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ch nia
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 HANDBOOK
of
MECHANICAL DESIGN
 HANDBOOK
of
MECHANICAL DESIGN

BY

GEORGE F. NORDENHOLT
Editor of Product Engineering

JOSEPH KERR
Managing Editor of Product Engineering

AND

JOHN SASSO
Associate Editor of Product Engineering

v. o>
ee
Woons

DAASSS2.
First Epirion
Tutrp IMPRESSION

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

NEW YORK AND LONDON
1942
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CopyricHt, 1942, BY THE

McGraw-Hitt Book Company, Inc.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

All rights reserved. This book, or

parts thereof, may not be reproduced
an any form without permission of
the publishers.

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA.

 PREFACE
Many engineering departments, perhaps most, compile and keep up to date a
manual which may be called the standards book, reference book, engineering depart-
ment standards, or which may be given some other name. Also, many design
engineers build their own book or manual. In such books will be found a vast fund
of engineering data and many methods of design procedure not found in existing
handbooks.
When Product Engineering was launched as a publication to serve the design
engineers, it was obvious to the editors that a great service could be rendered to the
profession by gathering and publishing data, information, and design procedures such
as are contained in engineering department manuals. Thus, the first number of
Product Engineering in January, 1930, contained a reference-book sheet for design
calculations, a feature which has been continued in practically every number. Soon
afterward, there was added to Product Engineering’s editorial content another regular
feature, a two-page spread illustrating standard constructions, possible variations by
which to achieve a desired result, and similar design standards covering constructions,
drives, and controls.
It was soon found impossible to meet all the requests for additional copies of
reference-book sheets and design standards. The demand continued to increase and
numerous readers suggested that the material be compiled into book form and pub-
lished. It was in answer to this demand that the authors compiled this book.
Other than the major portion of the chapter on materials and a few other pages
that have been added to round out the treatment of certain subjects, all the material
in this book appeared in past numbers of Product Engineering, although some of it has
been condensed or re-edited. Very little of the material in this book can be found in
the conventional handbooks, for this Handbook of Mechanical Design contains practi-
cally no explanations of theoretical design. It confines itself to practical design
methods and procedures that have been in use in engineering design departments.
The authors will welcome suggestions from users of this book and especially
desire to be notified of any errors.
We wish to make special acknowledgment of the material on typical designs
appearing in Chapters IV and VI, by Fred Firnhaber, now of Landis Tool Company;
the nomograms by Carl P. Nachod, vice-president of the Nachod & U. 8. Signal Co.;
the standard procedure in the design of springs by W. M. Griffith of Atlas Imperial
Diesel Engine Company; the spring charts by F. Franz; the methods for calculating
belt drives and other nomograms by Emory N. Kemler, now associate professor of
mechanical engineering at Purdue University; the nomograms for engineering calcu-
lations by M. G. Van Voorhis, now on the editorial staff of Product Engineering; and
to 8. A. Kilpatrick and O. J. Schaefer for their brilliant series of articles, which have
W
V1 PREFACE

been included in slightly condensed form, on the design of formed thin-sheet aluminum-
alloy sections. Acknowledgment is also made here of data on properties of materials
contributed by the Aluminum Company of America, United States Steel Corporation,
and the American Foundrymen’s Association.
Other engineers whose contributions to Product Engineering have been incorpo-
rated in this book are H. M. Brayton, O. E. Brown, E. Cowan, C. Donaldson, R. G. N.
Evans, C. H. Leis, A. D. McKenzie, G. A. Schwartz, A. M. Wasbauer, B. B. Ramey,
J. W. Harper, H. M. Richardson, G. A. Ruehmling, T. H. Nelson, E. Touceda, W. 8.
Rigby, R. 8. Elberty, Jr., and G. Smiley.
GEORGE F. NORDENHOLT,
JOSEPH KERR,
JOHN SASSO.
New York,
April, 1942.
 \ WHOLE
QhAASS._,
7

CONTENTS at
PsGE
JPveyDN AYA GI: dea chats woe eee ce ISDN a LOOANGE et ees OU Fate els ary bak Un CRPR EMT there RS ge OP a eR Vv

CHAPTERI

CHARTS AND TABLES FOR GENERAL ARITHMETICAL CALCULATIONS.................--..0.--- 1

Are length versus Central Angle. Chordal Height and Length of Chord. Length of Material for Bends.
Circular Segments. Volumes in Tanks, Horizontal Round. Volumes in Tanks, Vertical Round. Volume,
Weight, and Cost. Weights of Cylindrical Pieces. Chart of Unit and Total Weights. Chart of Weights
and Volumes. Moment of Inertia of Prisms; Flywheels; Gears and Armatures. Radii of Gyration.
Transferring Moments of Inertia to Parallel Axis. WR? of Symmetrical bodies. Centrifugal Force.
Forces in Toggle Joint. Linear Motion. Rotary Motion. Mean Cooling Temperature. Solution of
Ohm’s Equations. Total Resistance of Parallel Circuits.

CHAPTER II

TNL GRTSTETEA TEAS lass ached RESERPs Ge aeaE a ee YO II chess PN oR oper eG em Oa GN a)

Selection of Materials. Cast Irons. Alloy Cast Irons. Effect of Nickel and Chromium on Cast Iron.
Malleable Iron Castings. Cast Carbon Steels. High Alloy Cast Steels. Low Alloy Cast Steels. Corro-
sion and Heat-resistant Cast Steels. Properties of Stainless Steel. Iron-nickel-chromium Alloys. Alumi-
num Base Alloys. Magnesium Base Alloys. Insulating Materials. Plastic Materials. Phenolic
Laminated Molded Materials. Steels for Automotive Parts.

CHAPTER
III

IVAN SBAINID ES ER WiCAUR ES beeam tepe ner nt ears)unta rs ra EERE NIE Pye goal te RSENS her tay ateaoe. erm email
Stress Calculations for Thin Aluminum Sheet Sections. Compression Members. Angles in Compression.
Shear Members. Vertical Stiffeners for Shear Resisting Webs. Diagonal Tension Webs. Hollow
Girders. Box Sections Subjected to Torsion. Chart for Determining Bending Moments. Deflection of
Variously Loaded Beams. Stresses in Cantilever Beams. Tensile Strength of Round Wires. Rectangular
Moments of Inertia.

CHAPTER
IV

[ARCHES WE OCKSPAND HASTENTNGSin ass ened mem ine aeeamieseti 5 ike a etieim oleae cuca ecw Gey 9 OO!
Locking Devices. Retaining and Locking Detents. Wire Locksand Snap Rings. Taper-Pin Applications.
Hinges and Pivots. Clamping Shoes and Plugs. Lock Bolts and Indexing Mechanisms. Machine
Clamps. Door and Cover Fastenings. Bolt Diameter, Load, and Stress.

CHAPTERV

SERIIN GS Seen mms eRN rr en sur i SPUN rteDME Reet Pencv rau 2 co Ri Calan Saget nan ain mace eee lel
Designs of Helical Springs. Spring Wire Specifications. Design Stresses. Torsional Moduli. Allowable
Stresses Based on Endurance Limits. Natural Frequency. Formulas for Helical Springs. Permissible
Manufacturing Tolerances. Form for Design Calculations. Standard Drawings for Springs. Table of
Wire Gages and Diameters, with Their Squares, Cubes, and Fourth Powers. Inspection and Testing of
Springs. Graphical Solution of Helical Spring Formulas. Helical Spring Charts for Specified Ratio of
Loads and Lengths. Designs of Tension Spring Ends. Graphical Designs of Flat Cantilever Springs.
Graphical Designs of Semielliptic Laminated Springs.
vii

39376
Vill CONTENTS
PaGE
CHAPTER VI

Power TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS................................-..... JOD]

Flexible Couplings. Shaft Diameters for Torsion and Bending. Shaft Diameters for Torsional Deflection.
Shaft Diameters for Lateral Deflection. Shaft Diameters—A.S.M.E. Code. Two-bearing Shafts of
Uniform Strength. Stress in Rotating Disk. Velocity Chart for Gears and Pulleys. Flat-belt Length and
Pulley Diameter. Flat-belt Speed-Horsepower Charts. Belt Horsepower Charts. Flat-belt Horsepower
Charts. Flat and V-belt Horsepower Charts. V-belt Lengths. Short-center Belt Drives. Chart for
Calculating Needle Bearings. Thrust Bearing Friction Moments. Bronze Bearing Alloys. Shaft Seals.
Roller-Bearing Seals. Sleeve-bearing Seals. Safety Gears. Shifting Mechanisms. Gibs and Guides.
Cam Designs. Variable-speed Devices. Transport Mechanisms. Automatic Feed Hoppers. Glue-
applying Mechanisms.

CHAPTER
VII

ID RAN ADIST OGRE OLONNUNEY0) ste i rN dey hn nee Ag ange cee oe cee ucs coos FUT
Significance of WR2. Analysis of Motor Load. Selection of Motor Type. Inquiry Form for Electric
Motors. Winding Connection Diagrams for Multispeed Motors. Electric Control Methods. Electrically
Operated Values. Automatic Timers. Trigger Switch Mountings. Thermostatic Mechanisms. Auto-
matic Stops.

CHAPTER VIII

IDE IDAGA Ony 12ROimucioNT INTOIMEOIDS. . oc once cosa ccccuaccucoc ce uacncecausooonstescco BD

Fusion Welding. Resistance Welding. Furnace Brazing. Flame Hardening. Centrifugal Casting.
Permanent Mold Casting. Die Casting. Forging. Flame Cutting. Powdered Metal Pressings.
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHAPTER I

CHARTS AND TABLES

For General Arithmetical Calculations

The charts and nomograms in this chapter include only those pertaining to
general arithmetical calculations, as listed below. Nomograms, charts, and tables
for use in the design of specific machine elements or structures will be found in the
chapters devoted to the design of those elements or structures.

Length Moment of Inertia, Radius of Gyration, and WR?

Pace PaGE
Are Length vs. Central Angle.............. 2 TER ISDOWLS) Sedome strc sagas ater Wr een eae ree ea Be 16
Chordal Height and Length of Chord....... 3 Flywheels, Gears, and Armatures.......... 17
Length of Material for Bends.............. 4 Ivarclitto teCnysat:1 010eee 17
Transferring to Parallel Axis............... 18
WR? of Symmetrical Bodies............... 19
Area
Force
CirculaniSecsimentsa eeeee oe 8
Centritugall) sake Seen go eee! 26
Forces in Toggle Joint................... 27
Volume
Force, Velocity, and Acceleration
Tanks, Horizontal Round................. 9
ninears lO tione tye ee oe eck ae 28
mals, Wermcnll Now! «os scccsscoonosessc 10
MotanyeNiotionas see his sie ee 29
Volume, Weight, and Cost................ 11
Heat and Temperature
Weight Mean Cooling Temperature...... patsoece 30

Cylindricalieiccesseee eae eee 12 Electrical

Unit and Total Weight................... 14 Solution of Ohm’s Equations...-.......... 31
Weight and Volume...................... 15 Total Resistance of Parallel Circuits....... 32
2 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

ARC LENGTH VERSUS CENTRAL ANGLE

(Angle of Bend, Length, and Radius)

oe 200
180 R ee
150
100 ZH)
120 80
6 ;
100 a 30
90 40
80 30
70 20
60 20

fo)

[o)

®vwo
ADN
=
(1
Length
Arc
of
Inches)

10 Arc(R3
Radius
of
Inches)
9
or 8
(a
Angle
Bend
Angle
Central
Degrees)
of
7 %)
6
5
4

3 ;

3
4

2
1
2

Draw a straight line through the two known points. The answer will be found
at the intersection of this line with the third scale.
Example: For a 6-in. radius and 45-deg. bend, length of are is 4.7 in.
 CHARTS AND TABLES 3

CHORDAL HEIGHT AND LENGTH OF CHORD

2 2
Cc +4h
Raaeoh

35

On

eae
Bee

De anit
C

3 2 7h

25
y
Q

8
2

\.5: 9

i
20,
10
be found
Draw a straight line through the two known points. T he answer will
at the intersection of this line with the third scale.
height h of
Example: Length of chord is 3 in., and radius of circle is 4in. The
the chord is 0.29 in.
4 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

LENGTH OF MATERIAL FOR 90-DEG. BENDS

As shown in Fig. 1, when a sheet or flat bar is bent, the position of the neutral plane with respect to the outer and
inner surfaces will depend on the ratio of the radius of bend to the thickness of the bar or sheet. For a sharp corner,
the neutral plane will lie one-third the distance from the inner to the outer surface. As the radius of the bend is
increased, the neutral plane shifts until it reaches a position midway between the inner and outer surfaces. This
factor should be taken into consideration when calculating the developed length of material required for formed pieces.
The table on the following pages gives the developed length of the material in the 90-deg. bend. The following
formulas were used to calculate the quantities given in the table, the radius of the bend being measured as the distance
from the center of curvature to the inner surface of the bend.
1. For a sharp corner and for any radius of bend up to 7, the thickness of the sheet, the developed length L for
a 90-deg. bend will be
L = 1.5708 (# + 3)

2. For any radius of bend greater than 27’, the length L for a 90-deg. bend will be

L = 15708 (R +5)
3. For any radius of bend between 17 and 27, the R= Inside radius T= Stock thickness
value of Las given in the table was found by interpolation. T
The developed length Z of the material in any bend
other than 90 deg. can be obtained from the following Dy
formulas: R
1. For a sharp corner or a radius up to 7: = n

L = 0.0175 (x + 3) x degrees of bend 7

3 Sharp corner R=Tor less R= IT to2T R=2T or more
2. For a radius of 27’ or more: Fig. 1.

L = 0.0175 Gi + 3) < degrees of bend

For double bends as shown in Fig. 2, if Ri + Rs is greater than B:

X = \/2B(Ri + R: — B/2)
With Ri, Re, and B known:
Ri + Rk. — B
cos A =
Ri + Re
L = 0.0175(Ri + Ro)A
where A is in degrees and L is the developed length.
If R, + Rp is less than B, as in Fig. 3,
Y = Becosec A — (R, + Rs)(cosee A — cotan A)
The value of X when B is greater than Ri + R» will be
X = Bcot A + (R, + R:)(cosee A — cotan A)
The total developed length ZL required for the material in the straight section plus that in the two ares will be
L =Y + 0.0175(Ri + R.)A
To simplify the calculations, the table on this page gives the equations for X, Y, and the developed length for
various common angles of bend. The table on following pages gives L for values of R and T for 90-deg. bends.

