed personnel.
Armoured Car Personnel – An armed employee of an armoured car company who is
engaged exclusively by that company, and is liable for the safe transportation, care, and
custody of valuables.
Background Verification/Check – The process of checking an individual’s character,
general reputation, personal characteristics, or mode of living for consideration of
employment, promotion, access to sensitive assets (such as national information), or for
continued employment. Elements of a background verification/check can vary widely,
and may include information from credit bureaus, courts records repositories,
departments of motor vehicles, past or present employers and educational institutions,
governmental, occupational licensing or registration entities, business or personal
references, and any other source required to verify information that was voluntarily
supplied.
Computer Based Training – Any training that uses a computer as the focal point of
instructional delivery. Training is provided through the use of computer hardware and
software that guides the learner through an interactive learning program.
Contract Security Service – Protective services provided by one entity, specializing in such
services, to another entity on a compensated basis.
Criteria – The individual (criterion) or collective stated qualifications (criteria) to be
compared with an applicant’s or employee’s actual credentials, experience, or history in
determining suitability for an employment decision (hiring or otherwise).
Critical Infrastructures – The sophisticated facilities, systems, and functions, which include
human assets, physical and cyber systems, that work together in processes that are
highly interdependent to provide the foundation for national security, governance,
economic vitality.
Electronic Medium Based Training – Any training that uses an electronic technology as a
method of effectively conveying instruction and/or information. Electronic technology
includes but is not limited to video or audiocassettes and video conferencing.
Homeland Security – often referred to as internal security. This is the federal government
efforts, in partnership with state, local governments and the private sector, to develop,
coordinate, fund and implement the programs and policies necessary to detect, prepare

74
 for, prevent, protect against, respond to, and recover from terrorist or other attacks
within Nigeria.
Private Security – An independent or proprietary commercial organization whose activities
include safeguarding the employing party’s assets, ranging from human lives to
physical property (the premises and contents), responding to emergency incidents,
performing other functions as outlined by the PSCs Act.
Private Security Officer – An individual, other than armoured car personnel or a public
employee (federal, state, or local government), employed part or full time, in uniform,
hired to protect the employing party’s assets, ranging from human lives to physical
property (the premises and contents). The definition excludes individuals who are not
employed in the capacity of a private security officer.
Public Safety – Support mechanisms that sustain the life and vitality of a community’s
health, safety, and social stability by performing such services as law enforcement, fire
prevention, personal and facility security, disaster preparedness, and emergency
medical assistance. In some instances, public safety may refer to law enforcement
officers, fire-fighters, rescue squads, and ambulance crews. In other instances, public
safety properly encompasses private security officers, as well.
Regulatory Body – Any state board, commission, department, or office, except those in the
legislative or judicial branches, authorized by law to conduct adjudicative proceedings,
issue permits, registrations, licenses, or other forms of authorization to offer or perform
private security officer services, or to control or affect the interests of identified
persons.
Selection – The act or process of choosing individuals who possess certain characteristics or
qualities.
Threat – An indication of something impending that could result in damage or injury.
Training – An act, method, or process of instruction; to teach so as to make fit, qualified, or
proficient.

3.3 Underlining the Importance of Basic Training for Private Security Guards In
General
From the outset, private security training has been a central concern for Civil defence.
Continuously training is one of the key components in raising workers’ performance, quality
standards, professionalism and also employment in the private security industry. The Federal
Government is determined to continue to build a professional service industry, providing
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high-quality services to customers and high-quality employment to private security guards. It
is particularly crucial for an industry committed to a high level of quality that all entrants into
the private security profession receive at least a minimum level of basic training, which
provides them with the relevant skills required to adequately carry out their function. These
minimum training standards must be made compulsory and integrated into a sound regulatory
and licensing framework at the national level thereby ensuring that all private security
companies and employees meet acceptable quality standards.

Specialised training courses allow private security personnel having already acquired a solid
basic skill set to further fine-tune and expand their knowledge and expertise. In the interest of
fair competition, based not solely on price, but equally on considerations of professionalism
and the right level of service, it is also vital that the same rules and thus the same costs in
relation to high-quality training apply to all companies active in the private security industry
within a single national market. High-quality training standards must be safeguarded against
‘free riders’ benefiting from the investments made by others in private security training, but
refraining from investing in training themselves. The Government therefore calls upon the
Association of Private Security Practitioners of Nigeria (APSPN) and Security Institutions to
take these elements into consideration and reiterate and support the essential role of basic
guard training in general and for private security guards operating in the country.

4.0 Conclusion
Effective security today requires workers who are familiar with all aspects of a facility’s
security system for assessing and containing potential threats. Security officers are required
to be well versed in emergency procedures and able to work with an organization to ensure
that emergency procedures can be implemented successfully. They are also required to be
able to work closely and effectively with public safety and police personnel. The ability of
Nigeria companies to protect the nation’s critical infrastructure and contribute to homeland
security efforts depends largely on the competence of private security officers. Therefore,
private security officers and applicants for private security officer positions should be
thoroughly screened and trained, in accordance with outlined courses.
5.0 Summary
Private security officer selection and training criteria vary from company to company ranging
from comprehensive training requirements for every private security officer to basic training.
One of the main goals of the private security officer selection and training is to develop and
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encourage the adoption of minimal national selection criteria for security officers. The
development of such minimum criteria has become essential for enabling the private security
industry to effective perform their duties to clients as well as meeting the demands associated
with new ever changing security initiatives.
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
a. List and explain five core aspects of the private security guards training curriculum.
b. Examine the role of National Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) in the
training of Private Security Guards.
7.0 References/further readings
Anderson, Teresa. ‘‘Affairs of State.’’ Security Management. May 2001, pp. 83–84.
Castle, Reed A. A Study of the Security Officer. Commonwealth of Virginia, Department of
Criminal Justice Services: Schroeder Measurement Technologies, Inc., April 2002.
Conn. Gen. Stat. § 29-534 (2001). Private Detectives, Guard Services and Security Personnel.
Web site: http://www.cga.state.ct.us/2001/pub/Chap534.htm
Cunningham, William C., Taylor, Todd H. Private Security and Police in America: The
Hallcrest Report I. Portland, OR: Chancellor Press, 1985.
Cunningham, William C., John S. Strauchs, and Clifford W. Van Meter. Private Security
Trends 1970–2000: The Hallcrest Report II. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann,
1990.
Goodboe, Michael E. ‘‘The Development of an Entry-Level Model Curriculum, Optimum
Training Methodology, and Implementation and Evaluation Plans for Unarmed
Contract Security Officers.’’ Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nova Southeastern
University, 1966.
Johnston, Les. ‘‘Regulating Private Security.’’ International Journal of the Sociology of Law,
Academic Press Limited. 1992, 20, pp. 1–16.
Ledward, A 2007, Private Investigator and Security Guard Training Manual
Pinkerton’s Center for Professional Development. Advanced Certification Training (ACT),
Volumes 1, 2, and 3. Arlington, VA: Pinkerton, Inc., 1997–2002.
Vocational-Technical Education Consortium of States. A Catalog of Performance Objectives
and Performance Guides For Security Guard. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University
College of Education and Michigan Department of Education Vocational-Technical
Education Service, 1978.

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UNIT 5: EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The demand for safety and the security industry in most urban centres, remains strong with
the increasing levels of insecurity by the population and the priority of improving commercial
and public safety. On the same vein demand for security and safety equipments in industrial
plants, commercial buildings, public facilities, oil/gas fields and mining operations, airports
and seaports has increased substantially.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to know the types of security equipment and
accessories in demand.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 TYPES OF PRIVATE SECURITY EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES
There are many different types of private security equipment, and the equipment carried by a
particular officer depends on the policies of that officer’s agency and his or her role within
the organisation. A security officer often carries basic equipment such as a handgun,
handcuffs, a flashlight, handcuff keys, other restraining devices, pepper spray, a baton, and
other basic gear such as tape for roping off a crime scene and a radio for communicating with
other officers. More specialized security equipment might be carried by a tactical officer
(MoPol) and can include more powerful firearms, body armour and a battering ram. Security
equipment carried by a particular officer often varies, and includes items that he or she is
required to carry due to agency policies, as well as any items he or she may find helpful. One
of the most basic pieces of security equipment restricted by law is the firearm that a police
officer carries. This is usually worn on the hip of the officer, though some officers may wear
a firearm in a shoulder holster.
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The specific gun used by an officer depends on the standard practices and policies of a police
department and the preferences of the officer. Common security officer equipment also
includes various types of restraining devices, including handcuffs and zip ties, as well as
handcuff keys and a pocket knife. This is usually a folding knife that requires only a single
hand to use. Private security officers also wear or carry a badge that identifies them as
officers of the law, and the officer may be required to wear a standard uniform as well. Many
officers that are in multi-national companies or organisation also have secondary weapons
such as batons, often collapsible batons, and pepper spray.There are also pieces of security
equipment that officers might not carry on their person, but which many officers have in their
vehicle. This includes equipment for maintaining a crime scene, such as tape, road flares, and
portable barricades. Private security officers also usually carry radios to communicate with
other officers, often worn on the shoulder or belt.

Equipment Restricted to Private Security

Some pieces of police equipment are more specialized and typically worn or utilized only by
tactical officers. These include body armour, heavy firearms such as automatic rifles and tear
gas guns, and shields used for pacifying participants in a riot. Battering rams are also
frequently used by tactical officers, and these can be single or two-person rams. Such police
equipment is typically utilized by officers in special units such as the special weapons and
tactics (SWAT) team. The Nigeria private security companies are not allow to use, some of
these sophisticated weapons but they are usually accompanied by law enforcement agents
that are equipped.

Category and Descriptions of Equipment and Accessories Used by Private Security

Companies in Nigeria.
Accessories: Includes Batteries, Battery Packs, AC Chargers, DC Chargers, SD Cards,
Camera Clamps, Camera Mounts, Little Jo-Mount, Connectors, Power Supplies,
Replacement PV500 buttons and Remote Controls, Telephone Audio Cord Splitter, and
Adapters.

Audio Equipment: Includes Analog and Digital Recorders, Phone Recorders, Dictation
Pens, Watch Recorders, Audio Device Accessories, Digital MP3 Players Recorders,

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Listening Devices and Microphones, Voice Changers, and White Noise Generators.

Cameras: Includes Body Worn Cameras, Bullet Cameras, Covert Cameras, Infrared, Internet
Cameras, Low Light Cameras, Nanny Cams, Night Vision Cameras, Photographic Cameras,
Pinhole Cameras, Security and Dome Cameras, and Wireless Cameras.

Detection Devices: Includes Bug Detection, Debugging Kits, Telephone Analyzer, Hidden
Camera Detectors, Metal Detectors, RF Signal Detectors, TSCM Equipment, Wire Tap
Detectors and Phone Security.

Personal Protection: Includes Detection Kits, Drug Test Kits, Infidelity Test Kits, Diversion
and Hidden Safes, Self Defence, M2 Flashcam, and MII Flashcam.

PI Kits: Includes DVR Kits, Surveillance Kits, Sunglass Kits, Hidden Camera Kits, and
Camera Detection Kits.

Phone Security: Includes Telephone Accessories, Telephone Recorders, Wire Tap Detection,
PI Audio, Voice Changers, and two-way Caller ID.

Recorders: Includes Audio Recorders, DVRs, Digital Video Recorders, Phone Recorders,
VCRs, Video Tape Recorders, and Time Lapse Recorders.
Spy Gear: Includes Novelty Gadgets, Specialty Items, Spy Gadgets, Computer Monitoring,
and Reverse Peep Hole Viewer.

GPS Trackers & Tracking Devices:

Includes Live GPS Trackers, Real time GPS Trackers, Passive GPS Trackers, GPS
Datalogger, Waterproof cases, Extended battery Cases, and GPS Antenna.

Hidden Video Systems:

Includes DVRs, Digital Video Recorders, Video Monitors, Motion Activated Recorders,
Quads, Multiplexers, Security Systems, Video Transmitter and Video Receivers.
Wireless: Includes Wireless Cameras, Wireless Microphones, Wireless Video Transmitters,
and Wireless Video Recorders.

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GPS Tracker, Passive GPS Logging, iTrail w/ Magnetic Case

Introducing the Sleuth Gear iTrail:. A passive GPS logger, simply place the small iTrail unit
wherever you like - your car, children backpack, virtually anywhere! At only 1.5"x1.5" small,
the logger records location, speed, time, and displays this information on an easy-to-use
interface powered by Google Maps and Google Earth.

The H6001 includes both the iTrail and the Magnetic Car Case (Item #PGE1060)
Simply turn on the unit, and place it where you would like. The unit will constantly record up
to 120 hours of data. To retrieve the information, plug the unit into your computer via the
included USB charging cable. You can then download the information to a detailed printable
report and view in Google Maps or Google Earth. The iTrail is water resistant, meaning it can be
mounted outside as well. Strong magnetic box is available for vehicle mounting. When not in use, an
on-board motion sensor puts the unit to "sleep" to conserve battery power. LED status lights also
indicate when the unit is powered on, when it is tracking, and when the battery is low or the memory
is full.

Features:
• SMALL size (only 1.5" x 1.5")
• Motion detection to conserve battery life
• Up to 120 hours of data
• Multiple report formats (HTML, PDF, MS-Word, CSV, and more)
• Water resistant for outdoor use

System Requirements:
• PC with Windows 2000, XP, Vista, or 7
• USB 1.1 or 2.0

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Specifications:
• Built-in motion detection
• 64MB memory
• Built-in rechargeable 750mAh Li-ion battery
• Cold start satellite acquisition time: <35 sec
• USB 1.1 and 2.0 compatible
• 2 LED indicators for power/status notifications
• Product size: 1.5" x 1.5" x 0.5"
• Product weight: 1.3oz
• Package size: 8.8" x 6.5" x 0.7"
• Package weight: 5.1oz
Includes:
• iTrail GPS Logger
• Magnetic Car Case
• Installation Mini-CD
• USB charge/transfer cable
Cell Phone Spy, Record Text Messages, Cell Phone Monitoring Device

The Cell phone Recon software allows you to covertly monitor all of the activities on your
cell phone. Log incoming and outgoing calls, incoming/outgoing text messages and emails,
and track phone location.
Features:
• Record all incoming/outgoing SMS messages
• Record incoming/outgoing/missed call log
• Record and track location of cell phone
• Record all incoming/outgoing emails
• Easy to install
• Secure control panel

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• Possible to monitor multiple phones
The software has been designed to provide 100% confidentiality and to ensure that nobody
discovers that you are monitoring them.
Specifications:
• Cell Phone Recon is compatible with most smartphones, including phones using following
operating systems:
- Symbian OS 9.x
- Symbian OS 8.x
- Windows Mobile 6.x
- Windows Mobile 5.x/2003SE
- Android
- Blackberry

4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit shows that private security personnel need essential equipments to function
effectively. It includes simple equipment such as a handgun, handcuffs, a flashlight, handcuff
keys, other restraining devices, pepper spray, a baton, and other basic gear such as tape for
roping off a crime scene and a radio for communicating with other officers. Hence with
equipments the duties of providing securing lives and properties can be more efficient.

5.0 SUMMARY
We have been able to discuss the types and dimension of different security equipments and
accessories that are useful to private security. The types discussed here are not exhaustive.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

List and discuss 10 security equipment mainly used private security guards.

7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS

Frank Shippes and Charles C. Manz, “Employee Self-Management Without Formally
Designated Teams: An Alternative Road to Empowerment,” Organizational
Dynamics (Winter 1992): 48–61.

John M. Ivancevich, Peter Lorenzi, and Steven J. Skinner, with Philip B. Crosby,
Management: Quality and Competitiveness (Boston: Richard D. Irwin, 1996), 254.

Raymond J. Aldag and Timothy M. Stearns, Management (Cincinnati: Southwestern, 1987).

83
Richards, Anna / Smith, Henry. 2007. Addressing the role of private security companies
within security sector reform programmes. Journal of Security Sector Management.
5:1.

Robert D. Dewar and Donald P. Simet, “A Level-Specific Prediction of Spans of Control

Examining the Effects of Size, Technology, and Specialization,” Academy of
Management Journal (March 1981): 5.

Schreier, Fred / Caparini, Marina. 2005. Privatising Security: Law, Practice and Governance
of Private Military and Security Companies. DCAF Occasional Paper, 6.

Singer, Peter W. 2003. Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry.
Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press.

Tom Peters, Thriving on Chaos (New York: Knopf, 1988).

Vines, Alex. 2000. Mercenaries, Human Rights and Legality. In: Abdel-Fatua Musah / J.
‘Kayode Fatemi. Mercenaries: An Africa Security Dilemma. Sterling, Pluto Press.
169-197.

