Name: Reign Ceasa D.

Rosada 2022-03885
BS - BIOLOGY BOT 111.1 JK
Exercise #5
THE LEAVES

Introduction
Leaves are one of the most vital plant structures that perform numerous important functions for
the plant's survival. They are not only involved in the process of photosynthesis but also gas exchange,
transpiration, and storage of food reserves. The morphology and anatomy of leaves can vary significantly
between plant species, and their characteristics are often adapted to the plant's specific environment and
ecological niche. A leaf is an aerial, lateral, and typically dorsiventral stem protrusion. Botanically, leaves
are an intrinsic part of the stem system, and they originate at the apical bud (the developing tip of a stem)
alongside the stem's tissues. A leaf comprises a broad, extended blade (the lamina) and a stalk-like petiole
linked to the plant stem. However, leaves vary considerably in size, shape, and several other properties,
such as the form of the blade margin and the type of venation (arrangement of veins).
The study of leaves is crucial to plant biology because it provides insight into plants' adaptations
and survival strategies in different settings. The form and arrangement of a plant's leaves can explain much
about its ecology, such as its reaction to environmental elements such as light intensity, temperature, water
availability, and nutrient availability.
In this report, we will explore the different types of leaves found in plants, including simple and
compound leaves, and the differences between deciduous and evergreen leaves. We will also examine the
internal anatomy of leaves, including the roles of different tissues, such as the epidermis, mesophyll, and
veins. Additionally, we will investigate the various factors that can affect leaf structure and function, such
as environmental stress and nutrient availability. Overall, this report aims to comprehensively analyze
leaves, their structure, function, and adaptations. Through our investigations and analysis, we aim to
deepen our understanding of the significance of leaves in plant biology and ecology.

Materials
The materials used in this exercise were divided into three (3) parts; Shoots (1 foot long), Modified
leaves, and the Prepared slides.
 For the Shoots; Saccharum officinarum (Sugarcane), Zea mays (Corn), Bougainvillea spectabilis
(Bougainvillea), Hedychium sp. (Hardy Ginger), Ophiopogon jaburan (Lilyturf), Coleus blumei
(Mayana), Psidium guajava (Guava), Hisbiscus rosa-sinensis (Gumamela), Tithonia diversifolia (Wild
Sunflower), Citrus grandis leaf (Suha), Manihot esculenta (Cassava), Centella asiatica (Guto Kola), Cana
indica (Bandera Española), Rosa sp. (Rose), and any grass leaf.
For the Modified leaves, Allium cepa (Sibuyas), Aloe vera, Bougainvillea spectabilis
(Bougainvillea), Eichhornia crassipes (Water hyacinth), Musa sp. (Banana), Nepenthes sp. (Pitcher plant),
Opuntia sp. (Prickly pear), Mussaenda sp. (Doña Aurora), Euphorbia pulcherrima (Poinsettia), Citrus
microcarpa (Kalamansi), Bryophyllum pinnatum (katakataka), Pisum sativum (Pea), and any grass.
The needed prepared slides were a cross section of a dicot and a monocot plant leaf. These prepared
slides were observed under the electric light compound microscope.

Procedure
The exercise was separated into two sections. The morphology of the leaves was the focus of the
initial portion of the activity. Students were instructed to identify variations in the leaf kinds of each plant
specimen they observed. Students were instructed to take photographs of the leaves of each plant species
and create an accurate sketch of its structure. Using the collected data, they were instructed to construct
and complete Table 1, which is about the Morphology differences between Monocot and Dicot leaves,
Table 2, which is about the variation of the specimens' leaves; and Table 3, which is about the
specialization of modification in leaves.
The second section centered on the anatomy of leaves. Under a microscope, prepared slides of
Ixora sp. leaf in cross-section and Zea mays leaf in cross-section were examined. Students were instructed
to photograph, draw, and identify the leaf structure of each plant species.

Results and Discussion

A. Morphology of the Leaf

Leaf classification considers a variety of factors. They can be classified according to their
form, duration, venation, modifications, bases, shapes, margins, apex, lobing, texture and surface.
Below are the plant specimens' leaves along with their respective illustrations:
 i. Shoot
Saccharum officinarum (Sugarcane)

Figure 1.1 Saccharum officinarum Figure 1.2 Saccharum officinarum sketch

©Annelie Marquardt/Sugarreasearch

Sugar cane is an example of a plant with simple leaves; its leaves are long and narrow, with parallel
veins running along their length. They are pointed at the tip and feature a serrated edge. The leaves arise
in a whorled pattern from the stem. Sugarcane leaves play a significant part in transpiration, the process
by which the plant loses water through stomata on the leaf surface.