EQUATIONS FOR X, Y, AND DEVELOPED LENGTHS

Ee a ee eee —e—————————eeee

ee: Xe 4 Developed length

15 3.732B + 0.132(R: + R2) 3.864B — 0.132(Ri + Re) 3.864B + 0.130(Ri + R2)

2214 2.414B + 0.199(Ri + Re) 2.613B — 0.199(Ri + Rs) 2.613B + 0.194(Ri + R2)
30 1.732B + 0.268(Ri + Re) 2.000B — 0.268(R1 + Rs) 2.000B + 0.256(Ri + Re)
45 B +0.414(R, + Re) 1.414B — 0.414(Ri + Re) 1.414B + 0.371(Ri + R2)
60 0.577(B + Ri + R2) 1.155B — 0.577(Ri + Re) 1.155B + 0.470(R: + R2)
6744 0.414B + 0.668(Ri + Re) 1.082B — 0.668(R: + Rz) 1.082B + 0.510(R: + R2)
75 0.268B + 0.767(Ri + Re) 1.035B — 0.767(R: + Re) 1.035B + 0.542(R: + Re)
90 Ri + Rs Blaine = R B + 0.571(Ri + Ro)
SS SS ee
 CHARTS AND TABLES 5)

DEVELOPED LENGTH IN INCHES OF MATERIAL REQUIRED FOR 90-DEG. BEND

Inside radius of bend, in.
Thickness of
material, in. Sap -005| 0.010) 464 | 0.020) 0.025) 342 | 0.040) 364 | 0.050) We | 364 | 342 | 0.100] Ya | 14

0.004 0.002 | 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.066] 0.077) 0.082] 0.101] 0.126] 0.150] 0.160] 0.175] 0.200
0.005 0.003 | 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.067) 0.077) 0.083} 0.102} 0.127] 0.151] 0.161] 0.176] 0.200
0.007 0.004 | 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.068} 0.079} 0.084] 0.104] 0.128) 0.153] 0.163] 0.177] 0.202
0.008 0.004 | 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.069] 0.080] 0.085] 0.105] 0.129] 0.154] 0.163] 0.178] 0.203
0.010 0.005 | 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.071] 0.081] 0.086] 0.106] 0.131] 0.155] 0.165] 0.180] 0.204
0.012 0.006 | 0.014/0.022 | 0. 0. 0. 0.072) 0.083} 0.088] 0.108] 0.132] 0.157] 0.167] 0.181| 0.206
0.014 0.007 | 0.015|0.023 | 0. 0. 0. 0.074] 0.085] 0.090] 0.109] 0.134] 0.158] 0.168] 0.183] 0.207
0.016 0.008 | 0.016/0.024 | 0. 0. 0. 0.075] 0.085] 0.091} 0.110} 0.135] 0.159] 0.169] 0.184] 0.209
0.016 0.008 | 0.016/0.024 | 0. 0. 0. 0.075] 0.086} 0.091] 0.111) 0.135] 0.160] 0.170] 0.184] 0.209
0.018 0.009 | 0.017|0.025 | 0. 0. 0. 0.077] 0.088] 0.093) 0.112] 0.137] 0.161] 0.171] 0.186] 0.211
0.020 0.011 | 0.018/0.026 | 0.035} 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.138] 0.163] 0.173] 0.187] 0.212
0.022 0.012 | 0.019/0.027 | 0.036] 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.140] 0.165] 0.174] 0.189] 0.214
0.025 0.013 | 0.021/0.029 | 0.038] 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.142] 0.167] 0.177] 0.191} 0.216
0.028 0.015 | 0.023/0.030 | 0.039] 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.145] 0.169] 0.179] 0.194] 0.218
0.031 0.016 | 0.024/0.032 | 0.041! 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.147] 0.172] 0.182] 0.196] 0.221
0.032 0.017 | 0.025/0.032 | 0.041] 0.048] 0.056] 0. 0. 0.094] 0.100] 0. 0. 0.172] 0.182] 0.197] 0.222
0.035 0.018 | 0.026/0.034 | 0.043] 0.050] 0.058] 0. 0. 0.095] 0.101) 0. 0. 0.175} 0.185] 0.199] 0.224
0.038 0.020 | 0.028/0.035 | 0.044] 0.051] 0.059] 0. 0. 0.096] 0.102) 0. 0. 0.177] 0.185] 0.201] 0.226
0.040 0.021 | 0.029/0.037 | 0.045] 0.052] 0.060] 0. 0. 0.097] 0.102] 0. 0. 0.179] 0.189] 0.203] 0.228
0.042 0.022 | 0.030/0.038 | 0.047] 0.053] 0.061) 0. 0. 0.097} 0.103] 0. 0. 0.180] 0.190] 0.205] 0.229
0.044 0.023 | 0.031]0.039 | 0.047] 0.054} 0.062] 0.072] 0.086} 0. 0. 0.127] 0.154] 0. 0. 0.231
0.045 0.024 | 0.031/0.039 | 0.048] 0.055! 0.063] 0.073| 0.086] 0. 0. 0.127] 0.154] 0. 0. 0.232
0.049 0.026 | 0.034/0.041 | 0.050] 0.057] 0.065] 0.075] 0.088) 0. 0. 0.128] 0.155) 0. 0. 0.235
0.051 0.027 | 0.034/0.042 | 0.051} 0.058] 0.066] 0.076] 0.083] 0. 0. 0.129] 0.155] 0. 0. 0.236
0.057 0.030 | 0.038/0.046 | 0.054] 0.061] 0.069] 0.079] 0.093] 0. 0. 0.130] 0.156] 0. 0. 0.241
0.058 0.030 | 0.038/0.046 | 0.055] 0.062] 0.070} 0.079] 0.093] 0.104] 0.109] 0. 0.157] 0.185] 0.198] 0.215) 0.
0.063 0.033 | 0.041/0.048 | 0.057) 0.064] 0.072] 0.082) 0.096] 0.106] 0.111] 0. 0.158] 0.186] 0.199} 0.216] 0.
0.064 0.034 | 0.041/0.049 | 0.058] 0.065] 0.073] 0.083] 0.096] 0.107] 0.112] 0. 0.159} 0.187] 0.200] 0.217] 0.
0.065 0.034 | 0.042/0.050 | 0.058] 0.065] 0.073] 0.083] 0.097] 0.107] 0.113] 0. 0.159] 0.187] 0.200] 0.218] 0.
0.072 0.038 | 0.046/0.053 | 0.062] 0.069} 0.077] 0.087] 0.100) 0.111) 0.116] 0. 0.161] 0.189] 0.202} 0.220] 0.
0.078 0.041 | 0.049]0.057 | 0.065] 0.072! 0.080] 0.090] 0.104] 0.114] 0.119] 0.139} 0. 0. 0.204] 0.223] 0.
0.081 0.042 | 0.050|0.058 | 0.067] 0.074] 0.082] 0.091] 0.105] 0.116] 0.121] 0.140] 0. 0. 01205] 0.224] 0.
0.083 0.043 | 0.051/0.059 | 0.068] 0.075) 0.083} 0.092] 0.106] 0.117] 0.122] 0.141] 0. 0. 0.205] 0.225] 0.
0.091 0.047 | 0.055/0.063 | 0.072] 0.080} 0.087] 0.096] 0.110} 0.121] 0.126] 0.146] 0. 0. 0.207] 0.227] 0.
0.094 0.049 | 0.057/0.065 | 0.074] 0.080) 0.088} 0.098} 0.112) 0.123] 0.128] 0.147] 0. 0. 0.208] 0.227! 0.
0.095 0.050 | 0.058/0.065 | 0.074] 0.081] 0.089] 0.099] 0.113] 0.123] 0.128] 0.148] 0.172] 0. 0. 0.
0.102 0.053 | 0.061/0.069 | 0.078] 0.085] 0.092} 0.102] 0.116] 0.127] 0.132] 0.151] 0.176] 0. 0. 0.
0.109 0.057 | 0.065/0.073 | 0.082] 0.088] 0.096] 0.106] 0.120] 0.131] 0.136] 0.155] 0.180] 0. 0.232] 0.
0.120 0.063 | 0.071/0.079 | 0.087) 0.094] 0.102] 0.112) 0.126] 0.136] 0.141] 0.161] 0.186] 0. 0. 0.
0.125 0.065 | 0.073/0.081 | 0.090] 0.097] 0.105] 0.114] 0.128] 0.139] 0.144] 0.164] 0.188] 0. 0. 0.
0.141 0.074 | 0.081/0.089 | 0.098] 0.105] 0.113} 0.123] 0.136] 0.147] 0.152] 0.172} 0.196] 0.221] 0.231] 0.245] 0.270
0.156 0.082 | 0.090/0.097 | 0.106) 0.113] 0.121] 0.131] 0.145] 0.155) 0.160] 0.180] 0.204] 0.229} 0.239] 0.253) 0.278
0.172 0.090 | 0.098/0.106 | 0.114] 0.121] 0.129} 0.139] 0.153] 0.163] 0.168] 0.188] 0.213] 0.237] 0.247| 0.262] 0.286
0.188 0.098 | 0.106/0.114 | 0.123] 0.130) 0.137] 0.147] 0.161] 0.172] 0.177] 0.196] 0.221] 0.245] 0.255] 0.270] 0.295
0.203 0.106 | 0.114/0.122 | 0.131] 0.138) 0.146] 0.155] 0.169] 0.180] 0.185] 0.204] 0.229] 0.253] 0.263] 0.278] 0.303
0.219 0.115 | 0.122/0.130 | 0.139] 0.146] 0.154) 0.163] 0.177] 0.188] 0.193] 0.213] 0.237] 0.262) 0.272] 0.286] 0.311
0.234 0.123 | 0.130/0.138 | 0.147] 0.154] 0.162] 0.172] 0.185] 0.196] 0.201) 0.221] 0.245] 0.270] 0.280] 0.294] 0.319
0.250 0.131 | 0.139/0.147 | 0.155) 0.162) 0.170] 0.180] 0.194] 0.204] 0.209] 0.229] 0.254] 0.278] 0.288] 0.303] 0.327
0.281 0.147 | 0.155/0.162 | 0.172] 0.178) 0.186] 0.196] 0.209] 0.221] 0.225] 0.245] 0.270] 0.294] 0.304] 0.319] 0.345
0.313 0.164 | 0.171/0.179 | 0.188] 0.195) 0.203] 0.213] 0.226] 0.237] 0.242) 0.262] 0.286] 0.311] 0.321] 0.335] 0.360
0.344 0.180 | 0.188/0.196 | 0.204] 0.211] 0.219] 0.229] 0.243] 0.253] 0.258] 0.278] 0.303] 0.327] 0.337] 0.352] 0.376
0.375 0.196 | 0.204/0.212 | 0.221) 0.228) 0.236] 0.245] 0.259] 0.270] 0.275] 0.295] 0.319] 0.344] 0.353] 0.368] 0.393
0.438 0.229 | 0.237/0.245 | 0.254] 0.260] 0.268] 0.278] 0.292] 0.303] 0.308] 0.327] 0.352] 0.376] 0.386] 0.401] 0.425
0.500 0.262 | 0.270/0.277 | 0.286} 0.293] 0.301] 0.311] 0.325] 0.335] 0.340] 0.360] 0.384] 0.409] 0.419] 0.433] 0.458
0.563 0.295 | 0.302/0.310 | 0.319] 0.326] 0.334] 0.344] 0.357] 0.368] 0.373] 0.393] 0.417] 0.442| 0.452] 0.466] 0.491
0.625 0.328 | 0.335/0.343 | 0.352) 0.359] 0.367] 0.377] 0.390] 0.401) 0.406] 0.426] 0.450] 0.475] 0.484] 0.499] 0.524
0.688 0.360 | 0.368/0.376 | 0.384] 0.391] 0.399] 0.409] 0.423] 0.433] 0.438] 0.458] 0.483] 0.507] 0.517] 0.532] 0.556
0.750 0.393 | 0.400/0.408 | 0.417] 0.424] 0.432] 0.442] 0.456] 0.466] 0.471] 0.491] 0.515) 0.540] 0.550] 0.564] 0.589
0.813 0.425 | 0.433/0.441 | 0.450] 0.457] 0.465] 0.474) 0.488] 0.499] 0.504] 0.524] 0.548] 0.573] 0.583] 0.597| 0.622
0.875 0.458 | 0.465|0.473 | 0.483] 0.489] 0.497] 0.507] 0.520] 0.532] 0.536] 0.556] 0.581/ 0.605] 0.615] 0.630] 0.654
0.938 0.491 | 0.499/0.507 | 0.515] 0.522] 0.530] 0.540] 0.554] 0.564] 0.569] 0.589) 0.614] 0.638] 0.648] 0.663] 0.687
1.000 0.524 | 0.531/0.539 | 0.548] 0.555] 0.563] 0.573] 0.586] 0.597] 0.602] 0.622] 0.646) 0.671] 0.681] 0.695] 0.720
ee | men NE el I hI
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

DEVELOPED LENGTH IN INCHES OF MATERIAL REQUIRED FOR 90-DEG. BEND (Continued)

Inside radius of bend, in.