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MODULE 3
Unit 1: Functions of Private Security
Unit 2: Risk Analysis and the Security Survey
Unit 3: Challenges and Problems And Private Security Service
Unit 4: Computer and Information Security
Unit 5: Nigerian Security and Civil Defence Corps ( NSCDC)

UNIT 1 FUNCTIONS OF PRIVATE SECURITY

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/ Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Private security firms are hardly likely to disappear, and have secured a substantial role, they
will need to be accommodated. Indeed, most security practitioners expect the role of private
companies to grow overtime. More thoughtful members of the industry argue that it needs to
prepare for these changes by providing better service to all communities. From the statement
above, if we all agreed that the private security has come to stay and in fact growing rapidly,
therefore it is important that we focus our attention at the functions, advantages and
disadvantages of private security companies.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Discuss the functions of the private security companies.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of private security companies.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 FUNCTIONS AND DUTIES OF PSCs
1. Security officers are not required to make arrests but have the authority to make a
citizen’s arrest or otherwise act as an agent of law enforcement at the request of a police.
Security personnel enforce company rules and can act to protect lives and property.\

85
2. Security officers are often trained to perform arrest and control procedures (including
handcuffing and restraints), operate emergency equipments, perform first aid, take
accurate notes, write detailed report and perform other task as required by the contract
they are serving.
3. Many trained security officers carry weapons such as batons, firearms and pepper spray.
4. Many security officers are required to have bomb threat training and/or emergency crisis
training especially those located in soft target areas such as shopping malls, schools, and
any other area where the general public congregate.
5. The presence of security personnel tends to diminish theft, employee misconduct and
safety rule violation, property damage or even sabotage.
6. Security personnel also perform access control at building entrances and vehicle gates,
meaning they ensure that employees and visitors display proper possess or identification
before entering the faculty.
7. Security officers are often called upon to respond to minor emergencies (lost persons,
lockouts, dead vehicle batteries etc) and to assist in serious emergences by guiding
emergency responders to the scene of the incident inclining to redirect foot traffic to safe
locations and by documenting what happened on an incident report.
8. Armed security officers are frequently contracted to respond as law enforcement until a
given situation at a client location is under control.
9. Patrolling is usually a large part of a security officer’s duties. However, regular patrols
are, less accepted as an industry standard, as it provides predictability for the would-be
criminal, as well as monotony for the security officer on duty. Random patrols are easily
programmed into these systems, allowing greater freedom of movement and
unpredictability.
10. Armoured car guards (usually wear bullet proof vests) protect money and valuables
during transit. They pick up money or other valuables from businesses to transport to
another location.
Advantages of the Private Security Industry
a. It is an additional crucial resource in the fight against crime.
b. It is possibly more efficient than the police.
c. It has access to superior equipment.
d. It is a source of foreign direct investment.
e. It is an employer and therefore indirectly alleviates poverty.

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 f. The flow of skills transfer and skills upgrading and expertise can be transferred to
the local market.
g. They can indirectly be a source of intelligence gathering.
h. It has enhanced public security service especially where close working
relationships, formal or informal have been established.
i. PSCs have possibly assisted in stabilizing if not reducing, crime levels, though
empirical data is difficult to find.
j. PSCs have created another sector of the economy that makes a taxable turnover of
close to billions of naira per annum.
k. PSCs and PMCs as sources of employment generation may well have helped
lowering the unemployment rate in the country.

Disadvantages of the Private Security Industry

a. Dependence on private security, industries breed state complacency.
b. It can withdraw at any moment if profit margins do not favour its existence in
business, which could leave a security vacuum.
c. Private security companies contribute to the indiscriminate use of force and
availability of firearms in a society.
d. Criminal networks can penetrate the PSCs sector far more easily than state sector,
which has government intelligence vetting procedure.
e. Sometimes, PSCs take law into the hands and civilian populations are vulnerable
to any use of force.
f. The reputation of the country may be at risk from their activities.
g. Sometimes, their involvement in certain operations may contravene the foreign
policy position of the country.
h. There may be complete disregard for legal provisions in their day to day affairs in
certain contexts.
i. PSCs have enhanced a sense of profit maximization. They lack sense of public
safety, in real sense but they are concern with the motives of profit making.
Functions and Roles of PMCs
They provides specialized services that include military advice and training, arms
procurement, intelligence gathering, logistical and medical support, combat and military
support and humanitarian action.
List of other services that PSCs and PMCs provide
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 1. Security guards (industrial and commercial)
2. Security guards (cash in transit)
3. Bodyguards
4. Security consultants
5. Reaction services/response for business
6. Venue control/special events
7. Manufacture of security equipment
8. Private investigators
9. Training
10. Security equipment installation
11. Locksmith/key cutters
12. Security control room
13. Rendering security services
14. Car watch
15. Insurance
16. Security and loss control
17. Fire prevention and detection
18. Consulting engineer
19. Alarm installation
20. In-house security

PMC Services include

a. Military advice and training
b. Operational support
c. Logistical support
d. Site/personal/personnel security
e. Crime prevention/intelligence
f. More direct mercenary-style operations

4.0 CONCLUSION
The future of the private security companies is bright. The more efficient private security
companies are in performance of their functions and duties, the greater the professional

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development of the occupation since it is obvious that the state law enforcement agencies
cannot solely provide all the security needed in society.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to discuss the functions of private security companies. We
explained advantages of private security companies, after which we critically examined the
disadvantages.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

a. Discuss the functions of private security companies in Nigeria.
b. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of private security companies.
c.
7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS
Abrahamsen, R & Williams, M.C. (2005). The Globalisation of Private Security: A Country
Report of Nigeria. Globalisation of Security Research Project (Dept of International
Politics, University of Wales, Aberystwyth) and the New Security Challenges
Programme (ESRC, UK).

Gumedze, S. (2007). The Private Security Sector in Africa: The 21st Century’s Major Cause
for Concern. Institute for Security Studies Occasional Paper 131 (December).

89
UNIT 2: RISK ANALYSIS AND THE SECURITY SURVEY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 OBJECTIVES
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
4.0 CONCLUSION
5.0 SUMMARY
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNEMNT
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Among the hierarchical structure of a company is the security director. As a security director,
the responsibilities of protecting properties of company lie on him. Before the security master
plan is created, it is important to identify potential areas of loss and to develop and install
appropriate security counter measure. In this Unit, we will explain the need for security risk
assessment and security survey.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Explain Risks Management
Discuss Security Survey
Analyse Security Risk
Explain Security check list

3.0 RISK MANAGEMENT

Risk management are principally concerned with the protection and conservation of corporate
assets and resources. Risk management may thus be defined as making the most before the
lost arrangement for an after the loss continuation of business (Fisher and Green 2004). The
concept of risk management presents a sensible approach to this complicated problem. It
allows risks to be handled in a logical manner using long-held management principles.
Insurance in and of itself is no longer able to meet the security challenges faced by major
corporations. The task of protection continues to be a mere single complex one in a time
when technology is creating new products at an explosive rate aggravated by domestic and
international terrorism (Broder 2006).

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A good risk management program involves four basic steps:
1. Identification of risks or specific vulnerabilities.
2. Analysis and study of risk, which includes the likelihood and degree of danger of or at
an event.
3. Operationalization of risk-management alternatives
a) Risk avoidance
b) Risk reduction
c) Risk spreading
d) Risk Transfer
e) Self-assumption of risk
f) Any combination of the above
4. Ongoing study of security programs

THE SECURITY SURVEY

A security survey is essentially an exhaustive physical examination of the premises and a
thorough inspection of all operational systems and procedures. Such an examination or
survey has as its overall objective the analysis of a facility to determine the existing state of
its defences, to determine the degree of protection required and ultimately to lead to
recommendation for establishing a total security programme. The survey may be conducted
by staff security personnel or by qualified security specialists employed for this purpose.
Some experts suggest that outside security people could approach the job with more
objectively and would have less of a tendency to take certain areas or practices for granted,
thus providing a more complex appraisal of existing conditions. It is also important at least
some members of the survey team be totally familiar with the facility and its operation.
Without such familiarity, it would be difficult to formulate the survey plan. There is need for
check list by survey team in preparation for the actual inspection.

Risk is defined as (1) the possibility of suffering harm or loss and (2) the danger or
probability of loss occurring to one’s insured assets. Most of the risks affecting a given
enterprise or organization can be readily identified and therefore predicted. Risk should not
be confused with perils which are the causes of risk – such things as fire, flood and
earthquake. Nor should risk be confused with a hazard, which is a contributing factor to a
peril. While risk analysis is a management tool, the standards which are determined by

91
whatever management decides it wants to accept in terms of actual loss. To proceed in a
logical manner to perform a risk analysis, it is first necessary to accomplish some basis tasks:
1. Identify the assets in need of protection (people, money, manufactured products and
industrial process, to name a few).
2. Identify the kinds of risks that may affect the assets involved (internal theft, fire,
external theft).
3. Determine the probability of risk occurrence.
4. Determine the impact or effect on the organization in monetary values when possible
if a given loss does occur.
Risk assessment analysis is a rational and orderly approach, as well as comprehensive
solution to problem identification and probability determination. It is also a method for
estimating the expected loss from the occurrence of an adverse event. It provides
management with information on which to base decisions. The goal of risk analysis is to
strike an economic balance between the impact of risk on the enterprise and the cost of
implementing prevention and protective measures.

The benefits of risk analysis according to Broder (2004) are as follows:

1. It shows the current security posture profile of the organization.

2. It will highlight areas in which greater (or lesser) security is needed.
3. It will help to assemble some of the facts needed for the development and
justifications of cost effective countermeasures (safeguards).
4. It will increase security awareness by assessing and then reporting the strengths and
weaknesses of security to all organizational levels from management to operations.

Risk analysis is not a task to be accomplished once and for all, it must be performed
periodically. The major resources required for performing a risk analysis is trained man
power. The time allocated to accomplish the risk analysis should be compatible with its
objectives.

RISK IDENTIFICATION
Risk identification is to make the task of risk analysis more manageable by establishing a
base from which to proceed. When the risks associated with the various systems and

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subsystems within a given enterprise are known, the allocation of countermeasures
(resources) can be more carefully planned.

SECURITY CHECKLIST
Security checklists are used to facilitate the gathering of pertinent information. It takes
different forms: (1) Simple lists of Yes or No, questions (2) Open and questions (3) Narrowly
focused on the specific operations or activity. (4) Broader in scope and cover security
concerns common to all the company’s operation. The checklist is usually the backbone of
the security survey.

According to Momboisse (1977), “A security survey is a critical, on-site examination to

ascertain the present security status, identity deficits or excess, determine the protection need
and make recommendations to improve the overall security of the operation”. Sennewald also
defined security survey as “The primary vehicle used in a security assessment is the survey.
The survey is the process whereby one gathers data that reflects the who, what, how, where,
when and why of the client’s existing operation. The survey is the fact-finding process”.
Enlightened student of criminology have come to learn that the most predominant and most
costly form of business crime is employee or internal theft in its various forms. Asset
misappropriation accounts for the majority of employee theft, bribery (corruption) and
fraudulent statements, although not as frequent, run second and third.

FACILITY EVALUATION
When analyzing security risks according to Fischer and Green (2004) the security manager
should look at a number of aspects of the company, giving consideration as potential security
problems to the following:

(1) The perimeter (2)The parking lot (3)All adjacent building windows and roof tops (4) All
doors and windows less than 18 feet above ground level (5) The roof (6)The issuance of main
entrance keys to all tenants in a building (7) Any shared occupancy, as in office building (8)
All areas containing valuables (9) The off-hours when the facility is not in operation and all
nighttimes hours (10) The control and supervision of entry into the facility (11) keys and key
control (traditional or electronic) (12) Fire (13) Computer access (14) video surveillance (15)
Computer systems.

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The above list should contain some of sample questions that must be asked when conducting
a survey of any facility.

GENERAL DEPARTMENTAL EVALUATIONS

It is the duty of security manger, to evaluate each department in the organization separately in
terms of its potentials for loss. These departmental evaluations will eventually be considered
into the master survey for final recommendation and action where particular risk
predominate, special attention must be paid to providing some counteraction to remove
them. The following questions might be asked:
1. Is the departmental function such that is vulnerable to embezzlement?
2. Does the department have cash funds or negotiable instruments on hand?
3. Does the department house confidential records?
4. Does the department have heavy external and/or internal traffic?
5. Does the department have target items in it such as drugs, jewelleries or furs?
6. What is the special fire hazard in the department or from adjacent areas?

A typical company has the following departments:

a) Personnel Department
b) Accounting Department
c) Data Processing Department
d) Purchasing Department
e) Shipping and Receiving Department

REPORT OF THE SURVEY

The report of the survey is important before a security plan can be drawn up. The report of
the survey should indicate those areas that are weak in security and recommend measures that
might reasonably bring the security of the facility up to acceptable standards. It is important
to the security directors, that they may not get all they need to do their work, when they are
denied extra personnel, they must find hardware that will help to replace people, where a
request for more coverage by closed-circuit television (CCTV) is turned down, they must
develop inspection procedures or barriers that may serve a similar purpose. If at any point
they feel that security costs have been cut to a point where the stated objective cannot be
achieved, they are obliged to communicate that opinion to management who will then
determine whether to diminish the original objective or to authorize more money. It is
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important, however, that security directors exhaust every alternative method of coverage
before going to management with an opinion that requires this kind of decision (Fischer and
Green 2004).

4.0 CONCLUSION
Security managers or directors must be adequately informed about risk management. It is the
basis upon which the security plan is developed. It reduces the money spent in the protection
of company assets. Assets which are vulnerable to destruction, theft or other vulnerabilities
are taken into consideration during the process of risk analysis and the security survey.

5.0 SUMMARY
From this Unit, we have learned that risk analysis is in management tool, the standard for
which are determined by whatever management decides it wants to accept in terms of actual
loss. While a security survey is essentially an exhaustive physical examination of the
premises and thorough inspections of all operational systems and procedures. We also learnt
what risk identification, security checklist is and how a security director can evaluate facility
and departments in terms of security risks.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Explain the following concepts (a) Risk Management (b) Security survey (c) Risk analysis
(d) Risk identification (e) Security checklist.

7.0 REFERENCES
Broder, J. F. (2006) Risk Analysis and Security Survey, Butterworth Heinnemann.

Momboisse R. M. (1977) Industrial security for strikes, Riots and Disasters, Charles C.
Thomas Publisher

Sennewald, C. A. (2004) Security Consulting Boston, M. A. Butterworth – Heinemann

Elservier.

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UNIT 3: CHALLENGES AND PROBLEMS OF PRIVATE SECURITY SERVICE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 OBJECTIVES
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
4.0 CONCLUSION
5.0 SUMMARY
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Inability of the state to adequately provide security for all and sundry and the global
economic crisis as brought about the witnessing of significant growth in private security
companies. Private Security industry is considered one of the fastest growing industries in the
world, with an expected growth rate of 17 percent by 2016 according to the U.S Department
of labour and crime. Despite its growth and profitability, private security companies are
facing many challenges such as lack of adequate training, the problem of poor wages and
working conditions, the cost of registration among others.

2.0 OBJECTIVE
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the challenges and problems facing
private security services.
.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Challenges Confronting Private Security Guards in Nigeria
There are numerous challenges facing Private Security Guards in Nigeria. Some of these
problems are discussed below:
a. Lack of Adequate Training
One of the challenges of private security guards in Nigeria is lack of adequate training.
Most private security companies are always in the habits of recruiting people as guards
with very little or no training. Many of the private security guards undergo only physical
fitness as training while they have no knowledge of several other aspects of security
training including intelligence collection and analysis, martial arts, crowd control, riot
control, data mining and automated data analysis in crime mitigation, to mention a few.
This problem is not peculiar to unregistered private security firms but also many
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 registered and big security outfits show little interest in periodical training of their
guards all they care for is profit maximization. This problem has been responsible for the
incompetence and inefficiency in the activities of many private guards in Nigeria.
b. The Problem of Poor Wages and Working Conditions
It appears to be one of the leading factors militating against efficiency in private security
activities in the country. In spite of high cost of living, many private security guards earn
salaries as low as N6,000 per month (Abrahamen and Williams, 2005). It is unfortunate
that government has not considered in its regulation of private security activities the
importance of prioritizing the welfare of guards commissioned by various private
security companies in the country. Though, one cannot but agree with government if it
argues that it can prevail on all private security firms to improve the welfare of their
guards because it is not all of them that are registered, but the truth of the matter is that
both unregistered and registered companies are culprits of pauperization of guards. The
decisions of most unregistered private firms to “pay guards according to the value of
individual contracts, so that in effect guards at the same level and with the same
experience earn different wages depending on where the company deploys them”
(Abrahamen and Williams; 2005). Poor working conditions confronting a large number
of private security guards in the country are making many of them having low job
satisfaction, which has led to low job performance and lack of commitment of the job
among them.

c. The Cost of Registration

The cost of registration is another challenge facing not only the private security guards
but also quite a number of private security companies. According to the NSCDC Act
2003 as amended in 2007, which has authorizes the NSCDC as the regulatory agency; to
perform functions of registering private security companies operating in Nigeria. The
Act mandates every private security firm wishing to be registered to have a minimum
capital of N10 million (Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps Act No. 2 of 2003 and
Amendment Act of 2007). The high cost of getting a Private Security Company has
made many private security providers to be operating without being registered, making it
difficult for government to regulate the operations of all private security outfits in the
country. Thus, inadequate regulation of all existing private security companies may
attract some risk because the activities of various guards commissioned by the
unregistered firms cannot be adequately monitored. And in a situation where a security
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 guard commissioned by unregistered private security firms errs, it will be difficult for the
regulatory agency to communicate with such organization.
d. Risk of Violent Attacks
This is another challenges being experienced by private security guards in Nigeria. The
Private Guard Companies Act (1986) has made the stand of government known on non-
permission of private security guards to provide armed services in the country. Private
security guards are not permitted to carry specific weapons like guns in Nigeria and in
performing their duties; the lives of many of them are usually at risk. This is because the
criminals are often equipped with more dangerous weapons like Ak47 raffles and
grenades thus the private guards face the risk of losing their lives in confronting the
armed criminals. This situation has led to untimely deaths of many private security
guards in Nigeria.
e. Politics of Dichotomy
Politics of dichotomy that exists between the local and foreign private security
companies in Nigeria is another challenge worth-mentioning. There is rivalry between
indigenous private security firms and the foreign private security companies due to the
belief by the former that their guards are under-engaged because of the preference that
most multinational corporations have for the latter in seeking for private security
services. This problem rages on as many local private security players have continued to
call on government to deregister all existing foreign Private Security Companies
operating in the country as a way of developing the indigenous private security firms. If
the wish of the local private security players comes to fruition, security guards
commissioned by these foreign firms face the threat of losing their jobs.
f. The Problem of Overzealousness and Brutality
It poses a huge challenge to private security activities in Nigeria. There have been cases
where activities of some private security guards have been criticized especially where
guards infringe on the fundamental rights of innocent civilians in providing the security
needs of their clients. This problem is more visible among guards commissioned by
unregistered companies particularly the ethnic militias. The habits of brutality among
some OPC guards have become a subject of national debate in recent times. Many
innocent citizens have been killed with charms and/or guns and other dangerous weapon
by some guards, situation which has led to public repudiation and criminalization of the
private security activities of this militia group.