Zea mays (Corn)

Figure 2.1 Zea mays Figure 2.2 Zea mays sketch

©Arieh Tal/GoBotany

Zea mays is an example of a plant with simple leaves; long and narrow leaves are arranged
alternately along the stem. The leaves are characterized by prominent parallel veins that run the length of
the leaf and are separated by narrow ridges. The edges of the leaves are serrated, giving them a saw-like
appearance. The leaves of Zea mays are also specialized for capturing light. They have a high surface
area-to-volume ratio, which allows for maximum exposure to sunlight. The chloroplasts in the cells of the
leaf blade are organized in a way that maximizes the capture of light energy for photosynthesis.
Bougainvillea spectabilis (Bougainvillea)

Figure 3.1 Bougainvillea spectabilis Figure 3.2 Bougainvillea spectabilis sketch

©Prenn/Plant.nes.ncsu

Bougainvillea spectabilis, commonly known as bougainvillea, are plants with compound leaves
that have dark green leaves that are small, ovate, and slightly pointed. The leaves are arranged alternately
along the stem and have a smooth surface with a slightly glossy texture. The leaves are not the most
distinctive feature of bougainvillea, as they are often overshadowed by the plant's colorful papery bracts
surrounding the small, inconspicuous flowers.

Hedychium sp. (Hardy Ginger)

Figure 4.1 Hedychium sp Figure 4.2 Hedychium sp sketch

©Forest/Kimstar

Hedychium is a genus of strong gingers with huge, lush, and vibrant leaves. Typically, the leaves are lance-
or oblong-shaped and alternate along the stem. They have a glossy surface and distinct veins that run from
the base to the tip of the leaf. The leaves can reach 1 to 2 feet long and come in a range of hues, from dark
green to variegated with white or yellow streaks. The surface of the leaves is covered with fine hairs,
which can help to trap moisture and provide some protection against herbivores. The hairs also give the
leaves a soft, velvety texture. One notable feature of Hedychium sp. leaves is their arrangement on the
stem. The leaves are typically arranged in two opposite rows, with each leaf alternating along the stem in
a flat plane, giving the stem a flattened appearance. This arrangement maximizes the exposure of each
leaf to sunlight while minimizing shading of the lower leaves.

Ophiopogon jaburan (Lilyturf)

Figure 5.1 Ophiopogon jaburan Figure 5.2 Ophiopogon jaburan sketch

©Gardenia.net

Lilyturf is narrow and spinose in its apex. Its leaves are linear, with an entire leaf margin and a
pointed apex. It has long and slender, reaching up to 30 cm in length. They are dark green in color, glossy
and leathery in texture. The leaves grow in a clumping pattern and are typically arranged in a rosette
formation. Ophiopogon jaburan's leaves unique is their ability to grow in dense clusters, forming a
groundcover that resembles a grassy lawn. This makes the plant an attractive landscaping option for areas
where traditional grasses may not thrive, such as in shady areas or in areas with poor soil quality. It has
also the ability to change color with the seasons. In the fall and winter, the leaves may turn bronze or
reddish-brown, adding seasonal interest to the landscape.
Coleus blumei (Mayana)

Figure 6.1 Ophiopogon jaburan Figure 6.2 Ophiopogon jaburan sketch

©Clifton Galasinco
 The leaves of Coleus blumei are a variety of colors, including green, pink, red, and purple. The
leaves are somewhat rounded and slightly hairy. They have a soft, delicate texture and a faintly sweet
aroma. The leaf margins of these plants are crenate. Coleus blumei is also known for its ability to change
its leaf color and pattern in response to light, temperature, and humidity. This phenomenon is due to the
presence of pigments called anthocyanins, which are sensitive to environmental factors. The leaf
specialization of Coleus blumei has made it a popular ornamental plant in gardens, patios, and indoor
spaces.