Thickness of
material, in.
%4e He Ke 4 He 368 He a 36 34 % 144 11s

0.004 0.249 | 0.298 | 0.347 | 0.396 | 0.494 | 0.592 | 0.690 | 0.789 0.985 | 1.181 | 1.376 -967 | 2.359
0.005 0.249 | 0.299 | 0.348 | 0.397 | 0.495 | 0.593 | 0.691 | 0.789 0.986 | 1.182 | 1.378 967 | 2.360
0.007 0.251 | 0.300 | 0.349 | 0.398 | 0.496 | 0.595 | 0.693 | 0.791 0.987 | 1.184 | 1.380 969 | 2.362
0.008 0.252 | 0.301 | 0.350 | 0.399 | 0.497 | 0.595 | 0.694 | 0.792 0.988 | 1.184 | 1.381 970 | 2.362
0.010 0.253 | 0.302 | 0.351 | 0.401 | 0.499 | 0.597 | 0.695 | 0.793 0.990 | 1.186 | 1.382 -971
ee
Bee | 2.364
\
0.012 0.255 | 0.304 | 0.353 | 0.402 | 0.500 | 0.599 | 0.697 | 0.795 0.991 | 1.188 | 1.384 -973 | 2.366
0.014 0.256 | 0.306 | 0.355 | 0.404 | 0.502 | 0.600 | 0.698 | 0.796 0.993 | 1.189 | 1.385 -974 | 2.367
0.016 0.258 | 0.307 | 0.356 | 0.405 | 0.503 | 0.601 | 0.699 | 0.798 0.994 | 1.190 } 1.387 -976 | 2.368
0.016 0.258 | 0.307 | 0.356 | 0.405 | 0.503 | 0.602 | 0.700 | 0.798 0.994 | 1.191 | 1.387 -976 | 2.369
0.018 0.260 | 0.309 | 0.358 | 0.407 | 0.505 | 0.603 | 0.701 | 0.800 0.996 | 1.192 | 1.389 -978
ee
Bee | 2.370

0.020 0.261 | 0.310 | 0.359 | 0.408 | 0.507 | 0.605 | 0.703 | 0.801 0.998 | 1.194 | 1.390 . 587 -979 | 2.372
0.022 0.263 | 0.312 | 0.361 | 0.410 | 0.508 | 0.606 | 0.705 | 0.803 0.999 | 1.195 | 1.392 981 | 2.373
0.025 0.265 | 0.314 | 0.363 | 0.412 | 0.511 | 0.609 | 0.707 | 0.805 1.001 | 1.198 | 1.394 983 | 2.376
0.028 0.267 | 0.317 | 0.366 | 0.415 | 0.513 | 0.611 | 0.709 | 0.807 1.004 | 1.200 | 1.396 985 | 2.378
0.031 0.270 | 0.319 | 0.368 | 0.417 | 0.515 | 0.614 | 0.712 | 0.810 1.006 | 1.203 | 1.399 988 | 2.381

0.032 0.271 | 0.320 | 0.369 | 0.418 | 0.516 | 0.614 | 0.712 | 0.811 1.007 | 1.203 | 1.400 989 | 2.381
0.035 0.273 | 0.322 | 0.371 | 0.420 | 0.518 | 0.617 | 0.715 | 0.813 1.009 | 1.206 | 1.402 991 | 2.384
0.0388 0.275 | 0.324 | 0.373 | 0.422 | 0.520 | 0.619 | 0.717 | 0.815 1.011 | 1.208 | 1.404 993 | 2.386
0.040 0.277 | 0.326 | 0.375 | 0.424 | 0.522 | 0.621 | 0.719 | 0.817 1.013 | 1.210 | 1.406 995 | 2.388
0.042 0.278 | 0.328 | 0.377 | 0.426 | 0.524 | 0.622 | 0.720 | 0.818 1.015 | 1.211 | 1.407 ee
Bee996 | 2.389
Beep

0.044 0.280 | 0.329 | 0.378 | 0.427 | 0. 0.623 | 0.722 | 0.820 1.016 | 1.212 } 1.409 998 | 2.391
0.045 0.281 | 0.330 | 0.379 | 0.428 | O. 0.624 | 0.723 | 0.821 1.017 | 1.213 | 1.410 999 | 2.392
0.049 0.284 | 0.333 | 0.382 | 0.431 | 0. 0.628 | 0.726 | 0.824 1.020 | 1.217 | 1.413 002 | 2.395
0.051 0.285 | 0.334 | 0.383 | 0.433 | 0. 0.629 | 0.727 | 0.825 1.022 | 1.218 | 1.414 003 | 2.396
0.057 0.290 | 0.339 | 0.388 | 0.438 | 0.5 0.634 | 0.732 | 0.830 1.027 | 1.223 | 1.419 ee 008 | 2.401
ras NNN

0.058 0.291 | 0.340 | 0.389 | 0.488 | 0.536 | 0.635 | 0.733 | 0.831 1.027 | 1.224 | 1.420 009 | 2.402
0.063 0.294 | 0.344 | 0.393 | 0.442 |} 0.540 | 0.638 | 0.736 | 0.834 1.031 | 1.227 | 1.423 013 | 2.405
0.064 0.296 | 0.345 | 0.394 | 0.443 | 0.541 | 0.639 | 0.738 | 0.836 1.032 | 1.228 | 1.425 014 | 2.406
0.065 0.296 | 0.346 | 0.395 | 0.444 | 0.542 | 0.640 | 0.738 | 0.837 1.033 | 1.229 | 1.426 015 | 2.407
0.072 0.302 | 0.351 | 0.400 | 0.449 | 0.547 | 0.646 | 0.744 | 0.842 1.038 | 1.235 | 1.431 ee
Bee ty 020 | 2.413
Nwwh

0.078 0.306 | 0.356 | 0.405 | 0.454 | 0.552 | 0.650 | 0.749 | 0.847 1.043 | 1.239 | 1.436 025 | 2.417
0.081 0. 0. 0.407 | 0.456 | 0.554 | 0.653 | 0.751 | 0.849 1.045 | 1.242 | 1.438 027 | 2.420
0.083 0. 0. 0.409 | 0.458 | 0.556 | 0.654 | 0.752 | 0.851 1.047 | 1.243 | 1.440 029 | 2.421
0.091 0. 0. 0.415 | 0.464 | 0.562 | 0.660 | 0.758 | 0.857 1.053 | 1.249 | 1.446 035 | 2.427
0.094 0. 0. 0.417 | 0.466 | 0.564 | 0.663 | 0.761 | 0.859 1.055 | 1.252 | 1.448 Bee
ee 037 | 2.430

0.095 0.314 |} O. 0. 0. 0.566 | 0.664 | 0.762 | 0.860 1.056 | 1.253 | 1.449 038 | 2.431
0.102 0.316 | 0. 0. 0. 0.571 | 0.669 | 0.767 | 0.865 1.062 | 1.258 | 1.454 043 | 2.436
0.109 0.319 | 0. 0. 0. 0.577 | 0.675 | 0.773 | 0.871 1.067 | 1.264 | 1.461 049 | 2.442
0.120 0.322 | 0. 0. 0. 0.585 | 0.683 | 0.782 | 0.880 1.076 | 1.272 | 1.469 058 | 2.450
0.125 0.324 | 0. 0. 0. 0.589 | 0.687 | 0.785 | 0.884 1.080 | 1.276 | 1.473 eee
Be bw 062 | 2.454
Nowrwp
Nth
Noh

0.141 0. 0. 0.439 | 0. 0. 0. 0.798 | 0.896 1.092 | 1.289 | 1.485 O74 | 2.467

0.156 0. 0. 0.444 | 0.4 0. 0. 0.810 | 0.908 1.104 | 1.301 | 1.497 086 | 2.479
0.172 0. 0. 0.449 | 0. 0. 0. 0.822 | 0.920 1.117 | 1.313 | 1.509 098 | 2.491
0.188 0. 0. 0.454 | 0. 0. 0. 0.834 | 0.933 1.129 | 1.325 | 1.522 111 | 2.503
0.203 0. 0. 0.459 | 0. 0. 0. 0.847 | 0.945 1.141 | 1.338 | 1.534 Bee
ee 123 | 2.516

0.219 0.360 | 0.409 | 0. 0. 0.633 | 0.746 | 0. 0. ile 135 | 3.528

0.234 0.368 | 0.417 | 0. 0. 0.688 | 0.751 | 0. 0. il. 147 | 2.540
0.250 0.376 | 0.425 | 0. 0. 0.643 | 0.756 | 0. 0. il 160 | 2.553
0.281 0.393 |0.442 | 0. 0. 0.652 | 0.766 | 0. 0. i 184 | 2.577
0.313 0.409 | 0.458 | 0. ‘OF 0.662 | 0.776 | 0. ile il. 209 | 2.602

0.344 0.425 | 0.474 | 0.523 | 0.573 0. OF i 233 | 2.626

0.375 0.442 | 0.491 | 0.540 | 0.589 0. 0. 1. 258 | 2.651
0.438 0.474 | 0.524 | 0.573 | 0.622 0. 0. il. 307 | 2.700
0.500 0.507 | 0.556 | 0.605 | 0.654 0. 0.9 ibs 356 | 2.749
0.563 0.540 | 0.589 | 0.638 | 0.687 0. 0. ils Ny405
vw
why
hw
NuNw
wh
wr
www | 2.798

0.625 0.573 | 0.622 | 0.671 | 0.720 | 0.818 | 0.916 | 1.014 | 1.113 2.

0.688 0.605 | 0.654 |0.703 |0.753 | 0.858 |0.949 | 1.047 | 1.145 2.
0.750 0.638 | 0.687 | 0.736 | 0.785 | 0.884 | 0.982 | 1.080 | 1.178 2.
0.813 0.671 | 0.720 | 0.769 | 0.818 | 0.916 | 1.014 } 1.113 | 1.211 2.
0.875 0.703 | 0.753 | 0.802 | 0.851 | 0.949 | 1.047 | 1.145 | 1.243 Nw
ww] 2.

0.9388 0.736 | 0.785 | 0.834 | 0.884 | 0.982 | 1.080 | 1.178 | 1:276 547 | 3.002
1.000 0.769 | 0.818 | 0.867 | 0.916 | 1.014 | 1.113 | 1.211 | 1.309 .566
ton | 3.021
 CHARTS AND TABLES

DEVELOPED LENGTH IN INCHES OF MATERIAL REQUIRED FOR 90-DEG. BEND (Continued)

Inside radius of bend, in.

Thickness of
material, in.
134 2 234 213 234 3 3}4 3h2 334 4 4h6 5 543 6

0.004 2.752 | 3.145 | 3.537 | 3.930 | 4.323 | 4.716 | 5.108 | 5.501 | 5.894 | 6.286 | 7.072 | 7.857 | 8.643 | 9.428
0.005 2.753 | 3.146 | 3.538 | 3.931 | 4.324 | 4.716 | 5.109 | 5.502 | 5.894 | 6.287 | 7.073 | 7.858 | 8.643 | 9.429
0.007 2.754 | 3.147 | 3.540 | 3.932 | 4.325 | 4.718 | 5.111 | 5.503 | 5.896 | 6.289 | 7.074 | 7.859 | 8.645 | 9.430
0.008 2.755 | 3.148 | 3.541 | 3.933 | 4.326 | 4.719 | 5.111 | 5.504 | 5.897 | 6.289 | 7.075 | 7.860 | 8.646 | 9.431
0.010 2.757 | 3.149 | 3.542 | 3.935 | 4.328 | 4.720 | 5.113 | 5.506 | 5.898 | 6.291 | 7.076 | 7.862 | 8.648 | 9.433

0.012 2.758 | 3.151 | 3.544 | 3.936 | 4.329 | 4.722 | 5.115 | 5.507 | 5.900 | 6.293 | 7.078 | 7.863 | 8.549 | 9.434
0.014 2.760 | 3.153 | 3.545 | 3.938 | 4.331 | 4.723 | 5.116 | 5.509 | 5.901 | 6.294 | 7.080 | 7.865 | 8.650 | 9.436
0.016 2.761 | 3.154 | 3.547 | 3.939 | 4.332 | 4.725 | 5.117 | 5.510 | 5.903 | 6.295 | 7.081 | 7.866 | 8.652 | 9.437
0.016 2.761 | 3.154 | 3.547 | 3.940 | 4.332 | 4.725 | 5.118 | 5.510 | 5.903 | 6.296 | 7.081 | 7.867 | 8.652 | 9.437
0.018 2.763 | 3.156 | 3.548 | 3.941 | 4.334 | 4.727 | 5.119 | 5.512 | 5.905 | 6.297 | 7.083 | 7.868 | 8.654 | 9.439

.0.020 2.765 | 3.157 | 3.550 | 3.943 | 4.335 | 4.728 | 5.121 | 5.514 | 5.906 | 6.299 | 7.084 | 7.870 | 8.655 | 9.441
0.022 2.766 | 3.159 | 3.552 | 3.944 | 4.337 | 4.730 | 5.122 | 5.515 | 5.908 | 6.300 | 7.086 | 7.871 | 8.657 | 9.442
0.025 2.769 | 3.161 | 3.554 | 3.947 | 4.339 | 4.732 | 5.125 | 5.517 | 5.910 | 6.303 | 7.088 | 7.874 | 8.659 | 9.444
0.028 2.771 | 3.164 | 3.556 | 3.949 | 4.342 | 4.734 | 5.127 | 5.520 | 5.912 | 6.305 | 7.091 | 7.876 | 8.661 | 9.447
0.031 2.773 | 3.166 | 3.559 | 3.952 | 4.344 | 4.737 | 5.130 | 5.522 | 5.915 | 6.308 | 7.093 | 7.879 | 8.664 | 9.449

0.032 2.774 | 3.167 | 3.559 | 3.952 | 4.345 | 4.738 | 5.130 | 5.523 | 5.916 | 6.308 | 7.094 | 7.879 | 8.665 | 9.450
0.035 2.776 | 3.169 | 3.562 | 3.954 | 4.347 | 4.740 | 5.133 | 5.525 | 5.918 | 6.311 | 7.096 | 7.881 | 8.667 | 9.452
0.038 2.779 | 3.171 | 3.564 | 3.957 | 4.350 | 4.742 | 5.135 | 5.527 | 5.920 | 6.313 | 7.098 | 7.883 | 8.669 | 9.454
0.040 2.780 | 3.173 | 3.566 | 3.958 | 4.351 | 4.744 | 5.137 | 5.529 | 5.922 | 6.315 | 7.100 | 7.885 | 8.671 | 9.456
0.042 2.782 | 3.175 | 3.567 | 3.960 | 4.353 | 4.745 | 5.138 | 5.531 | 5.923 | 6.316 | 7.102 | 7.887 | 8.672 | 9.458

0.044 2.783 | 3.176 | 3.569 | 3.961 | 4.354 | 4.747 | 5.139 | 5.532 | 5.924 | 6.318 | 7.103 | 7.888 | 8.674 | 9.459
0.045 2.784 | 3.177 | 3.570 | 3.962 | 4.355 | 4.748 | 5.140 | 5.533 | 5.926 | 6.319 | 7.104 | 7.889 | 8.675 | 9.460
0.049 2.787 | 3.180 | 3.573 | 3.965 | 4.358 | 4.751 | 5.144 | 5.536 | 5.929 | 6.322 | 7.107 | 7.892 | 8.678 | 9.463
0.051 2.789 | 3.181 | 3.574 | 3.967 | 4.360 | 4.752 | 5.145 | 5.538 | 5.930 | 6.323 | 7.109 | 7.894 | 8.679 | 9.465
0.057 2.794 | 3.186 | 3.579 | 3.972 | 4.365 | 4.757 | 5.150 | 5.543 | 5.935 | 6.328 | 7.113 | 7.899 | 8.684 | 9.470