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 Similarly the unlawful activities of Bakassi Boys in the eastern part of the country have
made the public acceptance of their role in security dwindle, making the public to doubt
its relevance in the management of people’s security. There is no doubt that when this
group first emerged it had good intentions but politization of the group has led to the
disbarment of its activities and it has no longer enjoyed any popular support in the
country. The guards working for registered companies have been accused of being
reckless in the discharge of their duties. For instance, many commuters and innocent
civilians have either been injured or killed by the reckless driving and overzealousness
of bullion van drivers and policemen attached to some Private Security Companies.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, there are ways to solve or reduce the challenges facing the private security
companies. Probably one of the ways to go would be that private security companies start
minding other people’s business for a change and leave their own non security business to
professionals while taking security more seriously by raising the hiring criteria, initiating
communication with clients and employee and providing employees with proper training and
adequate working conditions.
.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to discuss challenges of private security companies. Various
challenges such as lack of adequate training, the problem of poor wages and working
conditions, the cost of registration, risk of violence attacks, politics of dichotomy, the
problem of overzealousness and brutality were adequately explained.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

There are several challenges facing private security companies in Nigeria, one of which is
inadequate training among others. Discuss others.

7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS

Grant, B.D. (1998) U.S Military Expartise for sale : private Military Consultants as a tool of
Foreigh Policy. Strategy Essay. Institute for National strategy

Taulbee, J.L. (2000) Mercenaries, Private Armies and Security Companies in Contemporary
Policy, Internal Politics

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Abrahamen, R and Willam, M.C. (2005) The Globalization of private Security: A country
Report of Nigeria Globalization of Security Research Project ( Department of
International Politics, Aberystwyth and the New Security Challeges Programme

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UNIT 4: COMPUTER AND INFORMATION SECURITY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 OBJECTIVES
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
4.0 CONCLUSION
5.0 SUMMARY
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READINGS

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The essence of computer and information security is to prevent and detect the unauthorized
use of computer. It goes beyond this, computers have made possible video monitoring in the
area of facial recognition, fire and smoke detection and advanced alarm monitoring. In recent
times computers are used to process and store vast amounts of increasingly important
information. Hence there is need for computer data protection, which is of greater importance
for the security professional.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
.At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Explain the concept of computer security and system protection
Discuss the need for computer security
Examine methods of computer crimes

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

COMPUTER SECURITY
Computer security is the protection of information and property from theft, corruption, or
natural disaster, while allowing the information and property to remain accessible and
productive to its users. The term computer system security means the collective processes and
mechanisms by which sensitive and valuable information and services are protected from
publication, tempering or collapse by unauthorized activities or untrustworthy individuals and
unplanned events respectively. (Wikipedia). The major technical areas of computer security
are usually represented by the initials CIA: Confidentiality, Integrity, and Authentication or
Availability. Confidentiality means that information cannot be accessed by unauthorized
parties. Confidentiality is also known as secrecy or privacy. Integrity means that information
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is protected against unauthorized changes that are not detectable to authorized users;
Authentication means that users are who they claim to be. While confidentiality, integrity and
authenticity are the most important concerns of a computer security manager, privacy is
perhaps the most important aspects of computer security for everyday internet users.

Chief Information Officer (CIO) is saddled with responsibility of managing and controlling
of information but it is the Chief Security Officer (CSO) who is concerned about the integrity
of the information disseminated throughout the company system. Cooperation between these
two key positions is critical for adequate protection of company intellectual property.
Examples of cooperation between IT and security department are many. New electronic
surveillance systems require technology elements that call for technical expertise beyond that
of most security managers, such as computers and databases, Local Area Networks (LANS)
Wireless Local Area Network (WLANs), Wide Area Networks (WANs) and the internet. The
CSO has little choice but to learn the IT industry operations. The need for increased security
and safety while containing costs is obvious. Perceived security threats such as terrorism,
personal safety, asset protection and risk reduction cannot be ignored.
THE NEED FOR COMPUTER SECURITY
1. Computer security not only to protect computers and information from some type of
theft but also deal with natural disaster like fires, floods, accidents and so forth.
2. It protects the company internet services from hackers, from disgruntled employees
or competitors (The number of hacks in 2002 reached 87,000 worldwide with the
United States being the biggest target, followed in number of attacks is Brazil, Britain,
Germany and Italy (Fischer and Green 2004).
3. It secures thefts of proprietary information, insider abuse of computing systems,
sabotage of data networks, denial of service attacks, virus, system penetration and
telecom fraud.
4. E-Commerce online retailers also suffered losses from the cost of purchases made
with stolen credit cards (Identity theft).

METHODS OF COMPUTER CRIME

The following are the wide range of methods available to disrupt system activity or to
observe, steal or destroy information:
1. Data Manipulation or theft

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 Anyone associated with or having access to data on the computer can change the data.
Changing of data during or after operation into a computer system is the simplest,
safest and most common method of committing computer crime. Sometimes, insider
often sells data files to an individual who then uses the information to steal identities.
2. Salami Technique
This descriptive term implies trimming off small amount of money from many
sources and diverting these slices into one’s own or an accomplice’s account. This
form of crime is most common in banking environments with a large number of
savings and/or checking accounts and automated financial processing. By creating a
new program or altering an existing one, an employee can randomly deduct one to
five kobo from a few thousand different individual accounts. The accumulated sums
can then be withdrawn by normal methods from his or her receiving account.
3. Computer Viruses
They are computer programs that can replicate themselves and harm the computer
system on a network without the knowledge of the system. They are sets of unwanted
instructions executed on computers. Presently, there are appropriately 500 core virus
and about 3,000 variations (Fischer and Green 2004). Viruses spread to other
computers through network file system, through the network, internet or by the means
of removable devices like USB drives and CDs. Computer viruses are all forms of
malicious codes written with an aim to harm a computer system and destroy
information. There are four categories of viruses (a) Innocuous viruses (b) Humorous
virus (c) Altering viruses (d) catastrophic viruses. It is a criminal act to write
computer viruses that can crash computer system, thereby destroying all or greater
amounts of critical data.
4. Hacking
It is an unauthorized access or intrusion into a computer system. The act of defeating
the security capabilities of computer system in order to obtain an illegal access to the
information stored on the computer system is called hacking.
5. Identify theft: This is one of the most serious frauds as it involves stealing money
and obtaining other benefits through the use of false identity. While using false
identification is an old method of criminal activity. The ability to access all types of
information on the computer has given this old problem an entirely new life. Identity
cloning is the use of another user’s information to pose as a false user. Illegal
migration terrorism and blackmail are often made possible by means of identity theft.
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 The types of criminal activity caused by the identity theft are the following: (1) Cash
theft using ATM Machine (2) Electronic check fraud (3) Denial of credit (4) Financial
services charges for overdraft (5) Lost time in dealing with the aftermath. (6) Criminal
investigation, arrest.
6. Worms: Worms and viruses are very different although some people regarded as the
same type of program. Both worms and viruses have replication mechanisms,
activation mechanisms and objectives. While viruses just infect programs, worms take
over computer memory and deny its use to legitimate programs.
7. Trojan Horse: This is a destructive program that masquerade as a benign application.
The software initially appears to perform a desirable function for the user prior to
installation and/or execution but steals information or harms the system. Unlike
viruses or worms, Trojan horses do no replicate themselves but they are destructive. A
Trojan may allow a hacker access to a target computer system. In reality, Trojan horse
program are not software but viruses designed to penetrate a computer system so that
a program of the penetrator’s choosing can become active. It can inflict a computer
system with a virus, worm, bomb or trapdoor, etc.
8. Electronic Eavesdropping: Tapping, without authorization, into communication
lines over which digitized computer data and messages are being sent is electronic
eavesdropping. By using technologically advanced listening devices, eavesdropping
can be done on traditional telephone lines and even satellite transmission networks. If
data transmitted are not encoded, capturing and transforming the data is equivalent to
using a clandestine tape recorder to record a standard telephone conversation. (Fischer
and Green 2004).
9. Software Piracy: The companies or consultants who provide software make big
profit, this is because software programs cost from a few thousand naira to millions of
naira. Hence, some people are willing to copy software and resell it or give it away.
This unauthorized copying of copyrighted computer programs is referred to as
software piracy. These set of people deny vendors and software developers profits
that they should have accrued legally.

COMPUTER SYSTEMS PROTECTION

Our society is highly reliant on information technologies. Industrial production, financial
flow, commercial exchange and even the security of citizens depend more and more on
information technologies. Hence, these systems must be protected. Most security systems are
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based on a perimeter protection (Firewalls, intrusion detection system etc.). Depending on the
circumstances, the security perimeter can be of a company, a group, an information system or
simply a personal computer. Perimeter protection, while being globally useful, does not bring
any protection against certain types of attacks. With the connection of IT Systems to
networks, the out sourcing of services, or even internal reorganization, it has become
extremely complex to define and secure perimeter. Perimeter security solutions are a partially
inaccurate vision of security, believing that a threat necessarily comes from the outside.
Today, threats have become extremely diversified (indiscreet co-workers, Trojans, operating
systems…etc). For the board, the operator or the manager of a site, infrastructure or activity,
the danger can come from both the inside and the outside of the perimeter being managed.

Security professionals therefore must protect information contained within the computer
system from damage or loss. Regardless of the type of system, the security professional’s
dilemma is how to balance convenience in using the system and from protecting the system
from disasters, systems failures, or unauthorized access. Disaster – recovery planning,
identification and access control of software and data, encryption and physical security are
the four facets of computer protection.
1. Disaster-Recovery Planning: Disaster such as fires, floods and earthquakes are
potential hazards to essential computer systems. Those threats are not predictable
hence there is need for businesses to develop contingency or disaster-recovery plans.
Recovery planning or contingency planning must cover all business functions such as
personnel resources, hardware back up, software and data file backup etc.
2. Identification and Access control of Software and Data: With increase in computer
knowledge, individual possessing basic computer skills can break into a computer
system. Hence, there is need for organization to protect their software and data.
Computer systems can use three methods to determine if a person has a legitimate
right to access the system. The three categories are:
1. What a person has: Cards, keys, and badges
2. What a person knows personal identification numbers (PINs), passwords and
digital signatures.
3. Who a person is, physical traits
3. Encryption

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According to security expert, the best way to protect any type of data is to encrypt it.
Encryption scrambles the information so that it is not usable unless the changes are reversed.
There are five different methods for encrypting data:
a) Data Encryption Standard (DES)
b) Algorithm
c) Skipjack
d) Capstone (Clipper chip)
e) Privacy Enhanced Mail (PEM)

4. Physical security.
It describes measures that are designed to deny access to unauthorized personnel (including
attackers) from physically accessing a building facility, resource or stored information and
guidance on how to design structures to resist potentially hostile acts. Physical security is not
a modern phenomenon. It essentially exists in order to deter persons from entering a physical
facility. The use of technology for physical security has changed things. There are passive
infrared (PIR) based technology, electronic access control system, or video surveillance
system (VSS), Good physical security is a combination of defensive principles designed to
(a) deter (b) delay (c) detect (d) respond (and ultimately, deny access) to intrusion to critical
physical spaces.
There are three main components to physical security.
1. Obstacles can be placed in the way of potential attackers and sites can be hardened
against accidents and environmental disasters. Such measures can include multiple
locks, fencing walls, fireproof safes and water sprinklers.
2. Surveillance and notification systems can be put in place, such as lighting, heat
sensors, smoke detection, intrusion detectors, alarms and cameras.
3. Methods can be implemented to apprehend attackers (preferably before any damage
has been done) and to recover quickly from accidents, fires or natural disasters.
5. CONTENT MONITORING AND FILTERING
With the wide spread use of the internet, companies cannot ignore looking at who is using the
service and what they are doing. While on the network, employers have a right to monitor
their own systems, they have the right to be informed regarding such monitoring activities.

4.0 CONCLUSION

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The progress achieved in this dynamic field has improved the general state of the world; there
are always those who use the technology for personal gain or criminal activity. The Chief
Security Officers must work hard to protect the companies and the individual that they serve.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we dealt with introduction to computer security, the need for computer security,
methods of computer crime and computer system protection.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

a. What are the needs for computer security?
b. Discuss the methods of computer crimes.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Levine, D. E. (2003) Content Monitoring and Filtering Security Technology and Design.

Fischer R. J. and Green G. (2004) Introduction to Security Burlington, Elsevier.

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UNIT 5: NIGERIA SECURITY AND DEFENCE CORPS (NSCDC)
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Security implies a stable, relatively predictable environment in which an individual or group
may pursue its ends without disruption or harm and without fear of disturbance or injury
(Fischer and Green 2004). To secure anything is to protect it from being unlawfully tampered
with or destroyed. It is the duty of some agencies of government to protect national
infrastructures. Protecting these infrastructures is essential to a nation’s security, public
health and safety as well as economic vitality. The particular focus of this unit is on the
efforts being made by the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) in
safeguarding national infrastructures in Nigeria.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
- Explain the historical background of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps
(NSCDC)
- State the functions
- Explain the organization structure
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Historical Background of Civil Defence
The origin of the Civil Defence Corps dates back to the era of Emperor Nero who reigned in
and ruled the Roman Empire. This marked the period when the Roman Empire ascertained
her political powers in the world with colonies scattered all over the world. This historical
development which brought about expansion of the Roman Empire coupled with acute
shortage of citizens of military age to carry out essential services such as defence, provide for
civilians affected by wars especially the aged, woman and children invariably demanded for
addition manpower, hence the creation of an organization charged with safeguarding the civil
populace (Abolurin 2003). Abolurin further said, that the periods of the First and Second
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World War, saw various names such as, home-guards and Body of Air Road and Disaster
Protection etc. The name “Civil Defence” was adopted by the organization after the First and
the Second World War. Since this period, civil defence has attained the status of an
international organization embraced by many countries of the world, with similar function,
based on the needs, aspiration, interest and functional capability of host countries. For
example, the Swiss Federal Civil Defence is part of the Country’s National Defence saddled
with the responsibility of protecting, rescuing and providing relief for persons in complex
emergencies, including armed conflict situations.

The Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) was established in Nigeria on May
23rd, 1967 during the Civil War, it was initially referred to as the Lagos Civil Defence
Committee with fundamental responsibility during the civil war. The charter of April 6, 1968,
however, made it possible for states that may wish to establish the corps within their
jurisdiction to do so. Hence the Lagos Civil Deference Committee was integrated and
renamed Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) under the supervision of
Federal Ministry of Internal Affairs ( Abolurin, 2008). NSCDC is now a full fledged
paramilitary organization established statutorily under the Federal Ministry of Interior. The
Corp has undergone changes after attending paramilitary training in various federal security
agencies training institute throughout the federation. The former civilian president chief
Olusegun Obasanjo (GCFR) transform it from voluntary organization to full fledged
paramilitary organization through the Act of 2003 and as amended in 2007.
Functions of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence CCORPS (NSCDC)
The act of 2003 and as amended in 2007 bestowed upon the corps the following
responsibilities and functions, to:
1. Assist in the maintenance of peace and order and in the protection/rescuing of the
civil population during the period of emergency.
2. Recommend to the minister, the registration of private guard companies.
3. From time to time, inspection of the premises of private security guard companies.
Their training facilities and approve same if it is up to standard.
4. Supervise and monitor the activities of all private guard companies and keep a register
for that purpose:
i. Periodically organize workshop and training courses for private guards companies and
ii. Seal up any private guard company which operates without a valid license.

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5. Maintain twenty-four hour surveillance over infrastructures, sites and projects for the
federal, state and local government.
i. Enter and search any premises and seize any material suspected to have been used in
vandalization or suspected process of vandalization.
ii. Enter and search premises of any suspected illegal dealer in petroleum products or
material used by Power Holding Company of Nigeria, Postal Services, Nigeria
Telecommunication or for any other public utility or infrastructure.
6. Have power to arrest with or without a warrant, detain, investigate and institute legal
proceedings by or in the name of the Attorney-General of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
against any person who is reasonably suspected to have committed an offence under this Act
or is involved in any:
I. Criminal activity
II. Chemical poison or oil spillage, nuclear waste, poisoning
III. Industry espionage or fraud
IV. Activity aimed at frustrating any government programme or policy
V. Riot, civil disorder, revolt, strike or religious unrest or
VI. Power transmission lines or oil pipelines, NIPOST cables, equipment, water board
pipes or equipment vandalization.