Psidium guajava (Guava)

Figure 7.1 Psidium guajava Figure 7.2 Psidium guajava sketch

©Clifton Galasinco

The leaves of Psidium guajava are elliptical and shiny. They are grouped in pairs on the stem and
have a smooth border. The leaves are dark green and slightly leathery in texture. The leaf margin is
complete, with smooth, untoothed margins. The upper surface of the leaf is smooth, while the underside
is slightly rough. The leaf of Psidium guajava is well adapted to the tropical environments where the plant
is found, with its simple structure and protective stipules providing efficient means of capturing and
conserving energy and nutrients.
Hisbiscus rosa-sinensis (Gumamela)

Figure 8.1 Hisbiscus rosa-sinensis Figure 8.2 Hisbiscus rosa-sinensis sketch

©Willam Santos

The leaves of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis as some unique leaf specializations. Its leaves are alternate,
simple, and ovate in shape, with toothed margins. The leaves are arranged in a spiral pattern along the
stem, which helps to maximize light interception.The leaf blade is typically dark green and smooth, with
prominent veins running from the base to the tip. The base of the leaf is asymmetrical and slightly lobed,
with the lobes pointing towards the stem. The petiole is long and slender, allowing the leaf blade to move
and adjust to changes in light intensity. One of the most distinctive leaf specializations of Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis is the presence of nectar glands on the undersides of the leaf blade near the base. These glands
produce a sweet liquid that attracts ants, which can provide protection against herbivores. The nectar can
also serve as a food source for pollinators.

Tithonia diversifolia (Wild Sunflower)

Figure 9.1 Tithonia diversifolia Figure 9.2 Tithonia diversifolia sketch

©Lucidcentral.org
 Tithonia diversifolia, commonly known as Mexican sunflower, has some unique leaf
specializations. Its leaves are alternate, simple, and ovate in shape, with toothed margins. The leaves are
arranged in a spiral pattern along the stem, which helps to maximize light interception. The leaf base is
asymmetrical and slightly lobed, with the lobes pointing towards the stem. The leaf surface is covered
with small hairs or trichomes, which can help to reduce water loss and protect against herbivores.

Citrus grandis (Suha)

Figure 10.1 Citrus grandis leaf Figure 10.2 Citrus grandis leaf sketch
©Ayushvedah.com

Citrus grandis, popularly known as Suha, has glossy, dark green leaves. They have an oval form,
a pointy tip, and a slightly toothed edge. The leaves are leathery and can resist water loss, allowing the
plant to survive in dry conditions. One leaf specialization of Citrus grandis is the presence of oil glands
on the surface of the leaves. These glands produce a fragrant essential oil that gives the leaves their
characteristic scent. The oil can also repel insects and protect the plant from herbivores.

Manihot esculenta (Cassava)

Figure 11.1 Manihot esculenta Figure 11.2 Manihot esculenta sketch

©Maria Leburanan/Pics4learning
 The Manihot esculenta, also known as cassava, is an example of a plant with compound leaves;
they are deeply lobed with 5-7 finger-like leaflets. They are arranged in an alternate pattern on the stem
with a slightly waxy surface. The leaves are light to medium green in color and have a slightly hairy
texture. They can grow up to 30 cm in length.

Centella asiatica (Guto Kola)

Figure 12.1 Centella asiatica Figure 12.2 Centella asiatica sketch

©beminimalist.com

The leaves of Centella asiatica, also known as Guto Kola or Indian Pennywort, are up to 6
centimeters in length and tiny and fan-shaped. They have a slightly scalloped edge and are bright green
in color. On the stem, the leaves form a rosette and are arranged in an alternating pattern. Their texture is
delicate and silky.

Rosa sp. (Rose)

Figure 13.1 Rosa sp. Figure 13.2 Rosa sp. Sketch

©Keir Morse
The leaves of Rosa sp. or roses are typically compound leaves that are alternate on the stem. The leaflets
are serrated, meaning they have jagged edges. The leaves of the rose plant are specialized for
photosynthesis, the process by which they produce food for the plant. They have a large surface area to
maximize the absorption of sunlight and contain chloroplasts, specialized structures within the cells that
are responsible for converting light energy into chemical energy.

ii. Modified leaves

Allium cepa (Sibuyas)

Figure 14.1 Allium cepa. Figure 14.2 Allium cepa sketch

©Stephen Ausmus/AgriResdfr

The leaves of Allium cepa, commonly known as is an example of a radical leaf (bulb scale). It
functions as food storage of the plant and are typically long, flat, and slender with a waxy texture. They
contain large amounts of carbohydrates in the form of fructans, which are long chains of fructose
molecules. These fructans are stored in the bulb of the onion plant and are used as an energy source during
periods of dormancy or when the plant is growing new shoots.