0.058 2.794 | 3.187 | 3.580 | 3.973 | 4.365 | 4.758 | 5.151 | 5.543 | 5.936 | 6.329 | 7.114 | 7.900 | 8.685 | 9.470
0.063 2.798 | 3.191 | 3.583 | 3.977 | 4.369 | 4.761 | 5.154 | 5.547 | 5.940 | 6.332 | 7.118 | 7.903 | 8.688 | 9.474
0.064 2.799 | 3.192 | 3.585 | 3.977 | 4.370 | 4.763 | 5.155 | 5.548 | 5.941 | 6.333 | 7.119 | 7.904 | 8.690 | 9.475
0.065 2.800-| 3.193 | 3.585 | 3.978 | 4.371 | 4.763 | 5.156 | 5.549 | 5.942 | 6.334 | 7.120 | 7.905 | 8.690 | 9.476
0.072 2.805 | 3.198 | 3.591 | 3.984 | 4.376 | 4.769 | 5.162 | 5.554 | 5.947 | 6.340 | 7.125 | 7.911 | 8.696 | 9.481

0.078 2.810 | 3.203 | 3.596 | 3.988 | 4.381 | 4.774 | 5.166 | 5.559 | 5.952 | 6.344 | 7.130 | 7.915 | 8.701 | 9.486
0.081 2.812 | 3.205 | 3.598 | 3.990 :| 4.383 | 4.776 | 5.169 | 5.561 | 5.954 | 6.347 | 7.132 | 7.917 | 8.703 | 9.488
0.083 2.814 | 3.207 | 3.599 | 3.992 | 4.385 | 4.778 | 5.170 | 5.563 | 5.956 | 6.348 | 7.134 | 7.919 | 8.705 | 9.490
0.091 2.820 | 3.213 | 3.605 | 3.998 | 4.391 | 4.784 | 5.176 | 5.569 | 5.962 | 6.354 | 7.140 | 7.925 | 8.711 | 9.496
0.094 2.822 | 3.215 | 3.608 | 4.001 } 4.393 | 4.786 | 5.179 | 5.571 | 5.964 | 6.357 | 7.142 | 7.928 | 8.713 | 9.498

0.095 2.824 | 3.216 | 3.609 | 4.002 | 4.394 | 4.787 | 5.180 | 5.572 | 5.965 | 6.358 | 7.143 | 7.929 | 8.714 | 9.499
0.102 2.829 | 3.122 | 3.614 | 4.007 | 4.400 | 4.792 | 5.185 | 5.578 | 5.971 | 6.363 | 7.149 | 7.934 | 8.719 | 9.505
0.109 2.835 | 3.227 | 3.620 | 4.013 | 4.405 | 4.798 | 5.191 | 5.583 | 5.976 | 6.369 | 7.154 | 7.940 | 8.725 | 9.510
0.120 2.843 | 3.236 | 3.629 | 4.021 | 4.414 | 4.807 | 5.199 | 5.592 | 5.985 | 6.377 | 7.163 | 7.948 | 8.734 | 9.519
0.125 2.847 | 3.240 | 3.632 | 4.025 | 4.418 | 4.811 | 5.203 | 5.596 | 5.989 | 6.381 | 7.167 | 7.952 | 8.738 | 9.523

0.1406 2.859 | 3.252 | 3.645 | 4.037 | 4.430 | 4.823 | 5.216 | 5.608 | 6.001 | 6.394 | 7.179 | 7.964 | 8.750 | 9.535
0.1562 2.872 | 3.264 | 3.657 | 4.050 | 4.442 | 4.835 | 5.228 | 5.620 | 6.013 | 6.406 | 7.191 | 7.977 | 8.762 | 9.547
0.1718 2.884 | 3.277 | 3.669 | 4.062 | 4.455 | 4.847 | 5.240 | 5.633 | 6.025 | 6.418 | 7.204 | 7.989 | 8.774 | 9.560
0.188 2.896 | 3.289 | 3.681 | 4.074 | 4.467 | 4.860 | 5.252 | 5.645 | 6.038 | 6.430 | 7.216 | 8.001 | 8.787 | 9.572
0.203 2.908 | 3.301 | 3.694 | 4.086 | 4.479 | 4.872 | 5.265 | 5.657 | 6.050 | 6.443 | 7.228 | 8.013 | 8.799 | 9.584

0.219 2.921 | 3.313 | 3.706 | 4.099 | 4.491 | 4.884 | 5.277 | 5.669 | 6.062 | 6.455 | 7.240 | 8.025 | 8.811 | 9.596
0.234 2.933 | 3.325 | 3.718 | 4.111 | 4.503 | 4.896 | 5.289 | 5.682 | 6.074 | 6.467 | 7.252 | 8.038 | 8.823 | 9.609
0.250 2.945 | 3.338 | 3.731 | 4.123 | 4.516 | 4.909 | 5.301 | 5.694 | 6.087 | 6.480 | 7.265 | 8.050 | 8.836 | 9.621
0.281 2.970 | 3.362 | 3.755 | 4.148 | 4.540 | 4.933 | 5.326 | 5.719 | 6.111 | 6.504 | 7.289 | 8.075 | 8.860 | 9.646
0.313 2.994 | 3.387 | 3.780 | 4.172 | 4.565 | 4.958 | 5.350 | 5.743 | 6.136 | 6.529 | 7.314 | 8.099 | 8.885 | 9.670

0.344 3.019 | 3.411 | 3.804 | 4.197 | 4.590 | 4.982 | 5.375 | 5.768 | 6.160 | 6.553 | 7.339 | 8.124 | 8.909 | 9.695
0.375 3.043 | 3.436 | 3.829 | 4.222 | 4.614 | 5.007 | 5.400 | 5.792 | 6.185 | 6.578 | 7.363 | 8.149 | 8.934 | 9.719
0.438 3.092 | 3.485 | 3.878 | 4.271 | 4.663 | 5.056 | 5.449 | 5.841 | 6.234 | 6.627 | 7.412 | 8.198 | 8.983 | 9.768
0.500 3.142 | 3.584 | 3.927 | 4.320 | 4.712 | 5.105 | 5.498 | 5.891 | 6.283 | 6.676 | 7.461 | 8.247 | 9.032 | 9.818
0.563 3.191 | 3.583 | 3.976 | 4.369 | 4.761 | 5.154 | 5.547 | 5.940 | 6.332 | 6.725 | 7.510 | 8.296 | 9.081 | 9.867

0.625 3.240 | 3.632 | 4.025 | 4.418 | 4.811 | 5.203 | 5.596 | 5.989 | 6.381 | 6.774 | 7.560 | 8.345 | 9.130 | 9.916
0.688 3.289 | 3.681 | 4.074 | 4.467 | 4.860 | 5.252 | 5.645 | 6.038 | 6.430 | 6.823 | 7.609 | 8.394 | 9.179 | 9.965
0.750 3.338 | 3.731 | 4.123 | 4.516 | 4.909 | 5.301 | 5.694 | 6.087 | 6.480 | 6.872 | 7.658 | 8.443 | 9.228 |10.014
0.813 3.387 | 3.780 | 4.172 | 4.565 | 4.958 | 5.350 | 5.743 | 6.136 | 6.529 | 6.921 | 7.707 | 8.492 | 9.278 |10.063
0.875 3.436 | 3.829 | 4.222 | 4.614 | 5.007 | 5.400 | 5.792 | 6.185 | 6.578 | 6.970 | 7.756 | 8.541 | 9.327 |10.112

0.938 3.455 | 3.878 | 4.271 | 4.663 | 5.056 | 5.449 | 5.841 | 6.234 | 6.627 | 7.019 | 7.805 | 8.590 | 9.376 |10.161
1.000 3.474 | 3.927 | 4.320 | 4.712 | 5.105 | 5.498 | 5.891 | 6.283 | 6.676 | 7.069 | 7.854 | 9.639 | 9.425 |10.210
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

AREAS OF CIRCULAR SEGMENTS

7000
9 00
5,000
3000
15 2000

1,000

| 500
0.9 ihe
08 A= 0.01745 Rare cos RSA (R-H)VH(2R-H) 200
0.7 Note: The angle /s expressed in degrees
100
06 ;
Oo
- aes

05 ee asa 30
- ———

- <a

a G 20
fe
aged egy : Radius
R
Ke) TE 10
ais
~

5
03 :

2
0.25

02 65

03
02
0.15

oH]

0.05

om 0.03
0.02
Draw a straight line through the two known points. The answer will be found
at the intersection of this line with the third scale.
Example: For a 10-in. radius and H = 4.0 in., H/R = 0.40 in. Area A = 46
Sq. in.
 CHARTS AND TABLES )

VOLUMES IN HORIZONTAL ROUND TANKS WITH FLAT ENDS

30

ylurning line

ait
Ratio
D
Length,
Ft. Diameter,
Ft.
\ Volume,
Gal.

Notes: Shift decimal point on volume

scale two points for a one-point shift on
diameter scale; one point for a one-point
LS shift on length scale.
Example: Tank is 6 ft. in diameter and 15 ft. long. H = 0.9 ft. H/D = 0.15. Join 0.15 on
H/D scale with 6 on diameter scale. From point of intersection with turning line, draw line to
15 ft. on the length scale. The volume scale shows 300 gal. If D had been 0.6 ft., H 0.09 ft.,
and length the same, the answer would be 3.00 gal.
10 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

VOLUMES IN VERTICAL ROUND TANKS WITH FLAT BOTTOMS

10 6,000 10

7 4,000 v

8 3,000 8

7 2,000 ; 7

6 6
1000
800
5 5
600

400
4 4
300
tc
Ft.
Diameter, <= F200 2
& g
3 : =
2 we

g 6
a

100
80

60
2
40
30
Draw a straight line through the two known
points. The answer will be found at the
20 intersection of this line with the third scale.
In reading the answer on the volume scale,
shift decimal point on volume scale two places
for one-place shift on diameter scale, and
i one place for one-place shift on height scale.
Example: Diameter of tank is 4 ft. Depth
8 of liquid is 2.5 ft. Volume as read is 230 gal.
If diameter of tank is 0.4 ft. and depth 2.5 ft.,
| 6 volume is 2.3 gal.
 CHARTS AND TABLES 11

VOLUME, WEIGHT, AND COST CHART

=
S

zfe) 8 x def
&: mo} iS mo} oo Da
cs
5) S iS) oe i= “oo pe se
= + =
mo}
a.
3=)
o+
LG =
8) = ©
é$
Oc iv) 5
L lo}
c==
© (=
5
mo}
=2
nt
= oS Oo.
&
6O <fe ao) o= cDS o Wane)
a
He} G2
=+- e = is 25S
os
eid © 5 £ oO xX So
=) — 4 os we 3 3
she Oe ao xc 2 Ss =
ne Fo v = Di oe s oo
04105 Lead Wises
oo
—= GLo yo)mh & ox OF© ey
68 G5 52 Sod
sg
eae
£8 OS
Sa. 2G se Sa ise‘
!0 1.0 al
Monel metal
Copper 300 13000 2
{]Nickel 9
0320/\Phos. bronze 9 09 200)
0313 Low brass
0.506 Leaded high brass
d Q282 Steel 8 Os ifoye)
a 30
0.256 Castiron ~~ B 8 11000 &
Rolledzinc 7 OP FSS 60 Ae 7
50 700:
40 0 2S
(e

400
Ca 20
: A 300 3
az
5 0.5
Pe 8 20 2
& 1
2 2

4-04 oa) ee 4
3 80
70 1
2 60 4
50
40
\
31-03 99 30
07
06
a5 20 ae
0.092 Aluminum 04} ines
03 é
10
in ;
—— |

ea 7 09
21-02 < : 0.8 2
008 3 O7 19
0.07
0.06 oe 18
0.05 3 0.5 7

ee
0.03 2
0.4 6ts
0.05 Fiber 07 os \4

13
0.01 ie 0.2
0.008 07 12
0.007 06:
0.006
0.005 as Il
} o:
41 oops ‘ Ql
Example: For 234 in. round or 25¢ hex, pieces 4 in. long, draw lines A, B, and C, points a, 6,
c, d, e, f, and g being located in alphabetical order. For a rectangular section 0.2 in. thick by 3 in.
wide, line a’b’ gives equivalent circular or hex bar at c’. Then proceed as with round or hex bars.
12 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

WEIGHTS OF CYLINDRICAL PIECES

EXAMPLE OF PROCEDURE
CasT-IRON FLYWHEEL

A. Weights per inch of length, from table:

Yi
G7 amy
20-in. diameterDifference
32-in. di t
cylinder == 81.5
linder = 209.0 lb.
Ib,
127.5 lb.
Weight of element A = 127.5 X 6 = 765.0 lb.
B. Weights per inch of length, from table:
20-in. diameter cylinder = 81.5 lb.
7-in. diameter cylinder = 10.0 lb.
Difference = 71.5 lb.
; be Weight of element B = 71.5 X 2144 = 178.8 lb.
23°= WHA MZ B C. Weights per inch of length, from table:
L 7| 7-in. diameter cylinder = 10.0 Ib.
3-in. diameter cylinder = 1.8 lb.
+ G C Difference = 8.2 lb.
SIZZZ Z
ra Weight= of element C = 8.2 X 6 = 49.2 lb.
Total weight of flywheel = 993.0 Ib.