7. Monitor the activities of religious bodies and trade association.

8. Monitor, investigate, and take every necessary step to forestall any planned act of
terrorism particularly:
i. Cult and ethnic militia activities
ii. Cult and ethnic militia activities
iii. Criminal activities aimed at depriving citizens of their properties or lives
iv. Syndicate activity aimed at defrauding the federal state, or local government.

9. Monitor, investigate and take every necessary step to forestall any act of terrorism and
report same to appropriate federal security agency.
10. Provide necessary warring for the civilian population in times of danger.
11. Evaluate the civilian population from danger area.
12. Provide and manage shelters for civilians during period of emergency.
13. Assist in the decontamination and in the staking of precautionary measures during
any period of emergency.
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14. Carry out rescue operations and control volatile situations.
15. Assist in the provision of emergency medical services, including first aid, during any
period of emergency.
16. Detect and demarcate any danger area.
17. Assist the federal and state fire service in fire-fighting operation.
18. Assist in the distributions of emergency supplies.
19. Provide assistance to restore and maintain order in distressed area in any period of
emergency.
20. Assist in repairing indispensable public utilities during any period of emergency.
21. Provide intelligence information to the ministry on any matter relating to:
i. Crime control generally
ii. Riot, disorder, revolt, strike or religions unrest
iii. Subversive activity by members of the public
iv. Industrial action and strike aimed at paralyzing government
v. Any other matter as may be directed by the minister
vi. Have power to arrange and mediate in the settlement of disputes among
willing members of the public.

Organizational Structure of NSCDC

Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps is headed by the Commandment General who is
the Chief Executive and the According Officer. The Commandant General is assisted by a
number of Deputy Commandments General (DCGs), in charge of:
(1) Directorate of Administration
(2) Directorate of Operations
(3) Directorate of Intelligence/investigations
(4) Directorate of Technical Services

There are Assistant Commandants General called Zonal Commandants in-charge of state
commands nationwide. Area Commandants are in-charge of senatorial district within the state
controlling about three, four or five divisional areas as the case may be. Divisional officers in
the state take charge of the 774 Local Government Areas. There are District Heads or
Officers who are in charge of all the districts within the division and reports to the divisional
officers of the local government. Lastly, the cells officers are in charge of the grassroots who
take control of the various ward and report matters to the district officers.
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ORGANOGRAM OF THE NIGERIA SECURITY AND CIVIL DEFENCE CORPS

Commandant

General (CG)

Dep. Commandant Dep. Comm General Dep. Commandant Dep. Comm Gen.
General Int. and Administration General operations Int. Technical
investigation Service

Asst. Commandant
General

Commandant

Area Commandant

Division officers

District Heads

Calls Heads

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4.0 Conclusion
This study unit has showcased NSCDC as one of the organizations for ensuring collective
security in Nigeria. Although there are several other agencies involved at ensuring that the
security of Nigeria is bettered. With proper management, it leads to drastic reduction in
crime, and effective disaster management.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have dealt with historical background of civil defence, and its functions.
Specific attention was given to the organizational structure of Nigeria Security and Civil
Defence Corps (NSCDC).
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. Describe the historical background of civil defence
b. Enumerate the functions of Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abolurin, A. (2008) the role of NSCDC in safe guarding collective Security in Nigeria Abuja.
The National Conference of the Society for peace studies and practice (SPSP) 2008
Annual Conference.

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MODULE 4

Unit 1: List of Private Security Companies in Nigeria

Unit 2: Conflict Management in Private Security Service
Unit 3: Relationship between Police and Private Security Operatives in Nigeria
Unit 4: Regulation and Recommendation of Private Security Service in Nigeria
Unit 5: Specific Security threat

UNIT 1: LIST OF PRIVATE SECURITY COMPANIES IN NIGERIA

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Security is now the second largest money-spinner in Nigeria, surpassed only by oil and gas”.
This statement by a long-standing observer of Nigerian politics is striking, especially given
that Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country and the world’s seventh largest oil producer.
While a lack of statistics and information make this claim impossible to verify completely,
there is no doubt that the private security industry has grown rapidly in recent years. Private
security personnel are highly visible around the country, guarding businesses, homes and
neighbourhoods, and advising transnational companies and embassies on risks and dangers to
their assets and employees. Security has thus become a major part of the Nigerian economy,
and according to the best informed estimates, there are currently between 1,500 and 2,000
private security companies (PSCs) in Nigeria, employing in about 100,000 people
(Abrahamen and Williams 2005 ).

It is difficult to estimate the size of the private security sector in Nigeria with any degree of
accuracy. No reliable figures exist for either the number of companies or employees, as many
companies are unlicensed and unregistered. The most frequent estimates put the number of
PSCs at between 1,000 and 1,500, with the majority being small, individual, owner-managed
companies operating in only one town or locality. In personnel terms, the largest companies

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are Prudential Security, which operates countrywide and employs nearly 9,000 guards, and
Halogen Security with approximately 4,000 guards. Other major companies include Bemil
Security and Corporate Guards. The major ‘foreign’ PSC, Group4Securicor’s partner
Outsourcing Services Ltd. (OSL), also operates nationally and has a total of approximately
3,000 personnel. While there is a long tradition of employing so-called ‘mai-guards’ as
watchmen in Nigeria, the first company providing uniformed guards was Nigeria
Investigation and Security Company (NISCO), founded in 1965 and still in business.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
a. Mention key private security companies in Nigeria.
b. Discuss Halogen Security Company Limited as one of numerous private
security companies in Nigeria.

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 List of Private Security Companies in Nigeria
1. Ace Cop Security Limited.
2. Adaptive Guards Limited.
3. Afamos Security & Safety Nigeria Limited.
4. Afri-De Alarm Nigeria Limited.
5. Agbas Security Services.
6. AGL Alpha Guards Limited.
7. Aims Security Company Limited.
8. Alert Security Service.
9. Alfasine Security & System Limited.
10. Allatek Holdings Security Limited.
11, Alpha-Mega Security Agents.
12, Anderson Guards Limited.
13. Barona Security Company Nigeria Limited
14. Bemil Security Services
15. Beta Guards Limited
16. Beverly Cops & Security Services Limited
17. Bon-Douglas Security Services Limited
18. Burglary Alarm Security Services & Comm. Limited
19. Capital Security & Surveillance Limited
20. Cardinal Security Services Limited
21. Centurion Security & Safety Consults
22. Chakel Security Limited
23. Chilex Security Products Limited
24. Chuhenchu Security Company Limited
25. Concorde Security Services Limited
26. Consolidated Safeguards & Security Company

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27. Continental Guards Limited
28. Corporate Guards Limited
29. Crest Security Outfit Limited
30. Damog Nigeria Limited
31. Daniel's Security Systems Limited
32. De Jaram Kong Security Limited
33. Destiny Electronic Security System Nig Ltd
34. Divine Security & Telecoms Limited
35. Doos Security
36. Douglas Veterans Security Limited
37. Dromour Guards Limited
38. Effanti Ltd
39. Eva Guards Limited
40. Express Security & Co.
41. Fap-Legend Security Services Limited
42 Flare Security (Nig) Limited
43. Foremost Security Systems
44. Fortifiers Protection Services Ltd
45. Fortress Guards & Security Services Limited
46. Frontier Guards Services Limited
47. Geekos Security Nigeria Limited
48. Gideon Guards Limited
49. Global Security Solution
50. Great Hope Security Limited
51. Grekos Security Nigeria Limited
52. Halogen Security Company Ltd
53 Hi-Tech Electrical & Security & Survellance Limited
54 Highcom Security Limited
55 Hogan Guards (Former Guardsmark)
56 Home Automation Security System Limited
57 Initial Security Nigeria Limited
58 Innovations Security Systems
59 Integrated Systems Devices Limited
60 Integrity Guards Limited
61 Inter-Falcon Security Services Limited
62 International Mechandise & Security Limited
63 J.S.H. Security Industries Nig. Limited
64 K-9 Security Limited
65 Kage Security Limited
66 Kal Security Limited
67 Kifha Guards
68 King David Security Limited
69 Kings Guards Nigeria Ltd
70 Kingsland Security Surveillance Limited
71 Kuban Security & Management Consultants
72 Kingstech Network Ltd
73 Lagen Systems & Security Limited
74 Lai Security & Investigation Services Limited
75 Lasis Security & Investigation Services Limited
76 Link-Stride Security Systems Limited

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77 Mac Lion Security Services
78 Marksmen Security Company Limited
79 Markjacko Security Systems
80 Megaforce Security Limited
81 Mega Guards Services Limited
82 Men in Black Security Limited
83 Metropolitan Guards Limited
84 Mikado Security Services Limited
85 Molamak Security Services Limited
86 Montgomery Security Services Limited
87 Network Guards Limited
88 Niger Guards Security Company
89 Nigerian Investigation and Safety Company Limited.
90 Nogees Security Systems Equipment & Services Ltd.
91 Olart Security Services
92 Olasco Company Nigeria Limited
93 Omega Security Services Limited
94 Octagon Guards Limited
95 OTI Guards Limited
96 Pahek Security Services Limited
97 Papyrue Security & Communications
98 Pinnacle Investments Limited (Security & communications consultants)
99 Portcullis Security Nigeria Limited
100 Prime Guards Nigeria Limited
101 Profile Security Services
102 QED Advanced Technology Security Limited
103 Quality Electronic Security Systems
104 Rapid Vigil Security Company Limited
105 Reliance Security Solutions Nigeria Limited
106 Richie's Security Limited
107 Riggs Securites Ltd
108 Royal Guards
110 Samos Security & Services Limited
111 Santana Security Agency Limited
112 Secmek Security System Limited
113 Security & Allied Technology
114 Security Hazards Experts Limited
115 Security Swaps Limited
116 Serendipity Security
117 Servtrust Prudential Guards
118 Sheiksafety & Security Company Limited
119 Skilpak International Security Limited
120 Technocrime Security Limited
121 Trends Ventures Limited
122 Top Flight Security Company Limited
123 TTC Mobile Limited
124 Unache Security Services Limited
125 Unique Security & Investigation Service Limited
126 Utro Guard Security
127 Vanni International Security System

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128 Villeworth Security Services Limited
129 Vision Security Services
130 Zitadel Security

Among the listed security companies, Halogen Security Company Limited is discussed in
details.

3.2 HALOGEN SECURITY COMPANY LIMITED

Halogen Security Company Limited was incorporated in July 1992 as a Private Limited
Liability Company and granted licence to operate in November of the same year as a reaction
to a yawning gap in quality of guard service delivery in Nigeria. The company started
business immediately and showed from inception that it was poised to revolutionize security
services in the country which has resulted in making it the leading security services provider
in the nation. Having been in operation for over 19 years, it has been able to attract and retain
a selected group of clients some from inception till date. It has acquired vast experience in
virtually all facets of security and protection of lives and property. Halogen Security
possesses the managerial, financial and administrative infrastructure enabling operations to
be totally performance related, customer needs driven with a high degree of customer
communications.

It is committed to working in partnership with customers to provide an excellent and cost

effective security service that complements their own standards of customer service. They
honour and support this commitment by selective recruitment, thorough training, competent
supervision, constant management input and accurate billing system. Their reputation rests on
professionalism, integrity and service excellence to which they are equally committed.

Halogen Security belongs to several professional associations'. These Associations include:

Institute of Industrial Security and Safety of Nigeria

Nigerian Institute of Safety Professionals

Association of Private Security Practitioners of Nigeria (APSPN)

Halogen Security’s Mission Statement

Is to consistently provide superior security solutions using the most modern technology, well-
trained and properly motivated staff and to make them the most sought-after security
company in Nigeria, as well as the West Coast of Africa.

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Vision
Is to remain the number one provider of professional security solutions in Nigeria, using
competent personnel and superior resources.

Halogen Security has different categories of operatives which includes but not limited to
guards, post leaders, supervisors and site managers spread across the country. They possess a
minimum qualification of Senior School Certificate and a considerable number of them are
Diploma Certificate and Degree holders. No matter their qualifications, they ensure they all
undergo basic and/or advanced security training in order to adequately equip them for the
new career they have chosen before deploying them to their various beats. In place is well
defined on-the-job training programme which ensures that their operations become adapted to
specialized safety. Their aim is to ensure that Halogen security operatives are the best
security officers in the industry. They are meticulously selected, extensively trained,
motivated and supervised by experienced officers. They provide well-trained security
operatives for residences, factories and corporate businesses all over the federation. Our
guards are trained to correctly interpret and effectively implement operating procedures
peculiar to their areas of responsibility. The number of guards to be deployed to each location
is determined by the result of security survey conducted by experts or as determined by the
client through a mutual agreement.
Services rendered are in three broad categories:

Corporate- PLATINUM

Industrial/Manufacturing - RANGER

Domestic (Residences/Estates)- HOMMIE

Platinum
This is the offering for Corporate Offices whereby their operatives are kitted to reflect the
image and ambience available within the guarded premises. The minimum entry qualification
for this category of operative is National Diploma or Equivalent.

Ranger
Our operatives also work in warehouses, Manufacturing plants, beverages and food related
conservation and processing companies, confectioneries and the likes. The doggedness
required on such facility determines the kind of personnel that would suit this category.
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Special Events
They provide Security Cover for social events such as Musical Concerts, Wedding
Ceremonies, Launching, Funeral, Promotional Events, and Annual General Meetings
(AGMs) across various industries.

Guard Dogs
They make use and deploy security Dogs and Handlers to premises that require them. They
are trained to deter intrusion and are very useful for crowd control at events.

Technology
Halogen security is found effective in providing modern, reliable electronic alarm systems
backed by highly trained security specialists. This service covers the field of corporate,
industrial and domestic concerns. It involves installation, monitoring and maintenance of a
wide range of electronic security devices linked to 24-hour, state of the art control rooms
where distress signals received are processed and react teams dispatched to swiftly counter
the incident and ensure subscribers safety. They have developed an excellent working
relationship with the leadership of Nigerian Police through a bilateral agreement of
cooperation and mutual assistance for the enhancement of their collective ability to
effectively deal with crime within areas of interests in their jurisdiction.

24 Hour Armed Response and Monitoring

As crime does not keep business hours, neither does Halogen companies so they offer alarm
monitoring every second of every day, to be assured that if something goes wrong they will
always be the first to know.

Nigeria’s biggest Armed Response fleet – at your service

Halogen features Nigeria’s largest Armed Response Fleet. With vehicles across the nation,
Halogen has a high level of presence on the roads – an attribute that is, in itself, a deterrent.

GPS Live Tracking for the fastest Armed Response

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When things go wrong, you need armed response - fast. Halogen is the only home security
service in Nigeria to feature GPS live tracking in every response vehicle. This innovative
satellite technology ensures that they know the exact location of every armed response
vehicle, so that in the event of an emergency they can easily send the nearest vehicle to its
rescue.

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Integrated Services
Halogen combines Guarding, Armed Response, Electronic estate security systems and
individual pre-installed alarms with ongoing communication and liaison. Halogen Estate
Security offers a complete, integrated security solution.

State-of-the-art Technology
With Halogen most estates are said to enjoy the benefits of a wireless network, state-of-the-
art access control, an electronic occurrence book, electronic fencing, dual monitoring, and
CCTV. And when a response is needed, Satellite Tracking allows to verify where the closest
Halogen patrol vehicle is, ensuring the fastest response times.

Outsourcing
Outsourcing has been identified as one of the ways to address business challenges. The goal
is to outsource the management of support and ancillary categories of staff such as
secretaries, drivers, truck drivers, receptionist, control room operator, protocol personnel,
cashiers, bank tellers, technicians and many more. This has helped in strengthening client or
organisation’s ability to concentrate on its area of core competence and relieve it of the
burden of managing employees whose services are only peripheral to its core activity.
Obviously, this would require committing the management of such support and ancillary staff
to a competent and experienced team of outsourcing service providers.

Competence
Their strategic outsourcing service focused on advancing organisation’s business goals. They
have comprehensive and thorough process and procedures for finding the right people for the
right jobs.

Recruitment process
They provide a specialized service using expertise and proprietary tools in the identification,
assessment and selection of quality professionals. The process begins from the development
of the job descriptions until the personnel have been place. They invite corporate
organizations and individuals to enjoy their outsourcing services by allowing them take over
their burden.

Protocol Escort and VIP Protection

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They provide secure escort services for the movement of people and assets from source to the
destination, anywhere within the country. This is to give adequate protection to customers’
valuables without attracting unnecessary attention. This service includes airport pick-up and
drop-off functions as well as dedicated armed escort services across major cities in Nigeria to
borders towns. The provision of close protection to important dignitaries and other key
people remained a specialized security function. Staff with extensive close protection
experience handle the training of officers they deploy for such specialized service. They are
well trained to effectively neutralize any form of attack during travels which may include car
jack, disruption by hoodlums who specialize in attacking passengers especially expatriates
suspected to be on overseas trips. This service includes Meet and Greet which involves
meeting the passenger at the luggage area and endeavour to assist to ease off the bottlenecks
associated with airport clearances. It is most useful when the passenger is a first time traveller
to Nigeria. Their armed escort services are normally customized to suit the client’s
requirements and peculiar circumstances.