Aloe vera

Figure 15.1 Aloe vera. Figure 15.2 Allium cepa sketch

©Getty images
 Aloe vera is an example of plant with radical leaves they are long, pointed leaves of the aloe vera
plant, which is a succulent plant species. The leaves of Aloe vera are thick and fleshy, which allows them
to store water for extended periods. They are also covered in a waxy cuticle that helps to prevent water
loss through transpiration. The leaves are arranged in a rosette pattern, with each leaf growing from a
central stem or crown.

Bougainvillea spectabilis (Bougainvillea)

Figure 16.1 Bougainvillea spectabilis Figure 16.2 Bougainvillea spectabilis sketch

©Lalithamba

Bougainvillea spectabilis, commonly known as Bougainvillea, has modified leaves called bracts
that surround its small, inconspicuous flowers. The bracts are actually modified leaves that have evolved
to become brightly colored and showy in order to attract pollinators. The true flowers of the plant are
small and inconspicuous and are surrounded by these brightly colored bracts.

Eichhornia crassipes (Water hyacinth)

Figure 17.1 Eichhornia crassipes Figure 17.2 Eichhornia crassipes sketch

©Andreas Kay
 Eichhornia crassipes, commonly known as water hyacinth, is a floating aquatic plant with large,
shiny, and oval-shaped leaves that are arranged in a rosette pattern. One of the most notable adaptations
of the water hyacinth leaf is the presence of air-filled chambers in the leaf tissue. These chambers provide
buoyancy, allowing the leaves to float on the surface of the water. This adaptation is important for survival
in an aquatic environment, as it allows the plant to maintain access to sunlight and oxygen, which are
necessary for photosynthesis and respiration.

Musa sp. (Banana)

Figure 18.1 Musa sp. Figure 18.2 Musa sp. Sketch

©Jobrestful/iStock

The leaf is the primary photosynthetic organ of the banana. The blade of the leaf is thin and
flexible, allowing it to bend and sway in the wind without breaking. The large surface area of the blade
maximizes light interception, and the parallel venation ensures efficient transport of water and nutrients
throughout the leaf. It is also adapeted to withstand the humid tropical climate in which they grow.

Nepenthes sp. (Pitcher plant)

Figure 19.1 Nepenthes sp. Figure 19.2 Nepenthes sp. Sketch

©Terri Green
 Nepenthes, commonly known as pitcher plants, have highly modified leaves adapted for
carnivorous purposes. The pitcher-like structure of pitcher plants is for capturing prey. The insects are
attracted to the cavity of the plant. They kill their prey by drowning them inside the pitcher.

Opuntia sp. (Prickly pear)

Figure 20.1 Opuntia sp. Figure 20.2 Opuntia sp. Sketch

©Terri Green

Cactus spines are leaves. These significantly changed leaves contribute to the
adaptation and survival of the plant. While these plants are typically located in arid
environments, altering their leaves to reduce water evaporation is crucial for survival.

Mussaenda sp. (Doña Aurora)

Figure 21.1 Mussaenda sp. Figure 21.2 Mussaenda sp. Sketch

©Toptropicals.com
 Doña Aurora is also a plant with a colored-leaves which functions for pollination. Since pollinators
are attracted to colorful specimen, those plants with colored leaves could attract more pollinators than
those plants with usually green-colored leaves

Euphorbia pulcherrima (Poinsettia)

Figure 22.1 Euphorbia pulcherrima. Figure 22.2 Euphorbia pulcherrima sketch

©Gardenia.net

The dark green, slender leaves are ovate with smooth margins (the entire leaf margin) or pointy
lobes and a long, narrow tip. Bracts are colorful, petal-like structures (modified leaves). Poinsettia bracts
are normally brilliant red. However, there are cultivars with pink or white bracts. The ring of colorful
structures we commonly refer to as flower petals are modified leaves that lure pollinators to the
comparatively small and inconspicuous true blooms in the center.