Di Wrought | Common Ainean Di Wrought | Common

1am- | Cast iron | iron and yellow Bronze a> lam- | Cast iron | iron and yellow
Ques steel brass num Cues steel brass

1 0.204 0.220 0.237 0.251 0.072 1145 27.01 29.25 31.35

14 0.319 0.344 0.370 0.392 0.113 1134 28.19 30.50 32.70
14% 0.459 0.497 0.533 0.565 0.163 12 29.41 31.85 34.15
134 0.625 0.677 0.725 0.768 0.222 12% 30.64 33,15 35.50

2 0.817 0.885 0.948 1.005 0.291 1214 31.91 34.50 37.05

24 1.034 1.118 1.195 1,268 0.367 1234 33.19 35.95 38.50
246 1.276 1.380 1.480 1.570 0.454 13 34.51 37.35 40.00
234 1.544 1.672 1.790 1.895 0.550 1314 35.85 38.80 41.60

3 1.837 1.988 2.130 2.260 0.654 133g 37.22 40.25 43.20 45.80 13.25
3% 2.157 2.333 2.505 2.650 0.767 1334 38.61 41.57 44.80 47.50 13.74
316 2.501 2.701 2.900 3.075 0.890 14 40.02 43.30 46.40 49.30 14.23
334 2.871 3.105 3.330 3.530 1.022 1444 41.47 44.80 48.00 51.00 14.74

4 3,267 3.548 3.800 4.020 1.163 1415 42.93 ' 46.40 49.80 52.80 15.28
Aly 3.688 4.000 4.280 4.540 1.314 1434 44.43 48.00 51.50 54.70 15.80
436 4.135 4.470 4.790 5.090 1.471 15 45.95 49.70 53.30 56.50 16.35
434 4.607 4.980 5.350 5.670 1.640 1545 49.06 53.00 56.80 60.30 17.45

5 5.105 5.530 5.930 6.280 1.820 16 52.3 56.4 60.6 64.3 18.6
54 5.628 6.080 6.540 6.925 2.000 1614 55.5 60.0 64.5 68.3 19.8
516 6.177 6.680 7.160 7.570 2.200 17 59.0 63.8 68.5 72.6 21.0
534 6.751 7.310 7.840 8.300 2.400 1744 62.5 67.6 72.5 76.9 22.3

6 7.351 7.960 8.530 9.040 2.615 18 66.2 71.6 76.8 81.4 23.6
64 7.977 8.640 9.270 9.820 2.840 1815 70.0 15.7 81.3 86.2 24.9
619 8.627 9.340 10.000 10.611 3.070 19 73.6 79.5 85.5 90.6 26.2
634 9.304 10.067 10.792 11.444 3.315 1913 77.7 84.0 90.3 95.6 27.7

7 10.000 10.820 11.600 12.300 3.560 20 81.5 88.2 94.5 101.0 29.0
734 10.733 11.613 12.400 13.150 3.820 2016 85.7 92.7 99.6 106.3 30.5
74 11.486 12.450 13.330 14.140 4.080 21 90.0 97.3 104.4 111.5 32.0
134 12.265 13.260 14.200 15.070 4.360 2113 94.3 102.0 109.4 117.0 33.5

8 13.069 14.120 15.150 16.050 4.650 22 98.9 106.7 114.7 122.5 35.2
844 13.898 15.020 16.130 17.100 4.950 2216 103.5 112.0 120.0 127.4 36.8
84 14.754 15.960 17.130 18.300 5.250 23 108.0 116.7 125.3 133.0 38.5
834 15.634 16.900 18.100 19.200 5.570 2316 112.7 121.5 130.7 138.5 40.0

9 16.540 17.900 19.200 20.350 5.880 24 117.5 127.0 136.3 144.6 41.8
914 17.472 18.900 20.300 21.500 6.220 2416 122.5 132.4 142.0 150.7 43.6
916 18.429 19.930 21.350 22.650 6.550 25 127.8 138.0 148.0 157.0 45.5
934 19.412 21.000 22.500 23.850 6.910 2516 132.8 143.5 154.0 163.0 47.3

10 20.420 22.100 23.630 25.100 7.270 26 138.0 149.2 160.0 170.0 49.2
1034 21.454 23.250 24.900 26.400 7.630 2615 143.2 154.5 166.0 176.0 50.4
1014 22.513 24.350 26.100 27.700 8.000 27 149.0 161.0 173.0 183.2 53.0
1034 23.598 25.550 27.400 29.000 8.400 2716 154.2 166.5 178.7 189.5 54.8

11 24.708 26.750 28.650 30.500 8.780 28 160.0 173.0 185.7 197.0 57.0
114 25.845 27.950 29.950 31.800 9.200 2816 166.0 179.5 192.5 204.0 59.2
 CHARTS AND TABLES 13
WEIGHTS OF CYLINDRICAL PIECES, POUNDS PER INCH OF LENGTH (Continued)

A Wrought | Common Alumni Di Wrought Common

Diam- Cast iron | iron and yellow Bronze ua lam | Cast iron iron and yellow Bronze
eter ateal rane num eter
steel brass

29 172 186 199 211 61 61 760 882

2914 177 192 206 219 63 61144 773 897
30 183 199 213 226 65 62 785 912
3014 190 205 221 234 67 62146 * 798 927

31 196 212 227 241 69 63 810 940

3144 202 218 235 249 71 6314 823 955
32 209 226 243 257 74 64 836 970
3216 216 231 251 266 T7 6414 850 987

33 222 240 257 273 79 65 863 1,000

3316 229 247 265 282 81 6546 877 1,017
34 236 255 274 290 84 66 890 1,033
3419 243 263 282 299 86 6614 903 1,047

35 250 270 290 307 89 67 917 1,064

3516 257 278 299 317 91 6744 932 1,080
36 264 286 307 325 94 68 944 1,095
3616 272 294 315 335 96 6814 958 1,111

37 279 302 324 344 99 69 972 1,127

3736 287 310 333 354 102 6944 986 1,144
38 295 319 342 363 105 70 1,000 1,160
3836 303 328 352 373 108 70146 1,014 1,177

39 311 336 361 382 111 71 1,030 1,195

3939 319 345 370 393 113 7144 1,044 1,213
40 327 354 380 403 116 72 1,058 1,228
4039 335 362 389 412 119 7246 1,074 1,247

41 343 371 398 422 122 73 1,088 1,262

41}9 351 380 408 433 125 73% 1,102 1,276
42 360 389 418 443 128 74 1,147 1,296
4236 386 398 428 453 131 74g 1,132 1,313

43 377 408 437 464 134 75 1,150 1,334

4316 386 418 448 475 137 7544 1,165 1,351
44 396 428 460 487 141 76 1,181 1,370
4416 405 438 470 498 144 7614 1,195 1,386

45 414 448 481 510 147 77 1,210 1,404

4516 423 458 491 521 150 7748 1,226 1,423
46 433 468 503 533 154 78 1,243 1,442
46346 442 ATT 513 544 157 7845 1,258 1,460

47 451 488 523 555 160 79 1,274 1,477

4716 461 498 535 567 164 7916 1,290 1,496
48 471 509 546 579 167 80 1,307 1,516
4816 481 520 558 592 171 8012 1,323 1,536

49 491 531 570 604 174 81 1,340 1,555

4916 501 541 582 616 178 8144 1,356 1,572
50 511 552 593 628 182 _ 82 1,372 1,590
5039 521 563 605 641 185 8246 1,389 1,610

51 531 574 616 654 189 83 1,406 1,630

5139 543 587 630 668 193 83344 1,422 1,650
52 554 599 643 682 197 84 1,440 1,670
5246 564 610 655 694 201 8416 1,458 1,690

53 574 620 666 707 204 85 1,475 1,710

5336 585 632 679 720 208 86 1,510 1,750
54 596 644 692 733 212 87 1,545 1,790
5414 607 656 705 T47 216 88 1,581 1,835

55 617 667 716 760 219 89 1,616 1,874

5544 630 681 732 775 224 90 1,652 1,915
56 641 693 744 788 228 91 1,691 1,960
5634 652 705 756 803 233 92 1,730 2,008

57 664 717 770 817 236 93 1,766 2,049

5732 676 730 785 832 241 94 1,805 2,092
58 688 743 798 847 245 95 1,842 2,135
5844 700 757 812 862 249 96 1,882 2,180

59 712 768 825 876 253 97 1,920

5914 723 782 838 890 257 98 1,960
60 735 795 853 905 261 99 2,000
6014 748 808 869 920 266 100 2,040
14 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

UNIT AND TOTAL WEIGHTS

B
0.10 100 10
90
80 9
0.12 70
60 ©

0.14 50 7

0.16
40
35 6
30
27
25 5
22
AS 20° 45
7
15 on
=)

&
5135
+!

lo ca
9 2S 3
8 ae
Pounds
Weight
Piece-
per
w- 27
1

Pieces
of
Number
Total
N- =
per non
Pound
Pieces
of
p-Number
oOo
~
R 25

045 5 | 2
DD
| |
4 | 2

: L7
0.6
25
15
0.7 Draw a straight line 2
through the two known
points. The answer will be
0.8 found at the intersection of Id | | 12
this line with the third scale.
Example: Given 7 pieces
per pound or 0.143 lb. per
piece; 15 pieces weigh 2.15 lb. eq! | Presume
 CHARTS AND TABLES 15

» WEIGHT AND VOLUME

0.092
Aluminum

0.065 Magnesium

0.60

Mercury 0.5|
0.50

045

040
pial metal
opper
Nicke/ .
Phos. bronze \ 0.35
\

**032
BIReSS Osi] = 32=>=S>
030
0.08 Stee/ 0285 ------- > Weight
Lb.
inper
Culn.
.
Castiron }FF me0.27 3
Volume
in
In.
Cu.
Rolled zinc { ¥ 028
Weight
Total
Lb.
in

0.15

0.12

0.010 O10
Draw a straight line through the two known points. The answer will be found
at the intersection of this line with the third scale.
Example: 4 cu. in. of aluminum weighs 0.37 lb.
16 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A PRISM ABOUT THE AXIS aa

35
367 Salas

3 L
Anal
15 1

ak = Tae.

13 ek
ipo)16 Le b ai

2 JT5 25

gf : a h 2

25 S25
7
9 i
216 2 fa ee Ls

15 A

<< pat
3 i
ap fs s
22. ene at
<k
OF “0 I

16 RY Qo W fo
ee eee ae uae
2.25
UI
D
ji ea C line
Turning
216 ,
23 a
1
216 O5

aS 2
Qs
Moment
Units
Weight
in
Inertia
of
I- 7 inches
in
scale
b-
= Ww (h?2 * b2)
lg
Qg 12 S

175 W= Weight

IB >
15

12 Qo The decimal points on the Land W scales

8 can be shifi Fe /n the above
25 example W= 08,6,80, e7c., w ile1= 4.77
} 477, 477, etc. respectively’
Ig
| Q,
o7
8
VM
fp,
0
 CHARTS AND TABLES 17
RADII OF GYRATION FOR ROTATING BODIES

Solid Cylinder
cylinder about
about its axis
own axis through
center
Hollow
cylinder Cylinder
about its about
own axis axis
at one
Rectan- end
gular
prism Cylinder
about about R2 = 4l2 + 3r2 + 12dl + 12d?
axis outside 12
through axis
center
Any body about axis outside
Rectan-
its center of gravity
gular
Rk, = Ro + a2
prism
where fo = radius of gyration
about
about axis through
axis at
center of gravity
one end
R, = radius of gyration
Rectan- Of be- of about any other
gular gravity rotation parallel axis
prism R2 _ “Pop @ ap 12bd + 12d: d = distance between
about 12 center of gravity
outside and axis of rota-
axis tion

APPROXIMATIONS FOR CALCULATING MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Name or Part Moment or INERTIA
Flywheels (not applicable to belt pulleys) Moment of inertia equal to 1.08 to 1.15 times that of
rim alone

Flywheel (based on total weight and out- Moment of inertia equal to two-thirds of that of total
side diameter) weight concentrated at the outer circumference

Spur or helical gears (teeth alone) Moment of inertia of teeth equal to 40 per cent of that
of a hollow cylinder of the limiting dimensions

Spur or helical gears (rim alone) Figured as a hollow cylinder of same limiting dimensions

Spur or helical gears (total moment of Equal to 1.25 times the sum of that of teeth plus rim
inertia)

Spur or helical gears (with only weight and Moment of inertia considered equal to 0.60 times the
pitch diameter known) moment of inertia of the total weight concentrated
at the pitch circle

Motor armature Multiply outer radius of armature by following factors

(based on total weight and outside diam- to obtain radius of gyration:
eter) Large slow-speed motor...............--- 0.75-0.85
Medium speed d-c or induction motor... .. 0.70—0.80
IMGIMSAOS TOWOIE. ooo co cc ccabosca0s0020e6 0.60-0.65
18 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHART FOR TRANSFERRING MOMENT OF INERTIA

If 3 ig 4B WAS
30
35 To use chart, draw two mutually
perpendicular lines on a sheet of trans-
40 parent material. For example, the cross- Ce
lines show that, when the weight of the
45 mass is 12 lb., its moment of inertia Jo
about a given axis is 30 lb.-in. squared
50 and the distance to another parallel axis g
is 2.5 in.; then the moment of inertia J
22) about the second axis is 105 lb.-in. squared.

60 10

65 15

70 nf 20
<x
75 S|
o
2
80 S30
=)
Ie)
85 2E-35
N.
c
90 7/2
Oo
—

95 45
SS
100 — E50
105 OF55
as
fe
110 = +60
= 65
115
Lb.-In2
Moment
Inertia
Parallel!
other
of
About
Axis
in

120 70

125 5

130 80

85
135

140 90

X-Distance Between the Parallel Axes-in Inches

05 075 | 12 1A IG te Ms I) 2 Bl 22 2 a
 CHARTS AND TABLES 19

WR’ OF SYMMETRICAL BODIES

For computing WR? of rotating masses of weight per unit volume p, by resolving the body into
elemental shapes. See page 208 for effect of WR? on electric motor selection.
Note: p in pounds per cubic inch and dimensions in inches give WR? in lb.-in. squared.

1. Weights per Unit Volume of Materials.

WeiIGutT, Le.
MATERIAL PER Cu. IN.
(CRAG ahiovi ecohaecetheaesin tonantec tse ue a Mee) cate qetcacrerd SRMGMin con’chBoros i eae RE Ia he ne 0.260
Cast-iron castings of heavy section 7.e., flywheel rims................. 0.00000 seve eevee eee 0.250
SLES 6 ora@-o eerie ate,DORR a anc ie Gt Ieee a Sai Ee eek ier tC BS NaNye a oe de 0.283
IT ON Ze rrr ane Beene aera ches) nan eres Gina AAI ME Csa MO hate a tL RANGE SO Og Ge rt Cake IR 0.319
IIe acl EME re ert tree ee oer Me IRIN Ac Met ts nee NEON ne SRA OTS Ce at hy MP no ohy ts 0.410
(Chayayoreies 0 diwrael gisteanecaie uraeaerardin, oot Slaten ovat eer ceeelice avHvnta GUENeVis Coeieacaie eiecione otSABteresenien Nycenegeeman Dae 0.318

2. Cylinder, about Axis Lengthwise through the Center of Gravity.

Volume = GL (D1 — D)
(a) For any material:
WR = 5 pL (D4, — D4)
where p is the weight per unit volume.
(b) For cast iron:
<=}
» _ On = ID)
Ee 39.2
(c) For cast iron (heavy sections):
3
L(D4; — D*2)
ae 40.75
(d) For steel:
3
L(D4; — D*4s)
a ee
Wes 36.0

3. Cylinder, about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through Center of Gravity.

Volume = 7L(D*; — D*s)

(a) For any material:

WR. = 7pL(D, — D») ee eHv)

(6) For steel:
2 — (D?, — D*.)L {D?; + Ds z2
Wiis 4.50 8 Ty
4. Solid Cylinder, Rotated about an Axis Parallel to a Line that Passes through the Center of
Gravity and Is Perpendicular to the Center Line.