Convoy Movement
They are also disposed Convoy Movement in the following ways:

Lead Team only

Back-up Team only

Lead and Back-up as a whole unit

Armed security personnel aboard a chauffeur-driven vehicle (Salon or SUV) only or in
conjunction with any of the above

Chauffeur-driven vehicle only or with any of the first three methods above
For covert movement, they could deploy unbranded vehicles for this service. The
services of armour vehicles are also available for severe security situations when
required.

Event Security and Crowd Control

They provide security cover for important social events such as Musical Concerts, Jamborees,
Weddings, Launchings, Funeral, Annual General Meetings (AGM) etc. Successfully they
have provided Security coverage for Benson & Hedges Concerts in the ‘90s as well as other
major outdoor promotional events organized by Nigerian Breweries Plc (Star Mega Jamz &
Star Trek) among other notable events. Their experience and versatility in Access Control,

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Crowd Control, Traffic/Car-Park Management, VIP/Close Executive Protection, Guest
Management and Surveillance is unsurpassed in the industry.

Scope of Services
They are committed to working in partnership with special events managers to provide an
excellent and cost effective security coverage that complements their own standards of
service delivery. They honour and support this commitment by selective and thorough
training, competent supervision, constant management input and accurate deployment of
personnel. The essence is for customers to value their contribution, respect their judgement
and have peace of mind while the programme is ongoing. Their scope falls within:

Events Security Guard Services

Events Guard Dog Services

Crowd Control Services

Security Surveillance

Body Guard Services

VIP Protection

Provision of Armed Policemen
Investigations
Background check is due diligence. It is about looking up and compiling critical records,
commercial and financial records of an individual. It is crucial for any company desiring to
avoid hiring individual with a criminal record.

Mission Statement of Halogen Background Checks

 Promote Honesty and Integrity in the Workplace
 Increase efficiency and Productivity
 Improve Margin Gains
 Engender reliable Workforce
 Entrench Loss Prevention Orientation
 Positive Employee Socialization

Security Skill Development and Manpower Training

The Halogen Training Academy is one of the foremost organs of Halogen Security
Company. The Academy is central to the operational activities of the company, because
effective training is key to excellent performance of any security operative in the field. They
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provide excellent consultancy services in virtually all areas of security to corporate bodies
and individuals. Their expert advice to numerous customers has proved to be timely,
effective and professional. Their investigative competence is second-to-none as most of their
investigators are able to unravel crime using sophisticated and modern analytic techniques
with forensic backup. Similarly they also involved in:
 Conducting security surveys, inspection and checks on facilities, installations,
equipment and utilities to identify the risk they are exposed to and offer professional
solutions to obviate the risks. In this regard, they conduct background checks and vetting
procedures on client’s personnel to weed out undesirable elements from the staff.
 Moreover, their seasoned instructors and facilitators have over the years offered
excellent and superlative security training and drills for corporate personnel at different levels
including internal guards, middle level managers and top management staff. All their
services are discreet, confidential and highly classified to prevent any unauthorized
disclosures.
 Their Training Academy was set up in September 1992, after the parent company was
incorporated in July 1992. It is located in Palmgrove Estate - Lagos.

Risk Management
Risks are facts of life and every business enterprise is exposed to one risk or the other. Risks
can come from accidents, natural causes and disasters as well as deliberate attacks from an
adversary. In businesses, risk management entails organized activity to manage uncertainty
and threats and involves people following procedures and using appropriate tools in order to
ensure conformance with risk-management policies. Halogen is said to be adroitly positioned
to offer unequalled and up to speed Risk Management services to all highly discerning
clients. This entails identifying, monitoring and limiting risks profile in a particular
enterprise. In the public sector, they engage in activities to identify and mitigate risk to
critical infrastructure such as oil pipe lines, flow stations, power stations, military
installations, Earth stations, sea ports, airports and other public utilities of high vulnerabilities
and impact.

Risk Management Process

For all round value added proposition they offer risk management services using modern
approaches, time tested and proven methodologies. These methodologies consist of the
following elements, performed more or less, in the following order:
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Identify assets and identify which are most critical

Identify, characterize, and assess threats

Assess the vulnerability of critical assets to specific threats

Determine the risk (i.e. the expected impact of specific types of attacks on specific
assets)

Identify ways to reduce those risks

Prioritize risk reduction measures based on a strategy. The strategy include
transferring the risk to another party, avoiding the risk, reducing the negative effect of
the risk, and accepting some or all of the consequences of a particular risk products
below are the various products they have in their offerings:

Enterprise Risk Management

Deals with risk associated with possible event or circumstance that can have negative
influences on the enterprise in question. Its impact on the very existence, the resources
(human and capital), the products and services, or the customers of the enterprise, as well as
external impacts on society, markets, or the environment.

Risk in Project Management

In project management, risk is handled through the following activities:
 Planning how risk will be managed in the particular project. Plans include risk
management tasks, responsibilities, activities and budget.
 Assigning a risk officer - a team member other than a project manager who is responsible
for foreseeing potential project problems.
 Maintaining live project risk database. Each risk would have the following attributes:
Opening date, title, short description, probability and importance. Optionally a risk may
have an assigned person responsible for its resolution and a date by which the risk must
be resolved.
 Creating anonymous risk reporting channel. Each team member would have possibility
to report risk that he foresees in the project.
 Preparing mitigation plans for risks that are chosen to be mitigated. The purpose of the
mitigation plan is to describe how this particular risk will be handled – what, when, by
who and how will it be done to avoid it or minimize consequences if it becomes a
liability.

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 Summarizing planned and faced risks, effectiveness of mitigation activities, and effort
spent for the risk management
4.0 CONCLUSION
It is difficult to account for actual number of private security companies in Nigeria. No
reliable figures exist for either the number of companies or employees, as many companies
are unlicensed and unregistered. The need for its regulation becomes paramount for effective
security operations in the 21st century..

5.0 SUMMARY
We have been able to discuss the list of numerous private security companies in Nigeria. We
have also been able to take an in-depth look at Halogen Security Company Limited as one the
private security companies at its best in the nation as well as appraising their operations and
services rendered.
.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
a. List 20 private security companies operating in Nigeria
b. discuss the services rendered by Halogen Security Company

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Abrahamsen, R & Williams, M.C. (2005). The Globalisation of Private Security: A
Country Report of Nigeria. Globalisation of Security Research Project (Dept of
International Politics, University of Wales, Aberystwyth) and the New Security
Challenges Programme (ESRC, UK).

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UNIT 2: CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN PRIVATE SECURITY SERVICE IN
NIGERIA
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Conflict is endemic to all social life. It is an inevitable part of human beings, community and
organisation (public or private), because it is related to situations of scarce resources, division
of functions, power relations and role-differentiation. Conflict in Private Security Service
(PSC) refers to more than just overt behaviour. Concentrating only upon its behavioural
manifestation is an extremely limiting exercise. The three-dimensional conception of conflict
emphasizes the need to consider the situation in which PSC come to possess incompatible
goals, their structure of interaction and the nature of their goals with other security operatives.
It is important to consider emotion (e.g. trust and distrust) and cognitive orientations (e.g.
stereotyping) that accompany a conflict situation as well as the range of action undertaken by
any party in a situation of conflict. Both conflict management and a satisfactory solution are
easier to attain when it is accepted that what we normally call conflict is a complex,
multidimensional phenomenon. It is not caused by "inadequate" structures, nor is it
undesirable. It is natural and inevitable and, when properly managed, it is productive,
relevant and creative.

The effective management of conflict events, including scenario planning and risk assessment
is crucial to the running of public and private organization systems like private security
service. The process of conflict management consists of the following stages
• Identification of potential conflict
• Prioritisation of risks
• Conflict avoidance planning and risk forecasting
• Contingency planning
• Conflict recognition
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• Containment and response
• Resolution

The conflict management approaches which should be adopted by different organisations

vary significantly between industries. The process of risk identification needs to take account
of all the potential sources of significant unplanned disruption to the organisation’s operation,
whether or not these constitute a risk to public safety per se; however, events like these are
not the only ones which may require conflict management strategies to be used, as adverse
media coverage or other external events may pose similar challenges. Within industries like
PSCs, there are specific requirements for disaster management protocols to be established
(frequently in co-operation with emergency services) which specify responses in mass
casualty and other major incidents, and the effective operation of these procedures is clearly
of great importance.
3.0 Objectives
This unit aims at understanding key issues such as:

a. sources of conflict in PSCs

b. and management of conflict in PSCs

3.0 Main Content

Conflict in an Organisation (PSC)
PSCs are living systems consisting of interacting units performing a task in a mutually
dependent manner within a structure of scarce resources. It seems commonplace to suggest
that conflicts would be present in such a setting. The parties in an organization may have a
conflict about the distribution of resources, or they may have a more fundamental conflict
about the very structure of their organization and the basic nature of their interaction. Once
the parties are in a situation of goal incompatibility, their conflict develops in a dynamic
fashion, initiating valuable and much-needed constructive changes or leading to escalating
strategies and destructive consequences. As there is nothing pre-determined about its course
or development, it seems erroneous to view conflict from a negative perspective only — as
destructive or dysfunctional. Most of the PSCs change and innovation does not just happen, it
requires a stimulant. Administrators must accept the need to influence the developmental
dynamics of a conflict, so that the parties' attitudes and actions will lead to better
coordination and a more appropriate interdependence. The challenges administrator’s face is
to utilize such conflict management techniques that would ensure that as a conflict passes

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from a latent to a manifest phase, it proceeds towards its potential and realizes its constructive
values.
Analyzing Organizational Conflict
Three distinct criteria define the role of an administrator in an organization: planning,
resource allocation and conflict management. There is no doubt that managing conflict in
PSCs permeates every aspect of the administrative role. Awareness of the various forms of
conflict management that can be employed at different stages of conflict is vital, if
administrators are to organize efforts towards influencing the conflict situation positively. In
addition effective conflict management requires recognition of the sources that generate a
conflict. What, then, are the sources or bases of organizational conflicts?
Sources of Conflict in Private Security Company
Private security company conflict appears in a variety of forms and has varying causes. These
can generally be separated into several categories. Katz identifies three sources of conflict.
These are:
(1) Structural conflict (conflict arising out of the need to manage the interdependence
between different organizational sub-units).
(2) Role conflict (conflict arising from sets of prescribed behaviour).
(3) Resources conflict (conflict stemming from interest groups competing for organizational
resources).
Robbins identifies three sources of organizational conflict and indicates that an understanding
of the source of a conflict improves the probability of effective conflict management. The
main factors which serve as sources of conflict were identified as:
(1) Communicational (conflicts arising from misunderstandings etc.)
(2) Structural (conflicts related to organizational roles)
(3) Personal (conflicts stemming from individual differences).
3.2 Types of Conflict
3.2.1 Intrapersonal Conflict
Intrapersonal conflict is internal to the individual (though its effects can profoundly influence
PSCs functioning) and is perhaps the most difficult form of conflict to analyze and manage.
Intrapersonal conflict is basically a conflict between two incompatible tendencies. It arises
when a stimulus evokes two different and incompatible tendencies and the individual is
required to discriminate between these tendencies. In such a situation it is common for
individuals to experience frustrations and to allow their conflict situation to be expressed in a
range of behavioural strategies ranging from apathy and boredom to absenteeism, excessive
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drinking or destructive behaviour such behavioural consequences are to be avoided, then it is
essential to diagnose individual perception and utilize some techniques that would reduce
anxiety-eliciting stimuli and increase consonance between individual behaviour and
organizational requirements.

3.2.2 Interpersonal Conflict

Interpersonal conflict emphasizes the interaction of human factors in an organization. This
form of conflict is concerned with the factors as they appear in a dyadic relationship. We can
broadly suggest two classes of factors as conflict sources. These are:

a. Personal.
Individuals are not identical, constant or consistent. When two individuals are brought
together and kept together, each with a peculiar character, qualities, needs and skills,
obviously a conflict may ensue if their attributes are not meshed together in a coordinated
way. Interaction between individuals with different attitudes, values and needs can
produce conflict behaviour and affect PSCs performance.

b. Functional
PSCs have roles which are expected sets of behaviour associated with their position. In
theory, individuals are not expected to engage in any discretionary behaviour. Such
specification would be consistent with organizational preferences for consistency and
predictability. In practice, however, role specifications tend to be ambiguous and
incomplete, and in their interaction with others, some individuals often feel dissatisfied
with their role or position, or they may feel that their aspirations for higher positions are
being frustrated. Interpersonal conflict can be accounted for, to a great extent, in terms of
the incumbent’s roles and their expectations in particular situations.

3.2.3 Interdepartmental Conflict

The third major cause of PSCs conflict is structural. Most of the PSCs in Nigeria are designed
around potential, physiognomy, or technical specialities. These activities are assigned to
departments that often have mutually exclusive structured interests and goals and that interact
within a framework of scarce resources and task dependence. When resources are relatively
fixed and also when one department's gain is at the expense of another, conflict should be
expected. If two sub-units in an organizational system have differentiated goals and are
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functionally interdependent, conditions exist for conflict. Interdependence produces the need
for collaboration, but it also presents occasions for conflict. Other contextual factors which
affect the interaction structure between departments and create the conditions for
interdepartmental conflict include: different attitudes between line and staff units,
organizational size (directly related to level of conflict) and standardization (inversely related
to conflict), physical or communicational barriers between departments, unequal access to
authority, rewards or organizational resources and ambiguity or uncertainty in assigning tasks
or rewards to different departments.

These are the sources of conflict situations in PSCs. How a conflict situation will change over
time, how its interrelated components will alter the environment in which it occurs, and how
it will respond, is dependent upon the administrator's efforts to manage or influence it. This,
in turn, is related to one's understanding of the sources of a specific conflict situation.

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3.3 Conflict Management
Ways of managing organizational conflict are as varied as its causes, origins and contexts. The
purpose of conflict management, whether undertaken by the parties in conflict or involving the
intervention of an outside party, the major issue is for it to affect the entire structure of a conflict
situation so as to contain the destructive components in the conflict process (e.g. hostility, use of
violence) and help the parties possessing incompatible goals to find some solution to their
conflict. Effective conflict management in any PSC succeeds in
(1) Minimizing disruption stemming from the existence of a conflict
(2) Providing a solution that is satisfactory and acceptable.
All PSCs, however simple or complex they may be, possess a range of mechanisms or
procedures for managing conflict. These are built into the organizational structure and are
consciously employed by administrators to influence the course and development of a conflict.
The success or effectiveness of such procedures can be gauged by the extent to which they limit
conflict behaviour and the extent to which they help to achieve a satisfactory solution. It is the
contention of this article that strategies of conflict avoidance, conflict prevention or
institutionalization of conflict will change or replace coercive behaviour, but that only the
injection of a behavioural social scientist, acting in a facilitative, non-directive and non
evaluative fashion, will achieve a resolution with respect to the basic issues, attitudes and
structure of interaction. If administrators care for optimal methods of conflict management, they
should give their strongest support to a strategy that can end a conflict in a satisfactory and self
perpetuating manner.

3.3.1 Managing Intrapersonal Conflict

Intrapersonal conflict is predicated upon an incongruity between individual needs and
organizational requirements. Intrapersonal conflict unfolds over time and manifests itself in a
complex and multiform range of attitudinal and behavioural consequences. These may vary from
psychosomatic consequences (e.g. frustration, emotional instability) to physical consequences
(e.g. absenteeism, destructive behaviour). As such consequences are obviously correlated with
decreased performance and work-motivation, managing intrapersonal conflict will help the
individual to promote his capacity for adaptation and attain equilibrium in his relationship with
the organization. Personal existence is, inevitably, punctuated by conflicts and other emotionally

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charged experiences. When a person experiences an inner conflict and feels that he cannot
master his situation, or change his environment, a number of methods of conflict management
can be employed.
These are conveniently divided into
(1) Cognitive strategies
(2) Behavioural strategies.

Cognitive strategies, often called defence mechanisms, help an individual to falsify, distort or
deny a particular conflict. Cognitive strategies represent an attempt to control or manage
negative and disturbing feelings associated with conflict and to allow an individual to carry on
with his normal activities. Cognitive strategies include repression (an attempt to push conflict out
of existence), rationalization (hiding the truth from oneself), fantasy or even denial of reality.
Behavioural strategies for coping with intrapersonal conflict include escape, withdrawal and
aggression (especially against convenient targets). These strategies cannot resolve intrapersonal
conflict in any permanent way. They can be successful in the short-run. They can help an
individual to reduce his level of anxiety and diminish his tension. They can prevent or avoid
disruptive behaviour, but they cannot generate solution. This can come about through the
involvement of an expert consultant, acting in an accepting manner and encouraging the
individual to evaluate his situation rationally and decide upon more effective responses.

Interventions in intrapersonal conflicts entail consideration of substantive issues, discussions and

self-observations, helping an individual to unload his burdensome thoughts and reactions and
reorienting his thinking towards a more benevolent and self-maintaining pattern of behaviour.
The strength of this approach to conflict management is that it helps an individual to concentrate
on his situation and on ways to evaluate alternatives that may have gone unnoticed. The
consultant remains detached from an individual, but his intervention, listening, probing,
interviewing and explicit confrontation of the conflict issues, sets the basis for self-diagnosis and
improved performance. It eliminates distortion and increases self-knowledge. It is a method
which seeks not merely an amelioration of the surface symptoms, but a successful change in the
situational (e.g. re-evaluating a conflict situation), attitudinal (e.g. reduced anxiety, increased
self-esteem) and behavioural (e.g. stimulate productive behaviour) components of a conflict.