Citrus microcarpa (Kalamansi)

Figure 23.1 Citrus microcarpa. Figure 23.2 Euphorbia pulcherrima sketch

©RNTMC
 Typically, kalamansi leaves are tiny, glossy, and green. They are ovate or elliptical, with a pointed
apex and serrated edges. The leaves are linked to a short petiole and grow in pairs opposite one another
on the stem. Kalamansi plants are protected from herbivores in the environment by their spines.

Bryophyllum pinnatum (katakataka)

Figure 24.1 Bryophyllum pinnatum. Figure 24.2 Bryophyllum pinnatum sketch

©Ruswanto/dreamstime

The leaves of Bryophyllum pinnatum are fleshy and contain a clear gel-like substance. They are
oval-shaped with serrated edges and can grow up to 15 cm long. The leaves of the katakataka can produce
a new plant. Aside from photosynthesis, this plant's leaf functions as a reproductive organ.

Pisum sativum (Pea)

Figure 25.1 Pisum sativum Figure 25.2 Pisum sativum sketch

©Climbers.lsa.umich

Pisum sativum is one of the relatively few plant species with compound leaves that are genetically
adaptable. Pea leaves have a range of specialized organs, including leaflets, tendrils, pulvini, and stipules,
allowing for identifying mutations that change or impact various leaf sections.
 The specimens were each evaluated, and the data for their respective component was then
tabulated, shown in Table 2 below. The shoot is simply the above-ground structures that are visible. Shoots
may be composed of numerous sections, such as the stem, but the leaves are the primary focus of this
experiment. It was observed that the specimens displayed the classifications for the various types of leaves
and their functional and structural differences. The following plants belonged to numerous leaf categories.
The leaf specimens were initially categorized by their Simple or Compound morphology.

The specimens were then classified further by identifying them according to the type of compound
leaves to which they belonged, as well as the variants of specimens with pinnate leaves. It was also
identified according to the type of leaf to which they belonged in terms of duration, type of venation or
how veins or nerves are arranged on the leaf blade, the particular alteration of their leaf stalks, leaf bases,
form or shape of their leaves, the differences in their leaf margins, the degree of lobbing in their leaves,
their leaf apex, leaf texture, leaf surface, and other taxonomic words about the characteristics of the leaves
of the specimens.

The plant specimens were categorised according to whether they possessed monocot or dicot
leaves. The observed and gathered data are shown in Table 1 below

Table 1. Morphological features of monocot and dicot leaves

Characters Monocot Dicot
Leaf Stalk Absent Present
Leaf Sheath Present Absent
Lamina or Blade Parallel Reticulate
Venation Parallel Reticulate
Stipule Absent Present
Ligule Present Absent
Others n/a n/a

The plant specimens in Table 2 below were tabulated according to their variations in the different
leaf sections. The following specimens were classified differently based on their leaf structures, including
their leaf base, leaf apex, leaf shape or outline, margin, leaf venation, and leaf surface.

Table 2 Variations in the different leaf parts

Specimen Base Tip Outline Margin Venation Leaf
surface
Saccharum Sheating Acuminate Linear Entire Parallel Glabrous
 officinarum

Zea mays Perfoliate Acute Linear Entire Parallel Glabrous

Bougainvillea Cordate Mucronate Orbicular Undulate Pinnately-netted Glabrous

spectabilis

Hedychium Perfoliate Caudate Ovate Undulate Pinnate Glabrous

sp.

Ophiopogon Perfoliate Attenuate Lanceolate Entire Parallel Glabrous

jaburan

Coleus Cordate Caudate Dentate Entire Pinnately- Pubescent

blumei netted

Psidium Oblique Rounded Elliptic Undulate Pinnately- Glabrous

guajava netted

Hibiscusrosa- Cordate Acuminate Ovate Serrate Palmate Glabrous

sinensis

Rosa sp Acute Cuspidate Elliptic Undulate Pinnately- Glabrous

netted

Citrus Cuneate Obcordate Elliptic Entire Pinnately- Glabrous

grandis netted

Centella Clasping or Obtuse Peltate Crenate Palmately-netted Glabrous

asiatica amplexicaul

Tithonia Cordate Acuminate Palmately Coarsely Palmate Glabrous

diversifolia lobed toothed

Manihot Cordate Acuminate Lanceolate Dentate Palmate Glabrous

esculenta

Casa indica Sheathing Acuminate Lanceolate Entire Parallel Glabrous

Table 3 below displays the various leaf modification specializations seen in the modified leaves
specimen. The plant specimens were categorized according to their distinct leaf modifications and
specialized functions.