Volume = zD*L

(a) For any material:

WR... =" D'Lp S 5 OP a. )

(6) For steel:
20 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

5. Rod of Rectangular or Elliptical Section, Rotated about an Axis Perpendicular

to and Passing through the Center Line.
For rectangular cross sections:
Ki = 1493 K,=1
For elliptical cross sections:
r TT T
ky = 64’ Ke S 4

Volume = K.abL
(a) For any material:

WR,» = pabL \Ks [E sp fala ae L)| + Kat

(b) For a cast-iron rod of elliptical section (o = 0.260):
5 Gil PP t+
a?S|
WR*, = tn

6. Elliptical Cylinder, about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through the Center of
Gravity.

Volume = aL

(a) For any material:

yc a? + 6b? ‘)
WR, = p™ abl.( i6 +r

(b) For steel:

he es oe ae )
VES Ta,

7. Cylinder with Frustum of a Cone Removed.

pee = wh [; 3 3 D? on»
ee ME OD, Djs a?
==
a? — Wii) C3 | YDy ome
= ID [;
Ls (5 ~~ = Ds): = 22
4 (Dy ; = D : )|
L 3

9 1 5 |
»)
D¥) — 3 D% — DY»)
aL D, 2
ae
y
Volume
=
= spy |p (D's —

1G D 1
Pliny Wha) = Sp. = Dz.) 7 (Din = Bh) = 5 ohh = Ds) |
 CHARTS AND TABLES 21

9. Solid Frustum of a Cone.

he aL (D3, — D3.)
Volume = i) (Dy = Dy)

2 fa mpl, (D*, = D*»)

Witeag = 160 (D, — D,)

10. Chamfer Cut from Rectangular Prism Having One End Turned about a
Center.
Distance to center of gravity, where A = R./R, and B = C/2R,
j7R?B E
volume X (1 — A) 13
(AB = BVA ae D)
B DoE

A B eee

Volume
= gn
= il wy (A 2A+1)+
ail > ita, Al
- 4)|
= — (1 — A)

+p OM 8A ET) yO =BE geo —S—’

ies riewe {at 4A +3) + BA? — 2A +1)

4 One
9
@-H) +25 er-eere...

11. Complete Torus.

Volume= 7?Dr?
WR?,_, = 1.=Diz
re
(D*
+ 3r’)

Volume = 2zr? ce + 2 )

WAR = = Gor? ae2 + 4r) +r (p+ 7)

22 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

13. Inside Part of a Torus.

FOP 8) ro 59)
Volume = 2zrr? (= _é r)
+ 3

WR’, = ™pr° ee 5 4r) + 7 gD aes

Gravit : C
mB @, = 2 sia" OR deg
C3

™i2xareaaa Sen 2 > ye

Waal Oy pa i eek, a R°a C J 9 G2
SSE EER -— Area = ——— — ~4|R? — —
ce al 11459 2: 4

(a) Any material:

Neen ep ator 2) ee
WR... = | s99.9 5 (32 a)ave
2 44
(b) For steel:
‘ T [ Rta 1 5 CNC |
WR. = 355 [gag “(aR Sink 4

15. Circular Segment about Any Axis Parallel to an Axis through the Center of
the Circles. (Refer to 14 for Figure.)
WR?,_. = WR?,_. + weight (r? — r?,)

16. Rectangular Prism about an Axis Parallel to the Axis through the Center of
Gravity.
Volume = WLT

(a) For any material:

72 2
wre. = pwor (YF + r)
(b) For steel:
eal He Wael )
WK: = araa\ 9 | 4
 CHARTS AND TABLES iw)co

17. Isosceles Triangular Prism, Rotated about an Axis through Its Vertex.

5 hee ec ey Volume = ae
hae Rf ~-=-OFOVi.
H Se97 P of is Di go hele CU Re gOCP )
(
ipnuese ye WI ee DQ \O~ 1

18. Isosceles Triangular Prism, Rotated about Any Axis Parallel to an Axis
through the Vertex.

Volume = oS

s pCHT ‘S CZ a. 2)
WE ae = a Ny ag ae

19. Prism with Square Cross Section and Cylinder Removed, along Axis through
Center of Gravity of Square.

Volume
4= L G2 a

Wee, = = (1.697H* — D*)

20. Any Body about an Axis Parallel to the Gravity Axis, When WR? about the
Gravity Axis Is Known.

\ Va WR? “g—x = WR?,_, + weight X r?

xx
—L XN
Cray / ox

21. Wk? of a Piston, Effective at the Cylinder Center Line, about the Crankshaft
Center Line.

2 — .mpy (ls1 Pe
ee w, (+25)
where r = crank radius W, = weight of complete piston, rings, and pin
L = center-to-center length of connecting
rod
24 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

22. Wk? of a Connecting Rod, Effective at the Cylinder Center Line, about the
Crankshaft Center Line.

we = |W,fe + W.(5
MONG +wip
oo)
where r = crank radius W2. = weight of the upper or reciprocating part
L = center-to-center length of connecting of the rod = Wel, /L
rod Wr = Wi + Ws, the weight of the complete rod
W, = weight of the lower or rotating part of L, = distance from the center line of the crank-
the rod = [Wr(L — L,)|/L pin to the center of gravity of the con-
necting rod

23. Mass Geared to a Shaft.—The equivalent flywheel effect at the shaft in

question is
WAR = Aina’
where h = gear ratio (WR?)’ = flywheel effect of the body in question
r.p.m. of mass geared to shaft about its own axis of rotation
r.p.m. of shaft

24. Mass Geared to Main Shaft and Connected by a Flexible Shaft.—The effect
(wr2)’ ~~briven gear of the mass (WR?*)’ at the position of the driving
gear on the main shaft is
: 2 » W(WR2)!
‘Main shatt LJ
Whi = TRF 1 A, WEE

Driving gear 9.775C

where h = gear ratio f = natural torsional frequency of the shafting

_ r.p.m. of driven gear system, in vibrations per sec.
~ y.p.m. of driving gear C = torsional rigidity of flexible connecting
(WR?)’ = flywheel effect of geared-on mass shaft, in pound-inches per radian

25. Belted Drives.—The equivalent flywheel effect of the driven mass at the
(pemeeee | -----=-- >| driving shaft is

h?(WR?)’
ie i = ey
| WRYF
9.775C
Driven} T Driving
pulley pulley
where h = Ri/R C = R°AE/L
r.p.m. of pulley belted to shaft A = cross-sectional area of belt, in sq. in.
a r.p.m. of shaft E = modulus of elasticity of belt material in
(WR?)' = flywheel effect of the driven body tension, in lb. per sq. in.
about its own axis of rotation R = radius of driven pulley, in in.
f = natural torsional frequency of the JL = length of tight part of belt which is clear
system, in vibrations per sec. of the pulley, in in.
 CHARTS AND TABLES 2d

26. Effect of the Flexibility of Flywheel Spokes on WR? of Rim.—The effective

WR? of the rim is

Y Bs we UU)!
ee Bare =
,_ ORY
i,
a G7 UNC

where (WR?)’ = flywheel effect of the rim @= 12,Eka%>R ( L ze R 1

f = natural torsional frequency of nf: LT? Be JG
the system of which the fly- where g = number of spokes
wheel is a member, in vibra- E = bending modulus of elasticity of the
tions per sec. spoke material
C = torque required to move the k = 7/64 for elliptical, and k = 5 for
rim through one radian relative rectangular section spokes
to the hub All dimensions are in inches.
For cast-iron spokes of elliptical section:
EK = 15 X 10° lb. per sq. in.
C= ga°bR X le a lip ) Ib.-in.
ORS20 NS vee, radians
Note: It is found by comparative calculations that with spokes of moderate taper very little error is involved in
assuming the spoke to be straight and using cross section at mid-point for area calculation.

TYPICAL EXAMPLE
The flywheel shown below is used in a_ Part ]
. 5 5 : 5 of fly Formula | WR
Diesel engine installation. Itis required wheel
to determine effective WR? for calculation .
—@) 2 10[( i = (43)4) = 955 300
dL L 5 2

of one of the natural frequencies of tor- 2375[(43)" = BO]

: A : Ane b 2b sole ee
sional vibration. The anticipated nat- Some b2000
ural frequency of the system is 56.4 eee Satin Caleta
vibrations per sec. (©) (= =) x 1.375(25)? X 8 = —6;000
1
Total for rim = 1,016,300 lb.-in.
10 squared
aie el a2 5.25 X 215 X 11 f(1)?
Ae
25° a 1 oes 4.90
0 3
% aull @) ob (6.25)?
$.8.5(8.5 +11) += |= 36,800
ee Seep 5 OF ies 7]
SES Z aN (©) | ee Sa
SBT
SiS ZA Ss
SX m X
2 X 12
0.250
eeeont— be (f) 19 a
rae a: [1.697 X (13)4 — (6)4] = 13,900
()- A Total for remainder of flywheel
(LA ok = 54,400 lb.-in. squared
Section AA From formula (26)
@= 6 X (5.25)? K 2.5 * 19.5 x 105
Note: Since the beads at the ends of the spokes comprise 0.1132 x (11)?
but a small part of the flywheel WR?, very little error 11 19.5 1) = 2970 x 108 Ib.-in.
will result in assuming them to be of rectangular cross 3X 19.5 11 : radians
section. Also, because of the effect of the clamping nq Wr = 1,016,300 + 54,400
bolts, the outer hub will be considered a square equal 1 1,016,300 X (56.4)? :
te the diameter. The spokes will be assumed straight 9.775 X 2,970 X 108
and of mid-point cross section. = 1,197,000 lb.-in. squared
26 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHART FOR DETERMINING CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

F = 0.000341W Rn?
100

W= Weight of Revolving Body in Lb.

190008,000 60005,0004000
S 2.000
8
Ss
—-
S
©
oO
0 WDoO0
So
Oo 400 300 200 100
10,000
8,000
6000

Draw mutually perpendicular lines 4,000

on tracing cloth or celluloid. 3,000
Example: A 4,000-lb. body at a
radius of gyration of 20 ft. rotating 2,000
at 4 r.p.m. develops a centrifugal
force of 440 Ib. (approx.).
000
800
600
rpm.
n= 400
300
rae0e:
200

100
ao[o)

Centrifugal
Lb.
in
Force
F
OnoO

3 Ae Bh IO) Ib _ 20 30 40 5060 80 100

R= Radius of Gyration in Ft.
 CHARTS AND TABLES 27

FORCES IN TOGGLE JOINT WITH EQUAL ARMS

10,000
8,000
Sin in.
6,000 456 8 10 5 20 30 40
5,000
4,000
3,000

2,000 200

1,000 100
800 80
600 60
500 50:
© 400 ; 40
E
o 300 30

200 20
A
fe
Ww

100 10
80 icon te)

60 ‘ 6
50 5
40 4

30 3

20 2

10 I

Ol 02 03 040506 08 | 2 3 456 8 10
hinin.

Example: Use mutually perpendicular lines drawn on tracing cloth or celluloid.

In the example given for S = 10in. andh = 1 in., a force F of 10 lb. exerts pressures P
of 25 lb. each.
28 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

ACCELERATED LINEAR MOTION

2S iene eae S281 Ksae G
TERA? See Ww
2 3 42 5) © BY (0 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 120 40

V ft. per sec.

10,000
9,000
8,000
7000
6000
5,000
4000

3,000

200 56 810 20\ 30 40 6080100 200 300 500 2,000

S Ft

000
900
o =) 39)
°
SN
800
700
Turning point’
600
500

400

300
| 2 3 4 » \6 7 & 9 10 15 20

T Sec.
20 200

ft. per sec. 0

per sec. 100
W Lb.
Il turning point
= velocity at time 7’, in ft. per sec.
= distance passed through, in ft.
= time during which force acts, in sec.
= accelerating force, in lb.
= weight of moving body, in Jb.
«
Qeasad
= constant acceleration, in ft. per sec.
 00008

0009
00009
000%:
0000+ 0006
0000¢

000+
000% 000£

0001

00002
0004
009
0001 008
Ov

00r
000° 009
og

00£
002
0009
00+

001
“00g

000%
000
ROTARY

002

000%

001
08
MOTION
2rRn

000!
CHARTS

008 09
AND TABLES

009

Ov
O0vr A 44 Jad ‘Das

oy
00¢
02 ‘tamod
ut ‘qj--4jJed ‘098
soueystppessed ‘YSno1y}
UI “YJ

ll
002 Thea)
a4
snIpea
Jo “WOTJNTOASL
UI ‘UI
‘wduu

RARASR
‘Az100T0A
ur “47 aed ‘yes
suoTynjoAdo
Jad ‘ultd
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44S
(oJ) “OUITY
UT “OOS

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44 ‘q| Jad ‘0as ‘a010]
Ut “qT SuTjOR
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29
30 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

y MEAN COOLING TEMPERATURE

Where Ya and Yg are any two ordinates to

the curve Y=ae™* the usual form of cooling
om. curve, the mean value Y of all the ordinates
w.5 between Ys and Yp is given by the relation
AES : Ya-Yj
IS Log mean Y= a
SS ~ Log Ya- Log Yg
Qe §
ES
£8 s8
ys
a) Ls =e
K £é NS s 0°
Ty INS RES
NO So
gg S§
Sis
FL SS
S$
R¥
QS
INES
Lo /
ES
~

&&
Yp ie
rs /
/
/
/ 80
/
/
/
/
The dotted sine shows that for
a body cooling ff 70
trom We Geple 12)70 deg. Fin air at Chae ALE: /
the mean temperature difference 1s 36. 3deg. F /
the mean temperature therefore Is 963deg.F

Mean Ordinate Yu
 CHARTS AND TABLES 31

SOLUTION OF OHM’S EQUATIONS

Ohms
Volts
0.1 I 100 1000

50 —] 500

O2-F 2
Amperes
0.01

O3F 3 Watts
10 100
0.01 0.!