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Consultants may be internal to an organization, or they may be introduced by an administrator
when circumstances require it. They have several roles to play, all intended to aid a person to be
more effective in his organization. What characterizes all these roles is that they are enacted in
an informal and flexible fashion and in a facilitative and diagnostic manner. Techniques which
are congruent with implementing the consultant's role include (1) facilitative techniques (e.g.
facilitating individual exploration and self-observation, giving information, advice, reassurance
and encouragement), (2) behavioural modification techniques (e.g. establish, through negative or
positive reinforcement, contingencies of behaviour that should be decreased) and (3) cognitive
techniques (e.g. learn to undo old values and acquire a new perception of the self). When
organizations experience difficulties as a result of intrapersonal conflicts, administrators should
be well-advised to manage such conflicts by leading their organization to seek professional help
from persons who are trained to fulfil the role of organizational consultants. Successful
organizational change does, after all, depend upon a strong commitment to conflict resolution.

3.3.2 Managing Interpersonal Conflict

Interpersonal interactions are extraordinarily complex. Individuals are brought together and kept
together because of personal attraction or complementary needs. A great deal of individual
behaviour takes place in organizations (university, hospital, factory) in which they occupy
various positions. Such positions are interlocked or interdependent so that the attitudes and
behaviour of one individual affect the attitudes and behaviour of another. Indeed, we may
describe organizations as networks of repetitive, reciprocal and predictable interactions between
individuals. Although persons in an organization interact in a relatively consistent way along a
stable-cooperative dimension (organizations develop norms to ensure stable interactions),
interpersonal conflict is an essential aspect of organizational life. The causes of interpersonal
conflict in organizations can be ascribed to personal differences (interaction between dissimilar
people maximizes conflict potential), perceptual differences (individuals perceive an unfair
allocation of organizational resources) and functional differences (conflicts arising from
incompatible role requirements). On the whole interpersonal conflict generates new ideas and
work patterns, but when it is augmented by personal distrust, misperception and competition, it
can easily be transformed into destructive and costly behaviour. To avoid detrimental effects on

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individual as well as organizational functioning, administrators need to identify the causes of
interpersonal conflict and take appropriate action to deal with it.

Under the prevailing influence of behaviourism, interpersonal conflict management has been
directed mainly towards the behavioural components of a conflict situation. Attitudes and
perceptions have been considered beyond the realm of conflict management. As a result of this,
conflict management has tended to force individuals to choose between fixed and simplified
behavioural alternatives, defined in terms of two rigid behavioural goals, winning or losing. The
choices and incentives associated with this orientation of victory versus defeat were strongly
constrained, forcing individuals into relatively primitive modes of interaction and providing
administrators with an untrustworthy vehicle for potential conflict management.

Of the five methods of managing interpersonal conflict it appears that problem-solving is the
only method that is directed towards the attitudinal, situational and behavioural components of
conflict. It is the only method that does not focus on relatively automatic, unthinking responses.
It is the only method which seeks to utilize higher mental processes to achieve a high-quality,
integrative and satisfying outcome. Organizations that can increase the use of problem-solving
method in interpersonal conflict can offer a better working experience, more constructive
consequences and a more creative conflict resolution. Problem-solving as a method of conflict
management is not a common experience. A number of elements or conditions have to be present
if problem-solving is to be realized. These conditions appear to be as follows:
Situational requirements (e.g. informality and flexibility of interactions, absence of time
pressures, power symmetry etc.).

Attitudinal requirements of the officers and management (e.g. trust and confidence in each
other, belief in conflict resolution rather than conflict avoidance etc.)

Perceptual requirements (e.g. individuals do not perceive threats or need to win or dominate the
other) and

Behavioural requirements (e.g. free information, definition of issues, discussion of alternatives,

exhaustive search for solutions etc.).

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In contrast to other methods of conflict management, the intervention of a behavioural consultant
accentuates the positive and highlights commonly held views of the actors. Applications of this
approach in the interpersonal sphere rest upon the following assumptions:
1. Deficiencies in perception are the main cause of interpersonal conflict.
2. Barriers to improved information prolong and aggravate a conflict.
3. Inadequate interactions between individuals prevent them from management of their conflict
constructively.
Techniques of intervention in interpersonal conflict are closely related to these assumptions and
include perceptual, informational and interactional procedures. Perceptual procedures involve:
(1) Identifying conflict issues
(2) Defining alternative issues
(3) "Reality-testing". Informational procedures involve

Clarifying issues

Encouraging and gathering information (through interviews, meetings or other
instruments)
(4) Increasing frequency, openness and accuracy of communication. Interactional procedures
entail:

Regulating the pace of interaction

Offering "process" observations to help individuals see how to be more effective

Injecting inputs in the form of concepts, models or principles which might be useful in
understanding a conflict and
(5) Helping in the design of implementation steps through which conflict resolution would be
possible. Through his interventions a behavioural consultant becomes the information-gathering
instrument and a "resource person". Administrators who are concerned about organizational
change and more productive results would be well advised to be aware of the strengths — as
well as limitations — of this approach to interpersonal conflict management.

3.3.3 Managing Interdepartmental Conflict

Conflict between departments is a natural consequence of organizational activities. As
organizations move towards greater differentiation and complexity, as they change or adapt to

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new circumstances, the stage is set for incompatibility of goals or competition for scarce
resources. The resulting conflict between departments may have ambivalent consequences for an
organization. On the one hand it may have a dysfunctional and counterproductive effect on the
organization, and on the other hand it can be highly functional and stimulate intra-organizational
creativity. For conflict to be a vehicle for PSCs growth and creativity there must exist an
appropriate method of conflict management between departments. An administrator should know
when he is faced with interdepartmental conflict and be informed of the processes for coping
with it or resolving it.

Before exploring the methods and techniques for managing interdepartmental conflict, it is
pertinent to examine briefly the attitudes and behaviours which characterize interdepartmental
conflict. These can be described in terms of the following categories:

1. Effects within each department. When departments are in conflict, individual members
tend to bury their differences and display greater loyalty to their department. Departments
become more cohesive, more formal in their behaviour and more insistent upon individual
conformity and accomplishment of prescribed tasks.

2. Effects between departments. Each department begins to experience perceptual distortions

and to develop a strong self-image and a negative stereotype of the other. With the rise of
prejudicial attitudes between departments there is an increase in hostility and a decrease in
communication. Each department strives to enhance its own image and performance and to
downgrade the other's. Under such conditions a conflict becomes a matter of victory or defeat,
winning or losing. The fundamental significance of a win-lose dynamic is that it is, to some
degree, intrinsic to any complex and stratified organization, but those feelings of in-group versus
out-group are especially strong in conflict situations. The attitudinal characteristics of such a
pattern include a competitive orientation, the evaluative characteristics include antagonistic
feelings and the behavioural characteristics include circumscribed interaction and distorted
communication. The structural attributes of a conflict relationship must be taken into account in
proposing a strategy of conflict management.

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Traditional approaches to managing interdepartmental conflict emphasized such methods as (1)
Conflict avoidance (separating departments by relocating them physically)
(2) Regulating a conflict by introducing new rules and procedures.
(3) Seeking a form of "legalistic" solution (by appealing to higher organizational authorities) (3)
Using departmental representatives to reach a compromise agreement or
(4) Seeking mediation or arbitration from an outside body.
Such conflict management methods may indeed produce an agreement. They may reduce the
level of conflict behaviour between departments and even legitimize new levels of performance.
They cannot, though, achieve a genuine conflict resolution because they merely reflect,
perpetuate and occasionally aggravate a win-lose pattern of interactions. Separation, withdrawal,
institutionalization, bargaining or legal approaches are essentially forms of a win-lose
confrontation. They all start with a polarized, adversary orientation, in which each department
tries to attain as much as possible by outsmarting the other. They bury a conflict, ignore it,
produce power-based decisions or allow departments to withdraw from it. They do not stimulate
a search for conflict resolution. A range of new approaches to managing interdepartmental
conflict may be suggested. These approaches acquire new significance because they become
integral parts of an interaction process between departments, because they move away from win-
lose type of strategies and make the need for conflict resolution more effectively. Blake and
Mouton accept that the most important aspect of a successful conflict management strategy is the
attempt to shift the behavioural and attitudinal components of a relationship from a competitive
to a cooperative orientation. They do, however, suggest that both the common enemy and the
super-ordinate goal approaches fall short of the need to achieve a genuine conflict resolution.
This is because both can be seen as

Being mainly temporary in character

Both are primarily defensive and

Both strategies may widen a conflict by externalizing it.

They offer an approach which emphasizes consultation-based interventions, openness of

communication, and greater participation in decision-making and problem-solving interactions.
Blake and Mouton accept that traditional conflict management strategies can only deal with the
behavioural component in conflict and bring about a patchwork solution. They suggest an

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approach to conflict management which involves interventions by organizational consultants
(usually applied behavioural scientists), who have no vested interest in the conflict itself, but
who have the competence and experience to generate a productive mode of conflict management.
They avoid the pitfalls of adjudicating or evaluating which department is "right" or "wrong" (so
often the hallmark of traditional conflict management). Nor do they seek to impose a solution.
They intervene in order to generate creative thinking and to establish a problem-solving attitude.

Consultation-based approaches to interdepartmental conflict accept conflict situations as

inevitable and see them as useful occasions which permit departments to disagree and to work
out the disagreements and ultimately to understand each other better. The general functions of a
consultant usually consist of

Avoiding power-based outcomes

Providing knowledge and skills regarding conflict processes

Inducing an emotional-cognitive change as a prelude to collaborative interactions and

Providing a supportive, informal and learning environment well-suited to creating the
requirements conducive to problem-solving. The technologies of consultation consist of
educational activities and techniques, laboratory training observations, survey-feedbacks,
questionnaires and interviews etc.. The structure of consultation activities is so designed
as to engage individuals as whole persons, not merely as segmented individuals striving
to cope with their role demands.

3.4 Security and Conflict in the Niger Delta

The deteriorating security situation in the Niger Delta is likely to ensure a continued and
expanding role for private security companies. While the provision of security for the oil
industry is clearly essential for the Nigerian economy, as well as for the companies themselves, it
is important to note that the fundamental causes of conflicts and insecurity in the Delta cannot be
resolved by security professionals, but requires instead a political solution. In this regard, there
are some limited grounds for optimism. Following decades of resistance and criticism as well as
rising costs to their operations, many oil companies are gradually placing re-oriented
development initiatives and improved community relations at the centre of their security
strategies. Similarly, the return to democracy in Nigeria may over time improve the situation and

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allow local communities a greater say in the exploration and use of oil resources - although as of
yet there are few signs of positive change in policies towards the Delta communities or in the
‘politics of plunder’ more generally. Only 13 percent
of oil revenues are directed back to the communities in the Delta and the Niger Delta
Development Commission (NDDC) has still to prove its effectiveness. As such, Karl Maier’s
description of Nigeria as a country where the population “live in a criminally mismanaged
corporation, where the bosses are armed and have barricaded themselves inside the company
safe”, still captures the political landscape. Until these larger, underlying political causes of
conflicts is resolved, the Nigerian state will need the continued services of international private
companies to ensure its own survival in the face of domestic resistance.

4.0 Conclusion
Organizations are social entities segmented into hierarchies of departments and individuals. The
basic realities of organizational life cannot but stimulate comparisons, competitions and conflicts
between departments and individuals. Conflict is an omnipresent feature in any organization.
Since conflict may have functional as well as dysfunctional consequences, it is essential that
administrators explore various methods and techniques of conflict management.
Effective conflict management is indispensable if coordinated efforts and productive
achievements are to result. As it was suggested above that the planned intervention by
behavioural scientists represents the most effective method since it can produce organizational
change and a sense of personal accomplishment.

Conflict management as an integral part of the administrative process, administrators should be

able to ascertain the presence of a conflict, its basic sources, the level at which it manifests itself,
its degree of intensity and the ways of furthering the objectives of conflict resolution. From a
pragmatic viewpoint administrators should direct their attention to four issues: Is there a
conflict? Where is the conflict? Does it require to be managed? How best to implement an
effective conflict management strategy? With this in mind conflict is easily managed in any
organisation.

5.0 Summary

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Conflict management — and indeed all forms of organizational behaviour — is determined by
the interaction of information, skills, values and situation. Each of these factors acts as a
precursor for consultation-based conflict management activities. Behavioural consultants provide
parties in conflict with more information and an understanding of the complexities of conflict
interactions. They promote social interaction skills (which should be recognized as important as
technical skills). They promote values of cooperation and help to create a situation in which
people can interact freely and feel that they are as important to an organization as are its
resources or products.

The sequence of consultation activities commences with upgrading individual skills and abilities,
moves on to team-building activities and then to restructuring intergroup and interdepartmental
activities. The institutionalization of these activities consists of four steps. The first step bringing
in the consultant — represents an administrative response to a felt need for effective conflict
management. The second step — entry — is associated with various information-giving
activities. The third step is aimed at attitudinal change through data-feedback, team-training,
sensitivity and T-Group training or Grid development. The final step involves a structural change
in the relationship between departments and a move towards integrative interactions and conflict
resolution. Effective conflict management is quite a major undertaking. There are not too many
guideposts to indicate where we are or how to move towards conflict resolution. It is, therefore, a
task which demands attention to attitudinal and behavioural elements, to outcome and emotional
needs and to interpersonal as well as interdepartmental requirements. The intervention strategies
of a behavioural consultant can, we have argued, move us towards that direction. We cannot be
certain that the intended effects will always be achieved. We can suggest, with some certainty,
that such interventions move us forward in the direction of effective conflict.

6.0 Tutor-marked assignment

1. What are the major causes of conflict in an organisation?
2. List and explain various types of conflict.
3. Explain the traditional approaches to managing interdepartmental conflict in PSCs

7.0 References/further readings

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Abrahamsen, R. and M. Williams, (2006) Security Sector Reform: Bringing the Private In,
Conflict, Security & Development, 6:1 April.

Adejumobi, S., (2001) ‘Guarding the Guardian? The Obasanjo Regime and Military Reform in
Nigeria’, Development Policy Management Network Bulletin, Vol. XIII, No. 3
(September), pp. 17-19.

SDA (2006) ‘The Private Security Phenomenon: Policy Implication and Issues’. Security and
Defence Agenda (SDA) Roundtable, 7 December, Brussels.

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UNIT 3: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLICE AND PRIVATE SECURITY
OPERATIVES IN NIGERIA.
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
It has been noted that no government has the wherewithal to provide one hundred percent
security for nation; hence the need for corporate or private security organisations to supplement
efforts of state actors not only in petty crime prevention but also in the emerging acts of violence.
It is in this regard that criminologists and other experts in the field of security and conflict
studies have agitated for more advanced mechanisms of intelligence that place premium on
prevention of security crisis rather than post-hoc detection and responses. (Odinkalu, 2004). As a
result the scope of security needs include governmental, non-governmental, industrial, civil,
economic, communications, general infrastructural and environmental security within the new
security challenges which must be prioritise. Governmental security agencies face many
challenges today in accomplishing their missions and in providing value to their stakeholders.
What was once achievable by developing and implementing sound strategic and financial plans
is no longer guaranteed in a world where intimidation is fast spreading to all nooks and corners.
Instead, security organizations must join hands together to consider how best it is going to
succeed in the face of increasing organizational and technical complexity and in an ever-
changing risk environment.

Many significant PSCs in Nigeria have an armed police component seconded to their operations,
resulting into the 'privatisation' of public security forces to some extent. In the oil sector, the
privatisation of public security is so extensive that it can be difficult to distinguish public
policing from private security. Military forces are increasingly used to protect oil operations, and

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are maintained by oil companies. The extension of private security, particularly in the oil sector,
alongside the privatisation of public forces, offers the possibility for a more professionalised
security structure. However, it also raises issues regarding PSCs involvement in complex
political struggles and the division of authority between PSCs and public security forces. While
there are some overlapping functions in the mission of public law enforcement and private
security operatives, yet the two groups are not the same. To explain how public law enforcement
and private security can better protect the country, this section starts by clarifying the difference
between public and private security. “Public policing” consists of services offered by local, state,
and federal agencies, i.e., local and state police as well as civil defence officers. These agencies
provide the bulk of policing services across the country. “For the most part, they are not
concerned with corporate internal problems; they are concerned primarily with street crimes
(Connors, 1999).
Private security services, on the other hand, fall into two categories:

(1) Proprietary or corporate security: Corporate security generally refers to the security
departments that exist within businesses or corporations.
(2) Contract or private security firms: Contract security firms by contrast sell their services to the
public, including businesses, home-owners, and banks. Private security is not a monolithic entity.
Just as differences exist between state and local law enforcement, private security performs
functions that can differ considerably.

IACP’s (2004) summit report notes that “A security practitioner could be an experienced director
of security at a major multinational corporation, a manager of contract security officers at a client
site, a skilled computer crime investigator, an armed protector at a nuclear power plant, or an
entry-level guard at a retail store. For local police and civil defence, some or all of these classes
of private security might be appropriate to incorporate into their homeland security strategies,
depending on the characteristics of their jurisdictions. Law enforcement and private security
have strengths and weaknesses that must be considered to form realistic expectations of what
each can bring as partners. Private security is often criticized for absent or inadequate pre-
employment screening, training, standards, certification, and regulation, and high turnover rates.
However, recent findings indicate that private security has made gains in these areas

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(Cunningham, 2003.). Private sector security also has significant strengths. The sheer number of
private security officers makes it an important force. Often it is able to protect small geographic
areas with large numbers of officers or guards, something law enforcement cannot afford. Some
private security officers, moreover, possess specialized technical capacity, including the
knowledge and ability to protect computer networks, chemical plants, financial institutions,
health care institutions, and retail establishments. Public Law enforcement officers often do not
possess this knowledge.