Table 3 Variations in the different leaf parts

 Specimen Modification Funtion
Allium cepa Radica Food storage
Aloe vera Spine-succulent Water storage
Bougainvillea spectabilis Bracts Attract pollinators
Eichhornia crassipes Ovate Float in water
Musa sp. Bud scale Protection of fruits
Opuntia sp. Spine Water storage
Mussaenda sp Bract Floral leaf, pollination
Euphorbia pulcherrima Bract Floaral leaf, pollination
Citrus macrocarpa Spine Protection
Bryophyllum pinnatum Leaflets Reproduction
Pisum sativum Tendril Support and climbing

B. Anatomy of the Leaf

a) Basic leaf structure

midrib

Leaf margin
entire (not toothed
Leaf blade or lobed)
(lamina)

Pinnate
venation

petiole
Leaf stalk

Axillary bud
Figure 26. Sketch of a basic leaf
 Plant leaves generally comprise a flat, light-collecting surface called the blade or lamina,
connected to the stem by a stalk called the petiole. Where the leaf joins the stem, there may be an axillary
bud, and a pair of stipules may also be present. Depending on the species, stipules can take different forms,
such as blade-like, papery, or spine-like. The vein pattern on the leaf's surface is often visible, indicating
the internal plumbing system. Dicotyledonous leaves usually have multiple lateral veins branching out
from a central midrib, while monocotyledonous leaves typically have parallel main veins that may or may
not be prominent.

b) Graminoid (Grass-Like) Leaves

blade

ligule

sheath
auricle

Figure 27. Sketch of Zea mays leaf

Zea mays, or corn, is an example of a plant with grass-like leaves. These leaves are characterized by
their elongated, narrow shape and parallel veins, a common feature of monocotyledonous plants. The
sheath of the leaf overlaps with others, resulting in several concentric layers of sheaths surrounding the
stem's lower part. These overlapping sheaths provide protection and support to the stem, preventing
damage from environmental stressors like wind and rain.
 C. Internal Anatomy of Leaves

a) Dicot leaf

At the upper surface of the Ixora leaf, a thin, waxy layer

called the cuticle covers the leaf surface. It provides a protective
barrier against water loss and other external factors. Below the
cuticle, the adaxial epidermis can be observed, which consists of
a single layer of closely packed cells. These cells have a cutinized
layer, a layer of cutin, a waterproof material that helps prevent
water loss from the leaf. The palisade layer is located just below
the adaxial epidermis and is composed of elongated cells
perpendicular to the leaf surface. These cells contain abundant
Figure 28.1 lxora leaf in cross chloroplasts, which are responsible for carrying out
section
photosynthesis. However, no chloroplasts are present in the
epidermal cells since they do not play a direct role in photosynthesis. Intercellular spaces are also not
present between the cells of the palisade layer since these cells are tightly packed together to enhance light
absorption. Moving down further, we can see the spongy mesophyll, composed of loosely packed,
irregularly shaped cells with abundant intercellular spaces. The spongy mesophyll plays a crucial role in
gas exchange between the leaf and the surrounding environment.

Finally, at the bottom of the leaf, we can observe the abaxial epidermis, which is similar in structure
to the adaxial epidermis. However, we can locate stomata in this layer, which are tiny openings allowing
gas exchange. The stomata are composed of two specialized cells called guard cells, which regulate the
opening and closing of the stomatal pore. Subsidiary cells may also be present around the stomata, which
help to regulate stomatal opening and closing.