0.05
O44
ol 5 7750
0.05 05
05>—5
(o}| |

0.5
0.5 5

1.0 10 1.0 10 Z 10 1.0 — !0

055
5 zo0

5
10 100
2.0 20
10

50 500
3.0F 30
100 000 to}

50
40F 40
100 0.05— 05
500 5000
Be 50°

Draw a straight line through the two known points.

The values of the two unknowns will be found at the
intersections of this line with the other two scales.
Use boldface scales or lightface scales according to
100 position of decimal point. 0.01 — Of
32 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

TOTAL RESISTANCE OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS ;

(4)@)
1
Ri =
1 1 1 1
Rh Oh viet
For convenience, list the resistances of the different parallel circuits in descending order
of magnitude. Locate R: on the diagonal scale and connect it with R» on the hori-
zontal scale. The total resistance is found at the intersection with the Total Resistance :
diagonal. For more than two parallel circuits, project horizontally from the intersec- |
tion point on the Total Resistance diagonal to the diagonal Resistance Ai, draw a
line to R; on the horizontal scale, and the answer will again be found at the /
intersection with the Total Resistance diagonal. Repeat successively for &
additional resistances Ru, Rs, etc. 2 i
The light dashed lines indicate the procedure for finding the total
resistance of five parallel circuits, Ri =100, R2 = 60, Rs = 40, /
4 = 80, Rs = 25. The answer as given by the chart is 8.0.
Conversely, the resistances of individual parallel cir- X /
cuits to give a desired total resistance can be determined
from this chart. i

%O D

Bae | /

30 40 DM 70 80 90 100 HiKe) 120

QO 10 20
Resistances, Ro,R3,R4.-.- :
 CHAPTER II

PaGE Pace

Selection of Materials..................... 34 Properties of Stainless Steel............... 50

Gast ON Se ee iat ecletecprety EIT Sle 35 Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys............. 52
Alloy Cast meal _ 36 Wrought Brasses and Bronzes............. 54
Hifechon Ni kellean dGane eeave a Gane no 38 Corrosion-resisting Metals and Alloys....... 58
NOTIer NT Casti 39 Aluminum Base Alloys.................... 60
MN eg re ee ere Pe eee ... 64
Cast Canin St62l.c.s00s20s2s90ss30563: 40 Insulating Material!) 6904) oon 65
Ene hwAllova Cast oteclsirn eee ie 4 2nePlactionMaterialsi: Ae MBG
Low Alloy Cast Steels.................... 44 Phenolic Laminated Molded Materials... 68
Corrosion and Heat-resistant Cast Steels.... 46 Steels for Automotive Parts.............. 70

33
J4 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SELECTION OF MATERIALS ®
The universal problem in engineering design is the selection of the materials from which the
various parts of the device, machine, or product are to be made. It is also the first problem because
the material selected will govern the allowable stresses, the types of construction that might be
adopted, the manufacturing methods employed, the assembly operations, the finishes that might be
applied, and, of greatest importance, the cost and sales appeal of the product. In many designs,
the commercial success or failure will be determined definitely by the materials selected.
In practically every design, the physical and other properties required will determine which
materials might be used. But the relative importance of the different properties will vary consider-
ably for different types of design. The unit strength of the material is practically always a factor
though often a minor one.
For constructions subjected to only a steady tension, the yield point on the stress-strain curve
or the yield strength of the material, z.e., the unit tension it can withstand with a specified elongation,
will be the first consideration. But for a compression-loaded column, both the tensile strength and
the elastic modulus must be considered. For vibratory or repeated stresses, the endurance limit of
the material becomes the governing strength consideration, whereas for low-temperature service and
shock loads the impact values are of great importance. And, of course, there is also to be considered
the compressive strength or the shear strength, according to the type of stresses to which the mem-
ber will be subjected.
In addition to the unit strength considerations, any one or a group of almost innumerable other
properties must be considered. If, as in most machine tools, it is important to have little or no
vibration, a material with a high vibration damping capacity, such as cast iron, might be considered
first. Hardness, wear resistance, porosity, and ductility are some of the other properties that may
be of major importance. -
In addition to physical properties, corrosion resistance, heat conductivity, electrical conduc-
tivity, dielectric strength, frictional properties, and many others may enter into the problem.
There is no formula or equation by which the most suitable material from the standpoint of
properties can be selected. Nor is it always advisable to use the material that has the highest values
for the properties desired. Invariably the final selection must be a compromise largely because two
other important factors enter into the problem, namely, the workability of the material and its cost.
When a number of different materials have been selected, each of which possesses the desired
properties to a satisfactory degree, the next step toward the final selectionis the determination of
the manufacturing methods that might be employed. Aluminum, zinc, and many of the non-
ferrous alloys naturally suggest die-casting, stamping, and forging. Iron, steel, aluminum, and some
other metals offer great possibilities by virtue of their weldability. Casting is suitable for almost
all metals and alloys. Plastics are mostly molded; some are sheet-laminated or are in the form of
sheets; a few are extruded. To mention only a few other manufacturing processes, we have impact
extrusion, die extrusion, drawn shapes and rolled shapes, and roll-formed sheet sections.
After it has been determined what types of construction might be used, the design must be
analyzed with reference to such things as the use of inserts, consolidating different parts into one
piece, use of standard purchased parts, and similar possibilities.
Hand in hand with the types of construction that might be employed are the costs of machining,
grinding, and other operations, which will vary greatly. Included in this category may be punch-
ing, hand reaming, riveting, buffing, and polishing.
Not until all the factors discussed above have been studied closely and analyzed should any
consideration be given to the cost per pound of the material. A complete analysis may often reveal
that aluminum at 30 cts. per lb. or zine at 10 cts. per lb. is cheaper to use than gray iron at 5 cts.
per lb.
A complete analysis of all the items to be considered in the selection of materials and the associ-
ated problems of types of constructions and workability considerations would require volumes and
even then would obscure the problem rather than clarify it. In the final analysis, nothing can be
substituted for clear engineering thinking based on broad experience and knowledge.
 MATERIALS 3D

. CAST IRONS
GRAY IRON
Prr CEent
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION BY WEIGHT
Graphitickcanbonemence etc\ea. cs aru ayme muenore! Gatch icuel amet oe fee A = 8B
Gomi Ar OMe evn RB meee Maui ede Sites eee 0.8 max.
TEROVIS Sica -oterecece to ocF ANRg hasten ek ave tn RECS EEE RESUS.Si yephakSie Pnena eean a 93.7 -94.3
[SVUNYGrONOY io.csdace edoea rons cislavuhclGaoea ngacatGmans Baty ARORA ERcaeercl-es GkCoRR Omer ie ee Se 0.25- 0.3
UY KeaynVea aYetSe\ reek teem ceetiecePER Cec aoe RO A eC a tee cece steerrea, eects tele 0.5 -1
PSU DORN EY, pete aue' picta-e a idvauer aie,tic CeMare Ronee omnatal en tlt anaes icaaraneiiete eee ar ne eae 0.07- 0.12
IDIOSWHORU SHE aER emer RS eee cr Rec pete ce Sua teasnate aur cot 0.10— 1.05
AVERAGE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES LB. PER Sa. IN.
phensileystrenethin sere eycest ata.nace wns ene y eer AU ns aay on aia de 21,000— 42,000
Shears tren acer ere way entree, kgs nei ne Rat eeu fare iNCenc 36 ,000-— 60,000
Comipressiverstrengthis scccatciners se leee ee aero arse seal eels Seen 70 ,000—200 ,000
Moduluskohelasticitymasacy sales ae cease cee dea alae crerse ose kat 15,000,000

Gray iron ordinarily is easily machinable.

WHITE IRON
Prr Cent
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION BY WEIGHT
Graphitic carbon...... Sedr clleae rant 8 beUe a eaagrtinas CtGo(ass vanecclmcyrniies rapt eRe Trace
Comibinedacarbomeee sss w iin kauaret talernie MR Riana S te tl eT a me ea 3.30
VERONA. sa) outaseca”HEL Bonga els Cee oeeB Dee aeGoleta ah eae nade 94.93
SILC OMe eR nea a Rane RA) Whine OI cM eRe Elutin cued cc tae id i, 0.60
INen a eSeR ee screen rea on Ate ae Lia oko Pe AVS eateralias age TR ki Shatin re 0.52
PONUI
FO)OMUNE 5 -se righ de nn tesa" aes PEERUMOURS Ne attesa hati) a UAT aD EAR OC gd 0.15
LPACOISYO) OVONAUIS SS 5 Jove ores tm cco e Preenercerepeda amc onesabeteta eerneMee el hm aE oar greg ee Pee 0.50
AVERAGE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES LB. PER Sa. IN.
pRensileyatremor heecet ev pts sat Maur eitana a eens etic s Stim tlh Lists 20 ,000-70 ,000
Miodulusroigelasti city ccwre oes Morante ey 2 ale ee eteeeee 20 ,000 ,000

White iron is difficult to machine. When not heat-treated, white iron has great
resistance to wear by abrasion.
MOTTLED IRON
Prr Cent
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION BY WEIGHT
Gram hiticEcanbombrswunvs te panier waters aki ey ta ae aceon ey vacate a 1.50
Combmledtearboner Areas Scr Pac aia cnt Mewes distis Geet ne RS aerogenes woe 1.80
IlaOTe etre ee ae eee a trae sett a rg tna arene WUE Cot a 3.sea ae calls ys 95.07
ILCOTES een Worse teh ies ear. SMEG RS cae oUt So Mt SeMo enna neneMe ee es 0.92
IV[fen a1 GS G Serena eer aera ovis eo PINE CA Corer melons 2 ee catia sats 0.36
SUUMOUAUUE.., dvssaa. Ble o Giert brane Rrra RARE TOMS SE Delt: he a REM le Rs Her iyeee On 0.13
JPG SFO OOUEWISY:, 4-6: ciesBiasceuees, CUSHS BLS Eeeme Uepiets Seoeeita 5,Oe ice Akar mn ramen SESH nt Se ear 0.22

Mottled iron is a mixture of gray iron and white iron.

Chilled cast iron are those parts of castings which after pouring are cooled
quickly by chills in order to retain the carbon in the iron carbide form found in white
iron, whereas other parts of the casting cool slowly to form gray iron.
36 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

ALLOY CAST IRONS

To obtain exceptional properties such as high tensile strength, hardness, wear resistance, corro-
sion resistance, and heat resistance, many alloys of cast iron with other elements have been developed.
The effect of various alloying additions are indicated in the accompanying table.
EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ADDITIONS ON CAST IRON

Addition Effect on mechanical properties Comments

Bismuth Reduces tensile strength . Improves machinability

Lowers Brinell hardness in interior sections
Low impact resistance

Chromium See page 38

Cobalt No useful results Increases remnant magnetism and magnetic

permeability

Copper Increases tensile strength Increases remnant magnetism and coercive force
Increases Brinell hardness
Increases wear resistance
Increases antifriction properties
Increases shock resistance where there is sliding
friction
Increases resistance to heat
Increases resistance to corrosion

Manganese Increases tensile strength Decreases machinability when in excess of 1.25

Increases resistance to wear per cent ,
May increase machinability within the limits of
0.40 and 1.00 per cent

Molybdenum | Increases tensile strength Increases machinability by promoting structural

Increases hardness uniformity
Improves impact resistance
Improves fatigue characteristics
Improves wear resistance
Maintains strength of irons at elevated tempera-
tures

Nickel See page 38

Phosphorus Small quantities do not affect the tensile strength. |One of five principal elements in cast iron
With increasing phosphorus, resilience and shock | Increase of phosphorus reduces machinability
resistance decrease, but Brinell hardness and |Phosphorus in pressure castings should be kept
stiffness increase under 0.3 per cent

Silicon Hardness increases with increased silicon Classified as a graphitizer and as a reducing agent
With 4 per cent silicon, alloy becomes brittle with
little ability to elongate without fracture, with
tensile strength of about 90,000 lb. per sq. in.
Large amounts of silicon make an alloy that is acid
and corrosion resistant

Titanium Increases the tensile and bending strengths, also} Reducing and graphitizing agent. Improves
wear resistance machinability
More than 0.1 per cent increases acid resistance

Vanadium Increases tensile strength, hardness, wear, and

heat resistance. Heat-treating improves hard-
ness
a ee —
 MATERIALS 37

EFFECT OF ALLOYS ON CAST IRON

De)(o2)ie)
Cr

le Mn
i)fon)oO

Cu

|— Ni
\

220
Brinell
at
Hardness
Kg.
3,000

200

55,000 al |

50,000

i
\<

Strength-
Tensile
Lb.
In.
Sq.
per Mn
0 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
Alloying Elements-Per Cent

Effect of alloys on tensile strength and Brinell hardness of an electrically melted

base iron containing 3.24 per cent total carbon, 0.67 per cent combined carbon, 2.57
per cent graphitic carbon, 0.71 per cent manganese, 1.88 per cent silicon, 0.17 per
cent phosphorus, 0.09 per cent sulphur with an initial tensile strength of 39,000 Ib.
per sq. in., and Brinell hardness of 217. (American Foundrymen’s Association.)
38 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

EFFECT OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM ON CAST IRON

Addition of Nickel.
IL. Increases strength and elasticity when composition of the iron is adjusted,
especially the silicon content.
2. Refines the grain and reduces porosity.
3. Increases hardness.
4. Eliminates hard spots and thus improves machinability when nickel additions
amount to !4 to 4 per cent depending upon the silicon content and section
thickness.
Decreases the amount of silicon needed to keep castings gray and machinable.
Increases wearing qualities.
Improves impact resistance.
I . Improves heat and corrosion resistance.
GP
CO
EX
). Raises electrical resistance.
Addition of Chromium.
. Improves tensile strength.
. Refines the grain.
. Increases hardness. Produces hard spots when used alone or in excessive
amounts.
. Increases chilling power, depth of chill, and the combined carbon.
. Increases heat resistance.
. Increases wear resistance.
. Increases corrosion resistance.
. Decreases machinability.
ONO
OP
Addition of Nickel and Chromium Together.
IL, By using two or three parts of nickel to one of chromium, the chilling action of
chromium is restrained and the beneficial effects of chromium are retained.
2. Increases strength and hardness. Amounts needed to obtain maximum
machining qualities, and also hardness and strength, in castings of various
section thickness are shown in the accompanying table.
Applications for Nickel and Nickel-chromium Cast Iron.
Cylinders, cams, gears, hardware, bushings, machine frames, liners, and plates.