Generally, the large and growing security industry “is armed with considerable and often
sophisticated resources to deter crime and prevent other losses. The public law enforcement
community is substantially smaller in size. Yet it is strong where private security is weak. To
begin with, public law enforcement powers are far greater than those of private security. The
selection process for becoming a deputy or police officer, moreover, is vigorous and includes a
thorough background investigation. Law enforcement officers are well trained, receiving
academy, field, and in-service instructions. Officers tend to stay at the same agency for the
duration of their careers, and officers in agencies that practice community policing are likely to
have established rapport and trust with local citizens and business groups that can share
information with them. Trust and information are invaluable for preventing terrorist acts. Law
enforcement agencies, however, like private security, have limitations. They sometimes lack the
financial resources of private firms because of tight budgets.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. explain the benefits of law enforcement and private security partnerships
2. explain the relationship between private security and the MOPOL
3. know the relationship and differences in the operations of public security forces and PSCs.

3.0 Main Content

Global security intelligence is an emerging need. Changes in technology, societal organization,
and the security challenges and arrangements within and among states demand novel approaches
and structures to ensure human security. Terrorism, insurgency, and trans-national crime

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challenge traditional security and intelligence structures. New security structures and legal
regimes are potentially evolving, yet traditional structures are slow to adapt. The security
framework is more sophisticated today than in the past. It has been observed that the Nigerian
Police Force could not always guarantee Nigerians security as an important part of proactive
crime prevention because of inadequate manpower, advanced technological and pragmatic
means for fear reduction. For these reasons, the continuous agitation for Corporate Private
Security Organisations to assist the Nigeria Police in safety business has soared (Ekhomu, 2004).
Reasons are not farfetched as evidences are bound showing the technological means under their
kitty for proactive crime control such as intruder alarms, close circuit monitors, access control to
mention just a few.

Another issue is the common knowledge of the ratio of the Nigeria Police to Nigerians, which is
put at 1:600. This has been found to be inconsistent with United Nations standard ration of 1:400
(UN, 2000). Thus the vacuum created by this inadequacy alone for government to provide
security will certainly be filled by private individuals, the private sector and ethnic militias in
some cases. The inability of the organised private sector to completely fill in the gap has been
attributed to their legal prevention from carrying arms. While the Corporate Private Security
Officers (CPSOs) are clearly here to stay, their existence and growth have created new
opportunities and challenges. For instance the mushrooming of private security groups with
inadequately trained personnel has the capacity of complicating the present security scenario.
This might be further compounded by the fact that unlike state actors, CPSOs are not directly
accountable to the public or the electorate but to a combination of weak regulators and the
corporate companies.

3.1 Benefits of Law Enforcement and Private Security Partnerships

The advent of radical terrorist groups in Nigeria has placed great pressure on the law
enforcement community. Specifically, agencies have been searching for a way to balance
national security, traditional crime control and other responsibilities. Limited and sometimes
scarce resources must be allocated based on need, leading some chief executives to acknowledge
that they are having considerable difficulty conducting this balancing act. Private security
officials are experiencing a similar phenomenon. While their traditional responsibility to protect

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people, property, and information has continued, they are now also expected to be active
participants in the national effort to protect the country’s infrastructure.
Clearly, law enforcement and private security have much to gain from each other.

Law enforcement can:

• Prepare private security to assist in emergencies.
• Coordinate efforts to safeguard the nation’s critical infrastructure.
• Obtain free training and services.
• Gain additional personnel and expertise.
• Use the private sector’s specialized knowledge and advanced technology.
• Obtain evidence in criminal investigations.
• Gather better information about incidents (through reporting by security staff).
• Reduce the number of emergency calls for service.
Private security can:
• Coordinate plans with the public sector regarding evacuation, transportation, and food
services during emergencies.
• Gain information from law enforcement regarding threats and crime trends.
• Develop relationships so that private practitioners know whom to contact when they need
help or want to report information.
• Build law enforcement understanding of corporate needs (e.g., confidentiality).
• Boost law enforcement’s respect for the security field.
• Working together, private security and law enforcement can realize impressive benefits:
• Creative problem solving.
• Increased training opportunities.
• Information, data, and intelligence sharing.
• “Force multiplier” opportunities.
• Access to the community through private sector communications technology.
• Reduced recovery time following disasters.

Obstacles to Law Enforcement-Private Security Partnerships

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The benefits of law enforcement-private security partnerships are many; a chief executive must
know that these partnerships are not without obstacles such as:
i. barriers to information sharing,
ii. lack of trust,
iii. misinformation are the primary problems

3.2 Private Security: A Perspective in Today’s Anti - Violence Campaign

There is compelling evidence that improvement in security requires changing old perceptions
and defining new targets. In today’s campaign against violence the evolution of security as a
practice is highly dependent on the approaches and solutions that take into consideration the
dynamism and complexity of human beings and organizations. Clearly, the days of security
generating sole from government, traditional sources and IT departments being controlled and
managed from an IT advantage point are beginning to fade. Instead, security must be
repositioned as the by-product of wider ranging efforts that aim to make the security
organization, outfits or agencies more resilient to its ever-changing risk environment. These are
some of the major reasons why a lot of private security companies and other governmental
paramilitary bodies are all agitating for permission or licences to carry arms like the police and
soldiers. Some of the arguments for the carriage of arms are as follows:
 Self defence: it is a well known fact that any security agents in the wild are first target of
any terror attack, armed bandit or any criminal attack. For instance in the case of Nigeria
Security and civil defence corps (NSCDC) with the mandated to provide protection in
public places, detain, investigate and institute legal proceedings, and yet without the
permission to carry arms calls for worry as this will be risky to their lives in cases of
violent attack or reprisal.
 Crime combat: private security officials once registered should be properly ready in
combating crime, as said there are usually no notice whenever a particular crime will
surface it is therefore necessary in combating crime for them to be combat ready at all time
without arm this becomes impossible.
 Escort/Public Security: Escort of dignitaries and protection of lives and properties without
arms and sophisticated gadgets in recent times is risky.

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 Riot and conflict resolution: most communities and groups often engage in riots and
wanton destruction of properties and killings. In such cases it becomes necessary to use
arms in dislodging the rioters, and resolving conflict.
 Modern age necessity: belonging to this modern era where small and heavy arms are not
difficulty to come-by as in the case of Niger-Delta Militants. There is therefore the need for
associating members of security organisations to be well prepared in the usage of more
sophisticated arms.
 Joint operations and assistance: since it has been established that anti–terrorism campaign
cannot be effective without the collaboration of other security agencies, then there is no
way such organisations can combine with organisations that are armed in fighting
terrorism.
On the contrary, the argument has always been one - sided regarding that the private security
providers and personnel are not well trained in handling of arms. Others have also mentioned the
incessant accidental discharge for the conventional security officers, notwithstanding these
premises. It is therefore important to ask at this point, for how long are we going to remain on
these arguments, without giving the private security providers and other paramilitary agencies a
trial before being crucified.

3.3 Private Security and Mobile Police (MoPol)

Given the generally high level of violence and insecurity in Nigeria, most leading PSCs find it
necessary to offer armed protection for certain key contracts, as well as the possibility of armed
response in cases of emergency. In order to be allocated Mobile Police, PSCs must apply to the
Inspector General of Police for a specific number of officers, which they can then utilise for
guarding at key locations, armed response, escort services, etc. MoPol officers are equipped with
fully automatic weapons, usually AK-47s or FNs. Most PSCs regard the secondment of MoPol
officers as a necessary, but expensive arrangement. The exact costs are difficult to establish, as
no receipts are given and prices also appear to vary somewhat between companies and contracts.

The reliance on MoPol for armed private security services raises a number of operational and
ethical challenges. The MoPol has often been accused of using undue force, and while in the
company of PSCs, the exact division of authority between private security guards and the police

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is difficult to establish. While the PSCs supervisor is in principle responsible for operations in
relation to clients, the police remain answerable to their commander and retain legal authority.
As one commander interviewed was eager to emphasise, “the police do not take orders from
anyone. We run our own operations”. Although many PSCs commend the MoPol for their
professionalism, not without some avoidable tensions which are curtailed through informal
arrangements between the two parties. The ability of PSCs to manage police officers depends to
a large extent on informal arrangements and their capacity to develop well-integrated procedures,
joint training, and close operational coordination with the MoPol.

4.0 Conclusion
The Private Guards Act of 1986 prohibits private security companies from carrying firearms.
Private security companies are nevertheless able to provide an armed component to their services
through various arrangements with the Nigerian Police, and most PSCs of any size and standard
have a number of Mobile Police officers (MoPol) permanently seconded to their operations. This
has resulted in a general ‘privatisation’ of the public security forces, seen in the day to day
operations of PSCs and more extensively in the security operations in most of private
establishment.

5.0 Summary
The residential market is as yet much more limited, and tends to be the preserve of smaller
companies and traditional night-watchmen or ‘gate swingers’ due to its relatively low
profitability. The main exception is the protection of the residences of employees of transnational
companies, embassies and international organisations, which are frequently part of commercial
contracts to secure business premises. The residential market is, however, undergoing rapid
change, and a number of companies are currently in the process of developing more extensive
residential security services, introducing panic buttons and rapid armed response services in
defined areas. At the moment, these services are limited to a relatively small number of
customers, but the introduction of more sophisticated technology and rapid response capacities
along the model found in many part of the country is perceived by many in the industry to
provide important new business opportunities. PSCs that are able to offer this service may in the

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future be able to compete more effectively on price against the lower-end manned guarding
companies, while providing a superior service through an armed response capability.

6.0 Tutor-marked assignment

1. Explain some of the arguments for the carriage of arms by PSC officers.
2. Explain in three sentences the relationship and differences between private security and law
enforcement agents
7.0 References/further readings
Jehn, K. A. 1997. Qualitative Analysis of Conflict: Types and Dimensions in Organisational
Groups. Administratively Quarterly No. 42, Vol. 3, pp. 421–618.

Rahim, M. A. 1992. Managing Conflicts in Organizations. In: P. Fenn and R. Gameson eds.),
Construction Conflict Management and Resolution. London: E and FN Spon.

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UNIT 4: REGULATION AND RECOMMENDATION OF PSCs IN NIGERIA
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
The need to regulate the operations of private security providers, including private military
companies (PMCs) and private security companies (PSCs), has become a major policy concern
across the globe, which has in turn generated growing academic discourse since the turn of the
millennium. This concern has centred essentially on how to make sure that the private security
sector industry (comprising both PMCs and PSCs) does not threaten human existence (regimes
and citizens) in the course of their operation. Though these companies and their personnel are
legally authorised to carry out security functions nevertheless there are cases of misused of
power, which make them both a potential and real source of threat to human security

This concern is well placed because the mandate of the sector is to supply additional security
traditionally provided by the state. This threat is most ominous in Nigeria and some countries in
Africa, where human security falls far below the rest of the world, and where the bargaining
strength of the state in relation to the more powerful (Western) corporate security actors is
considerably weak. Thus regulating the sector in the country is essential to bringing the delivery
of private security into conformity with the overall goal of human security, by making their
corporate activities more transparent, accountable and subject to public control.
3.0 Objectives
Students are expected to understand the need to maintain standard in private security
through adequate regulations, guidelines and policies; with the ultimate aim of fostering
unity and trust between security operatives.
3.0 Main Content

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3.1 Regulation of the Private Sector
As mentioned earlier, current efforts to regulate the private security sector has virtually treated
the sector in isolation and has approached regulation from a technical perspective through legal
control. Three main existing options for regulation are banning activities that are deemed illegal;
licensing of individual firms and sometimes approving particular contracts; and self-regulation
either by individual firms or industrial associations through self-imposed codes of conduct and
standards in the implementation of contracts. The first problem with regulation in Nigeria is that
governments are not necessarily unwilling to regulate the sector. Apart from Nigeria, deliberate
regulation of the industry as a state policy is not very much known to have taken place elsewhere
in the continent. It has been rightly observed that, under such conditions regulation may be of
low priority for regimes with more pressing concerns and limited capability for legislation. This
is because the weakness and instability of the state makes most regimes insecure and some of
them have even sought the assistance of PSCs to strengthen their relative positions of power in
the context of real threats from domestic opponents. The same weakness makes state regulation
difficult, particularly when institutions are too weak to deal effectively with foreign companies
originating from powerful countries.

However, most known efforts at regulating private security have tended to focus narrowly on the
private sector in isolation and on the technical issues of legal control. The broader gamut of
actors involved in the provision and regulation of security as well as the central political and
social context of the states in the country, within which the privatisation of security occurs have
been lamentably sidelined in regulatory calculations. The outcome of this approach has been the
obvious difficulty, if not failure, to achieve appreciable results in the regulation of private
security firms, particularly in Africa. One area where this capacity deficit is most crucial is the
provision of non-exclusionary, effective and accountable security for citizens. Regulation
therefore must be planned and implemented within an overall goal of making the state ensure the
delivery of such security. It has also meant that privatisation has reduced the scope of the state in
the performance of its most vital functions of providing security for all of its citizens. With this
in mind the state is bound to ensure that regulation is maintained.
3.2 The Industry, Standards and Regulatory Issues

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There is a clearly expressed view across the private security industry in Nigeria that overall
standards and procedures are in need of improvement and that a higher quality service is
desirable. In a highly competitive market, this is however difficult to achieve, as contracts are
frequently won and lost by undercutting competitors’ bids. As a direct result, guards are often
very poorly paid, and services and standards remain low in large parts of the sector. The various
associations in Nigeria are currently clamouring for tighter regulation, sector wide standards for
training, and a minimum wage. In particular, the associations are keen to ensure that the sector is
rid of so-called ‘quacks’, that is, companies operating without licences, and without regard to
standards and basic security principles. It is a frequently expressed hope that a new regulatory
authority responsible for the oversight and regulation of PSCs will be set up within the next few
years. However, given the current inability of the Ministry of Internal Affairs to adequately
regulate the sector, and frequent charges that regulatory initiatives are too often linked to
particular competitive interests in the industry, a degree of skepticism is warranted concerning
the effectiveness and accountability of any new authority or initiative. In the absence of effective
regulation, improvement of standards is most likely to occur as a result of increased competition.
The pressures for higher standards is a sign that professionalization of the sector is underway,
which is currently being spearheaded by a few leading companies. To the extent that competitive
pressure is gradually forcing a number of companies to conform to minimum required standards.
The quality of service in a matter of time will no doubt increase.

Another aspect of the industry cum associations’ effort to instigate new legislation is the pressure
and continuous agitation for private security personnel to bear arms. PSCs are currently
prevented from doing their jobs properly, as unarmed guards frequently confront armed
criminals with serious casualties. Both associations regard this as a hindrance to the provision of
security, and currently lobbying the Federal Government for a change to this aspect of the
Private Guards Act. Such pressures might gain renewed force if the provision of MoPol armed
response services by a few leading companies succeed in limiting the share of the residential
market for the lower-end, manned by guarding companies. Crucially, any move towards arming
the private security sector is likely to be detrimental in the absence of an effective regulatory
framework, and it is important to stress that many industry participants as well as major clients

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are strongly opposed to such legislative change, arguing that it would be seriously detrimental to
the general security situation in the country.

3.2 Policy Options and Recommendations

The privatisation of security in sub-Saharan Africa is a symptom of the weakness of the state as
it is the most formidable challenge to SSR in the region. As far as improving the provision of
public security for citizens remains the central security predicament in the region, addressing the
roots of private security and enhancing state regulation of the private sphere must be seen as
crucial concerns for SSR. Domestic and external efforts at promoting the goals of SSR in the
region must therefore begin with helping the region to make that vital transition from weak to
stable and effective states. This is because privatisation of security betrays the failure to build
bureaucratic capacity for effective service delivery in the state-making process.

The attainment of democracy requires that both the public and private security services
accountable and responsive to citizens, and this can only be achieved through an inclusive
process of government that integrates private security providers within the security sector. The
context of Nigeria requires specific solutions that are suitable to the realities of security and
private engagement. The following recommendations are suggested for planning and
implementation of private security regulation into reforms that seek to improve access to
effective and accountable security for all:

Rethinking the notion of regulation is a crucial step in dealing with the problems
discussed in this paper. A more appropriate concept would be integration. This means
that rather than expending efforts on an inefficient approach to the private security sector,
the security sector should be redefined not only in theory, but most critically in practice.
This would require taking a broader view of the sector in a way that integrates corporate
actors into on-going SSR work in such places as Sierra Leone, Liberia and the DRC, and
into future SSR and parallel programmes in the region.

Reforming states must ensure the principles of transparency and parliamentary oversight
are applied to the private security industry. Regulation has emphasised executive control
and neglected parliamentary scrutiny, which is vital for ensuring transparency in the
industry

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There is need for states to negotiate a division of labour that would allow private and
public actors to specialise in their areas of competence. Within such arrangements, the
core security functions of the state must not be privatised. These include combat duties,
intelligence work, criminal interrogation, detention, and prosecution. The capabilities of
the private sector in training and advising security forces as well as in providing
protection and needs are to be harnessed by the state to bolster security provision. The
sector cannot be approached simply in terms of regulation, but needs to be regarded
instead as part of a wider network of security provision, involving the state, private actors
and the civil society. The details of such specialisation must be left to local actors to work
out through dialogue.