Parts of the lxora leaf in cross section

 epidermis

Palisade layer

phloem

xylem

Bundle sheath

Spongy mesophyll

b) Monocot leaf

The epidermis, the outermost layer of cells, can be

observed in the cross-section of a Zea mays leaf. The
epidermal cells are transparent and flat, allowing light to reach
the leaf's deeper layers. Bulliform cells, which are big, thin-
walled cells essential in leaf rolling and unrolling in response
to variations in water supply, can be found among the
epidermal cells. Several layers of mesophyll cells, the major
site of photosynthesis in the leaf, are visible as one moves
inward. In C4 plants such as Zea mays, the mesophyll cells
form a wreath-like arrangement around the vascular bundles.
Figure 27.1 Zea mays leaf in cross The Kranz anatomy describes this configuration. The vascular
section bundles are made up of xylem and phloem tissues, which
transport water and nutrients throughout the plant. A layer of bundle sheath cells surrounds the vascular
bundles, which are specialized cells that wrap the veins and regulate the transport of water and nutrients.
These bundle sheath cells in C4 plants are also engaged in photosynthesis. They contain chlorophyll and
are the site of some photosynthetic processes during C4 photosynthesis. In C4 photosynthesis, mesophyll
cells fix carbon dioxide through organic acids. These organic acids are then transferred to the bundle
sheath cells, emitting CO2 once more. The CO2 gets extremely concentrated in the bundle sheath cells,
facilitating carbon fixation into sugars.
 Parts of the Zea mays leaf

phloem

Upper epidermis

xylem

Bundle sheath

Spongy mesophyll
Lower
epidermis

Conclusion

Leaves are vital organs of plants, serving critical functions in photosynthesis, gas exchange, and
transpiration. Their internal and external anatomy and morphology play a significant role in their form
and function, and extensive research has been conducted to understand their adaptations to various
environmental conditions such as light, temperature, water, and nutrient availability.

Understanding plant adaptation of leaves is essential for plant survival as they are responsible for
photosynthesis, gas exchange, and transpiration. The morphology of leaves, including their shape, size,
and arrangement, determines their function and efficiency in performing these critical processes. By
studying leaf morphology, researchers can gain insights into how plants have adapted to different
environmental conditions, such as light, temperature, water, and nutrient availability. This knowledge can
help us better understand plant growth and adaptation mechanisms. Different plant species have evolved
unique leaf morphologies that are adapted to their respective environments. By analyzing leaf morphology
across plant species, researchers can identify similarities and differences in leaf structure and organization,
providing clues to the evolutionary relationships between different plant groups. It can help improve plant
productivity and sustainability, and identifying the morphological characteristics associated with higher
crop yields can aid in the development of more efficient and productive farming practices.
 Furthermore, the various ways plant change and specialize their leaves show how they use these
changes to help them survive. Plant morphology is still an important part of plant biology, and more
research in this area will lead to more exciting discoveries and fresh concepts.

Study Questions

1. What is a ligule? Where is it found in your specimen? Do you find it in both monocot and dicot
leaves? Any taxonomic value?

In monocotyledonous plants, a ligule is a narrow protrusion found where the leaf blade meets the
sheath. It is made up of several cell types and plays an important part in the leaf's functional and structural
characteristics. Because the ligule is often missing in dicotyledonous leaves, it is a useful taxonomic
characteristic for distinguishing these two plant groupings.

2. Do you find compound leaves only in dicots? Why?

No, not only dicots have compound leaves. Compound leaves are more common in dicots but
present in some monocots.
The leaf blade is divided into many leaflets to generate compound leaves. The leaflets may be
arranged in various patterns, including pinnate, palmate, and bipinnate. The formation of compound leaves
is believed to be an adaptation that enables plants to utilize space and light more efficiently. By dividing
the leaf blade into smaller leaflets, the plant can increase its surface area for photosynthesis without taking
up more room. While the formation of compound leaves is more prevalent in dicots, several monocots
have also evolved this trait to fit their particular environmental requirements. Overall, the presence or lack
of compound leaves is not a reliable taxonomic trait for separating monocots from dicots.

3. Are there a significance of compound leaves relative to strong winds? How about to leaf-eating
animals? Justify your answer.

Compound leaves may be less susceptible to damage or tearing from severe winds than simple
leaves. This is because compound leaves are formed of tiny leaflets that can bend and flex separately,
lowering the leaf's overall stress. In contrast, simple leaves are frequently big and flat, making them more
susceptible to wind damage. Nevertheless, complex leaves may also have disadvantages for animals that
consume leaves. This is because compound leaves consist of numerous leaflets, which are more
susceptible to herbivory. If an animal consumes one or more leaflets, for instance, it may only destroy a
tiny area of the leaf instead of the entire leaf. This may entice the animal to continue consuming the
remaining leaflets, resulting in greater damage.
The significance of complex leaves in relation to strong winds and leaf-eating animals will depend
on the environmental circumstances and types of herbivores present in a particular ecosystem. In some
instances, the benefits of compound leaves may outweigh the downsides, while in others, the converse
may be true.
4. In cacti, the leaves are reduced into spines. Give some reasons why the cacti underwent such
modification?

Cacti have transformed their leaves into spines for several reasons.
• Spines have a far smaller surface area than leaves, which aids in water conservation. This is a
crucial adaptation for cacti, which live in arid, water-scarce habitats.
• Spines defend the cactus from herbivores and other creatures that may try to eat or harm it. The
sharp spines can dissuade animals from approaching the cactus and cause discomfort if an animal
attempts to bite or rub against it.
• While spines are not as efficient at photosynthesis as leaves, they can nevertheless carry out some
photosynthesis. This enables the cactus to create part of its sustenance even without leaves.
• By removing or reducing the size of its leaves, a cactus can decrease the shade it casts on itself.
This permits more sunlight to reach the plant's surface, which is necessary for photosynthesis.
The transfmation of leaves into spines is an essential adaptation for cacti, allowing them to survive in
harsh and dry settings.

5. In pitcher plants, the leaves terminate with a pitcher-like structure. What special function does this
specialized structure serve the whole plant?
 Pitcher plants have a specific structure at the end of their leaves that attract, trap, and digest insects
and other tiny creatures. It holds a liquid containing digestive enzymes and other chemicals that aid in the
digestion of prey that falls into it.
The pitcher plant uses the pitcher structure to augment its nutrient needs, especially in nutrient-
deficient settings. The plant is suited to environments with insufficient nitrogen, phosphorus, and other
essential elements for growth. The structure of the pitcher enables the plant to collect and digest insects
and other tiny creatures, which gives the plant the nutrients it needs to survive and grow. It also allows
the plant to adapt to its environment and improve its fitness. Collecting and digesting insects, the plant
obtains nutrients that would otherwise be unavailable, enabling it to grow larger and produce more seeds.
In addition, the structure of the pitcher may discourage animals from consuming the plant since it provides
an additional line of protection against predation.

6. What competitive advantage would be gained by a plant that has colored leaves?

Plants have evolved various adaptations to compete for resources and maximize their fitness. One
such adaptation is the development of colored leaves, which can provide several competitive advantages.
The pigments like chlorophyll, carotenoids, and anthocyanins can boost photosynthesis by
absorbing and utilizing light more efficiently. This plant's improved energy production and growth rate
can give it a competitive advantage over nearby plants. Its colored leaves can be visual stimuli to attract
pollinators like bees, butterflies, and birds. Brightly colored leaves, such as red, orange, and yellow, can
serve as a visual indication to pollinators, encouraging them to visit the plant and deposit pollen. This can
result in higher reproductive success and the development of additional seeds. Certain colorful leaves
may contain substances that are unappealing to herbivores or even harmful to them. This can discourage
herbivores from feeding on the plant, decreasing the danger of damage and enhancing the plant's
competitive advantage. Lastly, colored pigments such as anthocyanins may also function as protective
compounds against environmental stressors such as drought, high temperatures, and UV radiation. This
can enable the plant to survive and thrive in harsh surroundings, providing it a competitive advantage over
plants that are less acclimated to these conditions.

7. What are the green-stained objects within the mesophyll cells, and what is their function?
 The green structures within mesophyll cells are chloroplasts, the organelles responsible for
photosynthesis in plant cells. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, which gives plants green color and helps
them absorb and use solar energy to make glucose and oxygen. During photosynthesis, chloroplasts
absorb solar energy and transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. This process gives
plants the energy to develop and perform other metabolic activities. It also releases oxygen into the
atmosphere, essential for life on Earth. Mesophyll cells possess an abundance of chloroplasts, enabling
them to capture and utilize light energy more effectively.

8. What is the function of the cuticle?

The cuticle is a waxy, water-repellent coating that covers plant leaves and other aerial organs. The
cuticle's major role is to prevent water loss from the plant, lowering the risk of dehydration and preserving
the right water balance. Just beneath the cuticle layer, epidermal cells create a complex mixture of lipids
and wax-like chemicals that make up the cuticle. This layer is highly impermeable to water and gases,
protecting the plant from external pressures such as drought, heat, and wind. In addition to reducing water
loss, the cuticle protects the plant from harm caused by ultraviolet light, herbivores, and diseases. Certain
cuticle forms include substances that are harmful to herbivores or have antifungal or antibacterial
characteristics, providing additional protection against pests and illnesses.
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