Reforming states also need to strengthen their monitoring of the private security sector.
This can be done by setting up independent public complaints bodies that can entertain
and investigate allegations of misbehaviour on the part of private security companies.

At the federal level, there is need for formulation of a framework that provides strong
incentives for good governance in the security sector of its member states. This is mainly
because it is only when a state is ready to reform its security sector that the regulation of
private security becomes a viable option. In addition, the federal government needs to
establish regional enforceable standards for all security firms operating in the region and
codes of conduct for assessing firms and sanctioning erring ones.

Civil society at the national and state levels is essential for stimulating dialogue aimed at
fashioning innovative ways of planning the integration of private security into the
mainstream security.

Finally, where private security companies complement public security provision, civil
society organisations have a role in advising private operators on the norms of human
rights and democratic accountability

3.3 Private Industry Associations

There are currently at least five separate private security associations in Nigeria. The oldest of
these is the Nigerian Chapter of the American Society for Industrial Security (ASIS), a global
organisation supporting private industry standards and focusing on training and education.
National associations include the National Professional Security Association (NPSA), the

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Society of Security Practitioners of Nigeria (SSPN), the Security and Safety Association of
Nigeria (SSAN) and the Association of Private Security Practitioners in Nigeria (APSPN).

The latter association was founded in April 2004, in direct response to the government’s decision
to increase the licence fees for guarding companies. The three other national associations were
all founded in 2002, largely in response to the arrival of Gray Security in the country. The
Society of Security Practitioners of Nigeria (SSPN) presently appears to be one of the more
active associations, with approximately 200 members (consisting of both individuals and
companies) and holding regular monthly meetings. The NPSA is also fairly visible and vocal in
arguing for increased professionalization of the industry. The SSAN currently has a smaller
membership of 12, but the aim is to have three chapters, in Abuja, Lagos and Port Harcourt
respectively.

The arrival of an international company in Nigeria in 2002 was presented by many local PSCs as
a threat to national security and a contravention of the Private Guards Act, which stipulates that
all PSCs must be wholly Nigerian owned. The main aim of the SSPN and SSAN is to oppose and
limit the activities of what they perceive as ‘foreign’ firms in Nigeria. While the initial hostility
to international involvement has subsided somewhat, and it is clear that international PSCs
operate within Nigerian law, it is fair to say that the leadership of these two associations remain
hostile to what they describe as “foreign infiltration”. While this opposition is formulated and
expressed in political and legal terms, it is clearly also underpinned by commercial, competitive
pressures. OSL entered the Nigerian market through a major, nation-wide contract with Nigerian
Breweries, and subsequently took on several contracts with banks and industries, before signing
an extensive contract with ChevronTexaco, thus acquiring several valuable and sought-after
clients and a substantial share of the security market.

Local companies fear the competition from international PSCs, which provide high levels of
professionalism and often have access to superior resources and technology and hence, as one
local company director puts it, “they get all the plum contracts”. According to the chairman of
SSPN, ‘foreign’ PSCs should not be allowed an operational role in Nigeria, but should act only
as technical partners to national business, in a support and advisory capacity. It must be stressed

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that the international companies in the country are Nigerian-owned, and operate through
different management agreements with international companies. They thus operate within the
law and stipulations of the Private Guards Act. The various associations also seek to promote
higher standards and new legislation to regulate the sector. The existence of large numbers of
unlicensed companies is recognised as a major problem, and there is considerable concern to
cleanse the sector of what are commonly referred to as ‘quacks’. In particular, the associations
would like to see the establishment of a private security regulatory authority to ensure a tighter
regulation of the sector, including the establishment of guidelines and standards for training,
wages and working conditions. Similarly, the associations express concern over the lack of
adequate databases to check the criminal records of potential guards, as well as the absence of
any database listing guards who have previously been dismissed for misconduct by other
companies. Another lobbying issue is the right of PSCs to bear arms, and at least two of the
associations are of the opinion that the private security sector should be allowed to provide an
armed service. So far, lobbying to this effect has found little favour with the federal government.
It should also be stressed that there is no uniform opinion on this issue among the companies and
many fear that a move towards firearms would inevitably lead to a dangerous increase in arms in
society, and to greater insecurity due to the lack of regulation and training within the sector.
Many international clients, including oil companies, are also opposed to any move towards
arming the sector, a position that is reinforced by the oil companies’ endorsement of the
Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights.
4.0 Conclusion
Finally it should be recognised that to a significant extent the number and diversity of security
associations in Nigeria is representative of a multitude of competitive struggles within the sector,
including the right to represent the sector to government authorities, and to advance particular
interests in the process. Past security associations have been numerous and short lived, and the
sector’s persistent inability to speak through one association likely weakens its impact and
effectiveness vis-à-vis legislators and regulators.
5.0 Summary
Monitoring and Review
There appears to be little monitoring of standards in the sector. Licences have to be renewed by
written application to the Ministry of Internal Affairs every second year, but apart from this,

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there is little regulation or oversight of the quality of service, standards and training. Many
companies continue to operate without a licence, a problem that is recognised by the legitimate
companies and the associations, but not acted upon by the Ministry. The main exception to the
relative lack of monitoring and review is the frequent inspections and audits of international
private security companies by various Ministries, including Labour, Immigration and Internal
Affairs, as well as the State Security Service (SSS). These checks ensure compliance with
Nigeria’s labour and immigration laws, including review of the proportion of Nigerians
employed in relation to expatriates. However, there also appears to be an element of harassment
and corruption to these inspections; directors of one international security company have more
than once been detained while the SSS searched office files and documents, without finding
anything amiss. Such occurrences significantly complicate the operating environment for
international PSCs, and there is suspicion that these inspections are on occasions instigated by
unfounded allegations and complaints by local companies hostile to international competition.
6.0 Tutor-marked assignment
1. Write a comprehensive note on policy option in PSC
2. In your own opinion, examine what can be put in place to ensure effective and efficient
service delivery by indigenous PSCs.
7.0 References/further readings
Abrahamsen, R. and M. Williams, (2006) Security Sector Reform: Bringing the Private In,
Conflict, Security & Development, 6:1 April.
Adejumobi, S., (2001) ‘Guarding the Guardian? The Obasanjo Regime and Military Reform in
Nigeria’, Development Policy Management Network Bulletin, Vol. XIII, No. 3
(September), pp. 17-19.
Alao, A., (2002) Privatisation of Security and Security Sector Reform in Uganda’, in Damian
Lilly and Michael von Tangen Page (eds) Security Sector Reform: The Challenges and
Opportunities of the Privatisation of Security. London: International Alert.

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UNIT 5: SPECIFIC SECURITY THREATS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Objectives
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit examines several security threats common to business organisations, such as white-
collar crime, burglary and robbery etc. These crimes are capable of collapsing any business
empire if adequate counter measures are not put in place. Although, there specific program that
can entirely guarantee protection against attack nevertheless business organisation can take
action to lessen its attractiveness as a target.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
a. Explain economic/white-collar crime.
b. Discuss burglary and robbery
c. Explain the effect of labour dispute on security
d. Discuss espionage
e. Discuss piracy
ECONOMIC/WHITE-COLLAR CRIME
It was first coined by Sutherland (1939). Sutherland defined white-collar crime as “an offence
committed by a person of a respectability and high social status in the course of his (or her)
occupation”. Edelhertz (1970) also defined white collar crime as an illegal act or series of acts
committed by nonphysical means and by traditional notions of deceit, deception, manipulation,
concealment or guile to obtain money or properties, to avoid the payment or loss of money or
property or to obtain a business or personal advantage. White collar crime therefore, overlaps
with corporate crime because of the opportunity for fraud, bribery, insider trading,

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embezzlement, computer crime, copyright infringement, money laundering, identity theft and
forgery. It is a crime which is nonviolent but the end result could be violent. Individuals of
higher economic and social status commit more harms (white collar crimes) to the companies
and society than burglars and robbers but the justice system often treated them with more
lenience. Perpetrators have specialized knowledge that allows them to commit complex
transactions that are often difficult to identify. Law enforcement authorities rarely catch white-
collar criminal at the onset of their activities. In addition, the use of computers and electronic
financial transaction has complicated the detection and prosecution of white-collar crimes. A
lack of standard classification and definitions coupled with limited reporting of workplace crime
contributes more to the problem of accurate measurement. For this reason in Nigeria, the
economic and financial crime commission (EFCC) was set up by the federal government to curb
the menace of corruption and financial crime.

BURGLARY
Burglary is committing a crime through stealth by entering a building or other structure. Burglars
also commit rape and arson among other felonies. Burglary has been observed to be most
frequently occurring crime. It is essential that every business take particular care to protect itself
against this form of crime. Burglars enter through the doors, or windows, through the roof or
possibly from a neighbouring occupancy. Most successful burglaries are made without forced
entry. The greatest numbers are made through the front door or main entrance. While a
considerably smaller number of burglaries involve the stay-in who gathers the loot then breaks
out and is gone before the guards or police can respond to an alarm. Cash is naturally the most
sensitive asset and the most eagerly sought but because it is usually secured in some manner, it
represents the greatest challenges to the burglar. Blasting and carrying away of the entire safe are
the methods most commonly used.

DEFENCE AGAINST BURGLARY

Many methods or strategies have been devised to curb or combat this crime.
1. Target hardening: It means that basic security precautions are applied to the facility
including attention to door construction, locks, alarms and surveillance devices.

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2. Reducing the value of merchandise: It means marking company property with
company identification tags or recording serial numbers that are easily traced.
3. Alarms: Many houses and stores are attached with local alarm systems. Although
many police and security experts feel such alarms are ineffective because the
response to the signal is only by chance, and it that serves to warn the intruder rather
than aid in capture.
4. Safes: Safes should be located in a prominent, well lighted position readily visible from
the street where it can be seen easily by patrols or by the police. It should be located in a well-
secured and alarm rigged inner room and the floor and ceiling should be reinforced.

ROBBERY
Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force and/ or by
putting the victim in fear. In common law, robbery is defined as taking the property of another,
with the intent of permanently depriving the person of that property, by means of force or fear.
Robbery differs from single theft in its use of violence and intimidation. The elements of robbery
are: (1) a trespassor (2) taking and (3) carrying away (4) of the personal property (5) of another
(6) with the intent to steal (7) from the person or presence of the victim (8) by force or threat.
Robbery remains a serious crime because of the potential harm to its victim. Private individuals,
retailers’ shops and banks take the brunt of these attacks. It has also been observed that less than
a third of all robbers are arrested.

The focus of this unit is robbery of stores. Robbers are typically criminals making a direct
assault on people for cash or properties. Their targets may be messengers or store employees
taking cash for deposit in the bank or bringing in cash for the day’s receipts, or they may break
into stores before opening and wait for the first employee, whom they force to open safes or cash
room. Delivery trucks and warehouse can also be targets for robbers. Probably the major cause
of robbery is the accumulation of excessive amount of cash. Hence it is important that only the
cash needed to conduct the day’s business be kept on hand and most of that should be stored in
safes. If the store has a cash room, it must be secured against unauthorized entry. The door to the
room must be secured and securely locked. It should be equipped with panic locks and have
alarms fitted to it. It is essential to any robbery prevention programme. For instance, storekeepers

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and employees should be properly indoctrinated on the use of alarm as well as the need to
question persons loitering in unauthorized area etc. Also employees should be instructed to co-
operate and not to do anything that would make the robber to resort to violence. The primary
goal of robbery prevention programme is to make the store less attractive to potential robbers.

LABOUR DISPUTES
A labour dispute is a state of disagreement over a particular issue or group of issues over which
there is conflict between workers and employers. These issues may include conditions of
employment, fringe benefits, hours or work, tenure, wages etc. All security personnel should be
aware that their role is to protect personnel and property only and in case of labour disputes, they
are not to participate. A checklist of some possible measures before and after declaration of
labour dispute in order to protect properties:
1. Secure all doors and gates not being used during the strike and see that they remain
secured.
2. Remove all combustible from the area near the perimeter both inside and outside.
3. Remove any trash and stones from the perimeter that could be used as missiles.
4. Change all locks and padlocks on peripheral doors of all buildings to which keys have
been issued to striking employee.
5. Recover keys from employees who will go out to strike.
6. Nullify all existing identification cards for the duration and issue special cards to
workers who are not striking.
7. Check all standpipe hoses, fire extinguishers and other fire-fighting equipments after
striking workers have walked out.
8. Test sprinkler systems and all alarms-both fire and intrusion – after striking
workers have walked out.
9. Consider construction of barriers for physical protection of windows, landscaping and
lighting fixtures.
10. Move property most likely to be a damaged well back from the perimeter.
11. Be certain all security personnel are familiar with the property line and stay within
it at all times when they are on duty.

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12. Guards are not to be used to photograph, tape or report on the conduct of the
strikers. The only reports will relate to injury to personnel or property.
13. Notify employees who will continue to work to keep the windows of their automobiles
closed and their car doors locked when they are moving through the picket line.
14. Consider the establishment of a shuttle bus to non-striking employee.
15. Establish, in advance, which vendors or service persons will continue to service the
facility and make arrangements to provide substitute services for those unwilling to cross
the picket line.
16. Keep the lines of communication open.
17. Because functional organizational lines may be radically changed during the
walkout, find out who is where and who is responsible for what.

ESPIONAGE
Espionage is a crime under the legal code of many countries. Espionage or spying involves
individual obtaining information that is considered secret or confidential without the permission
of the holder of the information. Espionage is usually part of an institutional effort by a
government or corporation, and the term is most readily associated with state spying on potential
or actual enemies primarily for military purposes. Spying involving corporation is known as
industrial espionage (Wikidepia, The free Encyclopedia). In this unit, we are concerned with
industrial espionage. The purpose of espionage is to gather knowledge about an organization(s).
It may include the acquisition of intellectual property such as information on industry,
production, ideas, techniques and processes, recipes and formulas or it could include
sequestration of the property or operational information, such as that on customer data sets,
pricing, sales, marketing research and development, policies. It may describe activities such as
theft of trade secrets, bribery, blackmail and technological surveillance. The problem of
espionage is increasing more and more due to corporate competition and computer based data
storage. Industrial espionage commonly occurs in two ways.
a. A dissatisfied employee appropriate information to advance their own interests or to damage
the company.
b. A competitor seeks information to advance its own technological or financial interest.

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Insiders are generally considered the best sources for industrial espionage. Insiders can be
induced, willingly or under duress to provide information. Among the notable cases, was that of
Volkswagen. In 1993, car manufacturer Opel, the German division of General motors, accused
Volkswagen of industrial of espionage after Opel’s chief of production, Jose Ignacio Lopez and
seven other executives move to Volkswagen. Volkswagen subsequently threatened to sue for
defamation, resulting in a four-year legal battle. The case which was finally settled in 1997,
resulted in one of the largest settlements in the history of industrial espionage, with Volkswagen
agreeing to pay General Motors $100 million and to buy at least $1 billion of car parts from the
company over 7 years, although it did not explicitly apologize for Lopez’s behaviour.

PIRACY
Piracy as a criminal act is not a new problem. It is the copying of copyrighted materials by
unauthorized means. It can also be defined as the theft of one’s intellectual property. It has
become a major setback in development particularly in the entertainment industry in Nigeria and
world over. Advances in technology have made possible high-speed and high quality duplication
of pirates. Compact disks (CDs) either audio or video are the medium most often copied. Even
home computer owners have the ability to download and copy their own audio and video with
CD burners. According to the Nigeria Copyright Commission, (2007), film industry loses an
estimated N4.2 billion annually to illegal digital duplication, on-line piracy and unauthorized
rental of video works within the country.

Piracy refers to the illegal duplication and distribution of recordings. It takes three specific and
often confused forms:
1. Counterfeiting: The unauthorized recording of the pre-recorded sounds, as well as
the unauthorized duplication of original artwork, label, trademark and packaging.
2. Pirating: The unauthorized duplication of sounds or images only from a legitimate
recording.
3. Bootlegging: The unauthorized recording of a musical broadcast on radio, television or a
live concert. Bootlegs are known as undergo round recording (fisher and green 2004).

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There have been series of efforts by the industry players to curb the activities of the practice in
Nigeria but it is yet to record any positive result. For instance, key players in the music and film
industries keep rallying round markets and campaigning against piracy. The cartel of pirates is
domicile in big markets such as Alaba international market in Lagos, Main market, Onitsha in
Anambra, and other markets in Kano and Borno. The recent use of materials from the internet
has increased the activities of pirates and the potential abuse of copyright laws.

CONCLUSION:
With the growing pace of technology and the use of internet, many of these crimes are changing
direction. Hence in order to combat these crimes, security and law enforcement will need to
enhance their tools by becoming proficient at monitoring and investigating crimes using
computers and related information technology.

5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have been able to discuss burglary and robbery, explain the effect of labour
dispute on security. We also discussed espionage and piracy especially as they relate to the
entertainment industry.

6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What do you understand by the term piracy and what are the effort in place to checkmate
the menace by the Nigeria Copy Right Commission.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Osanyintiyi, S. (2009) Effects of Piracy in Nigeria.

Fischer R.J and Green, G (2004) Introduction to Security. Borlington, Elservier Butterworth
Heinemann.

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