NICKEL AND CHROMIUM IN CAST IRON FOR MAXIMUM MACHINABILITY

Sections 14—-' in. thick Sections 1-3 in. thick

Rak Eo Silicon, per cent

Nickel, per cent Claixonanstian Nickel, per cent CinURONnITM
per cent per cent

Us50=8800G. I Bessette 0.75-3.00 0.20-0.60 1.00-1.50

0.50-2.00 0.00-0.30 0.75-3.00 0.40-1.00 1.50-2.00
0.50-1.50 0.00-0.40 0.75-3.00 0.50-1.10 2.00-2.50
0.50-1. 25 0.20-0.50 0.75-8.00 0.60-1.25 2.50-3 .00
 MATERIALS 39

MALLEABLE IRON CASTINGS

AVERAGE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mensilerstrength, Vos per sq ims 1s. .6 dca seeing aad as ea seralieey edie a 54 ,000
Waele! joo wm tems, llloy, (OE Glo Ws socosoccdoaavcuocdscnecbsooccsed 36 ,000
TBYavavegeyEVonal, sins 7) aly eee ranlehaesier Phere ateRien aie cenaca Eanate rane toc tee Otecee ee 18 per cent
Reductiontnyareal(See motel) psee eran eerie aetna nee 19 per cent
Modulus of elasticity in tension, lb. per sq. in........................ 25 ,000 ,000
Compressive strength (see note 2)
Ultimate shearing strength, lb. per sq. in. (see note 3)................ 48 ,000
Véielicl joorims tim Sloeeye, Ml, oP Mo, Wes cessdaccuoscouneccoaccsncsucoducn 23 ,000
Modulus of elasticity in shear, lb. per sq. in.......................... 12,500,000
YONG! foo 1 WoO, Mo, WOE Els Wl coaccoscaasevececeocaananan0ceae 24 ,000
Modulus of rupture in torsion, lb. per sq. in................---..----- 58 ,000
iBrinellMhardwessnmumabeier | osna.eca eco cues eae eee a Ged necelae 100-140
Charpy impact value, ft.-lb. (see note 4)....................-.--..--. 16.5
Wedge test for impact (see note 4)
Fatigue endurance limit (no definite data, probably about 25,000 to 26,000
Ib. per sq. in.)
Effect of temperature (see note 5)

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
FSHOLSTEIUINE) CRN YATINT 2 cbareseeclee eeuertan Suecsline treesterst Stel eats eS 2 eetHCang eae HEH 7.15-7.45
Shrinkage allowance, in. perft..........................0-- 000s 1e-34¢
Coefficient of thermal expansion per deg. F...................-....-- 0.0000066
Specificuheat mese-suMits. cd aera oo eieveiie mR eo ists Geico eee eseaees 0.122

ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

TRESS, THMNOROLUINS JOP CGooouccoccccoocscceccnecanescvnsuoaccnes 28-37
Magnetization properties (see note 6)
Magnetic hysteresis (see note 6)

Nores on MALLEABLE IRON CasTINGS

1. Reduction of Area.—The elongation usually is spread quite evenly over the entire gage length, instead of being
restricted locally. This may be construed to mean that cohesion is more uniform in malleable iron than in other
ferrous metals.
2. Compressive Strength.—In ductile ferrous metals, the yield point in compression so closely approximates that in
» tension that testing for the latter, being much more easily determined, avoids the necessity of testing for the former.
Also, it is impractical to determine the compressive strength of such products, because once the yield point has been
passed the specimen flattens out, yielding no well-marked fracture.
3. Shear and Torsion Tests——In determining shear by the ‘‘direct method,” approximate results only can be
secured because a certain amount of distortion caused by the combined effect of compression and bending during the
test can not be avoided. Consequently, shearing properties are better studied from torsion tests. The number of
twists per foot of length will furnish an estimate of the toughness of the material, and their distribution yields some
indication of the variation in hardness which tends to cause an uneven localization of the twists, there being less
distortion at planes of greater hardness.
4. The wedge test will furnish a more accurate idea of what can be expected of castings that are to be subjected to
shock and occasional overload in service than will a notched bar test, wherein the stresses are concentrated at the root
of the notch.
5. Effect of Temperature—If malleable iron is heated to a temperature in excess of its critical range, the temper
carbon will start to revert back to the combined form, and if heated to around 1600°F. practically all of it will be
reverted. Malleable iron can be heated to around 800°F. without loss in tensile properties.
6. Magnetization Properties —When high permeability is required in iron, the carbon should be in the form of
temper carbon, whereas combined carbon or free cemenite should be absent. Malleable iron possesses high induction
and permeability and low hysteresis loss.
40 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CAST CARBON STEELS

Chemical composition Mechanical properties

Car- M| a Sili- | Sul- |Phos- | Tensile | \;.4 |Hlon-| ie

duc- |, |Hard-
bon, neue: con, | phur, | phorus,| strength, arc yites gation,|tion of macs ness Ten
tenenANG fe tonle
per 5 per per per lb. per : per area, num-
per ; - per sq. in. values _
cent cent cent cent sq. in. cent per bers?
cent eC
cent

0.11 | 0.73 | 0.27 | 0.027 | 0.028 §3,COO |} nosace 33.0 | 36.0 | .... | .... |Annealed in commercial furnace
59,000 26,000 | 13.2 | 30.0 3.7¢ | 126B | As cast
5 57,000 24,000 | 28.2 | 53.0 | 2.1¢ | 119B | 1475°F. (800°C.) (6), furnace cooled
0.11 | 0.60 |0.40 |0.035 |0.030 1) 65.000 | 35,000 |29.5 |59.5 |15.0¢ |116B |1650°F. (900°C.) (6), furnace cooled
60,000 35,000 | 31.0 | 54.0 | 13.7¢ | 126B | 1825°F. (995°C.) (6), furnace cooled

155, |) Oath || OPO) aooco

|) ossne G00 || soescc 34.0 | 52.5] ... Annealed
0.17 | 0.67 | 0.23 | 0.076 | 0.089 64,000 35,000 |. 28.5 |. 40.2 3.74 1650°F. (900°C.) (5), furnace cooled
O18 || OB || M8 |) catoc
|| ooces 73000 || sooace 34.0 | 49.0] ... Annealed

0.20- |0.70— |0.25— | Under | Under 67,000 34,000 | 14.0 |.18.6 } 15¢ As cast
0.25 | 0.80 | 0.35 | 0.03 0.03 70,000 37,000 | 26.5 | 31.6 | 36¢ 1600°F. (870°C.), furnace cooled

70,000 36,500 | 33.0 | 51.2 | 16/ 137B | As cast

0.19 | 0.60 | 0.44 | 0.031 | 0.028 71,500 46,500 | 34.0 | 58.0 | 24/ 139B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (1), air cooled
74,500 48,000 | 32.0 | 55.1 | 26/ 143B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (1), furnace cooled

62,000 42,000 | 36. on or) oo for)> .... | 1650°F. (900°C.) (1), furnace cooled
63,500 44,000 | 39.0 | 67.0 | 64¢ .... | 1700°F. (930°C.) (1), air cooled
1600°F. (870°C.) (1), air cooled
1200°F. (650°C.) (1), air cooled

0.22 | 0 -70 0.32 | 0.030 | 0.024 71,000 37,000 | 33.0 | 53.5 149B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (3), air cooled
0.22 | 0.68 | 0.28 | 0.030 | 0.025 72,000 43,000 | 32.5 | 52.4 149B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (3), air cooled
0.22 | 0.67 | 0.34 | 0.029 | 0.024 73,500 43,500 | 33.0 | 49.7 156B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (3), air cooled
oe" |} Oazt3 |) Wa243 |! coos|) ooo CLSOOM |} oaacec 28.6 | 47.8 -... | 1650°F. (900°C.), furnace cooled

67,000 27,000 | 22.0 | 33.0 | 20.1/ | 119B |} As received

77,000 | 44,000 | 30.5 | 51.0 |32.6/| 136B]1650°F. (900°C.) (1), air cooled; 1525°F.
(830°C.) (1), air cooled
77,000 43,000 | 31.5 | 52.0 | 32.0/| 136B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (1), air cooled; 1525°F.
0.25 | 0.68 | 0.32 | 0.032 | 0.012 (830°C.) (1), air cooled; 600°F. (315°C.)
(1), air cooled
76,000 43,000 | 31.7 | 56.0 | 34.0/ | 133B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (1), air cooled; 1525°F.
(830°C.) (1), air cooled; 1000°F. (540°C.)
(1), air cooled

Oo73) |) OoBE | OaB~ |! coaan

ll spose TATOO || “scones 33.0 | 54.2 | .... | .... | Annealed, furnace cooled
Oo? |) Oat |) Moe | acooe
|) seco TWO | ococaes 32.9 | 57.6 | 35.59] .... | 1650°F. (900°C.) water quenched; 1300°F.
(705°C.), furnace cooled
0.27 | 0.72 | 0.32 | 0.034 | 0.027 82,500 44,500 | 28.0 | 47.7 1638B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (3), air cooled
0.27 | 0.75 | 0.31 | 0.034 | 0.029 74,500 40,000 | 35.0 | 45.7 153B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (8), air cooled
0.27 | 0.69 | 0.26 | 0.032 | 0.027 76,000 41,500 | 28.0 | 44.8 156B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (3), air cooled
0.28 | 0.65 | 0.27 | 0.032 | 0.027 74,000 43,000 | 28.0 | 42.0 3 1550°F. (840°C.) (7), furnace cooled to
1000°F. (540°C.) air cooled

68,000 42,000 | 33.3 | 51.1 |37.5¢ | .... | 1650°F. (900°C.) (1), furnace cooled
1700°F. (930°C.) (1), air cooled
Deeks |O28 |Os ||venec
|}cosse 69,000 43,500 | 37.8 | 63.3 | 45.5¢] .... 1600°F. (870°C.) (1), air cooled
1200°F. (650°C.) (1), air cooled

75,000 36,000 | 19.5 | 29.0 | 17¢ 156B | As cast

76,000 42,000 | 25.5 | 31.5 | 21¢ 143B | Annealed
84,000 57,000 | 30.0 | 65.0 | 44¢ 160B | 1650°F. (900°C.) water quenched, drawn
1300°F. (705°C.), air cooled
95,000 68,000 | 24.0 | 57.0 | .... | 192B]1650°F. (900°C.), water quenched, drawn
: 1100°F. (595°C.) air cooled
DoD ||Ose ||OB |)O28 ||O00 108 ,000 79,000 | 19.0 | 46:0 |] .... | 220B | 1650°F. (900°C.), water quenched, drawn
900°F. (480°C.), air cooled
119,000 90,000 | 14.0 | 33.0 | .... | 238B |1650°F. (900°C.), water quenched, drawn
. 700°F. (370°C.), air cooled
130,000 | 100,000 9.0 | 18.0 | .... | 250B |1650°F. (900°C.), water quenched, drawn
500°F. (260°C.), air cooled
 MATERIALS 41
CAST CARBON STEELS (Continued)

Chemical composition Mechanical properties

Man- Bie
Car- Sili- Sul- Phos- Tensile “ Elon- | duc- Hard-
ga- Yield S ei Im-
bon, con, | phur, | phorus,| strength, : gation,|tion of ness
nese, point, lb. pact Treatment of steel?
per per per per lb. per 5 per area, num-
per " per sq. in. values
cent cent cent cent sq. In. cent per bers?
cent
cent

O.8ib |) O30 || eB |} goes

|] cscs T3500D |] cacacce 26.2 | 41.3 1650°F. (900°C.), furnace cooled

85,500 54,500 | 29.5 | 53.4 | 21/ 146B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (1), air cooled

92,500 | 66,500 |26.0 |61.8 |32/ | 164B ree (00RC LO) mater duenched
O: 0,

0.31 | 0.75 | 0.42 | 0.029 | 0.034 1200°F. (650°C.) (1), air cooled
7 : 5 5 : 77,000 43,500 | 28.7 | 44.5 | 14/ 134B | 1650°F. (900°C.) (1), furnace cooled
1650°F. (900°C.) (1), air cooled
83,500 | 53,000 | 29.3 | 51.9 | 20. i 146B { SRT. (HIRSH) (OY, ckie cone

86,500 | 48,000 | 29.0 | 55.0 |40 L700 Be eiK980 1C)4G) air cooled
fe) o, 1

0.32 | 0.80 | 0.37 | 0.025 | 0.013 1600°F. (870°C.) (1), air cooled
3 : : ; 1700°F. (930°C.) (1), air cooled
80,000 49,500 | 28.0 | 56.0 | 43¢ 1600°F. (870°C.) (1), air cooled
1200°F. (650°C.) (1), air cooled

YL) || ssoscce 23.9 | 32.9 59 As received

82,000} ....... 26.7 | 49.9 | 109 1650°F. (900°C.) (4), water quenched; 1260°F.
0.37 | 0.79 | 0.40 | 0.008 | 0.019 : (680°C.) (6), air cooled
88,000 | ....... 21.4 | 28.3 69 1650°F. (900°C.) (4), air cooled; 1290°F.
(695°C.) (6), air cooled

TA WOO. |) 5500505 16.8 | 31.4 6.09 As received

86,000 | ....... 23.5 | 38.7 | 24.59 1650°F. (900°C.) (4), water quenched; 1260°F.
0.39 | 0.86 | 0.41 | 0.008 | 0.019 (680°C.) (6), air cooled
SE}(C00 || coosess 20.7 | 29.5 | 14.02 1650°F. (900°C.) (4), air cooled; 1290°F.
(695°C.) (6), air cooled

0.42 0.69 O63) |\\ooecs Woe . aoe LU COO || sscocac 22.0 | 25.0 6.59 1650°F. (900°C.) (4) Furnace cooled
O~Y |) Os7fil || OB cco
|| ooses fl CWO) |} cescccs 23.9 | 37.9 | 20.52 1650°F. (900°C.) (4), oil quenched; 1250°F.
(675°C.) (6), furnace cooled r
O24 || Osvil|| @aGE! || sancs
|] ooo0. 827,000) eeeene 26.4 | 44.2 | 17.79 1650°F. (900°C.) (4), water quenched; 1250°F.
(675°C.) (6), furnace cooled
O43 || O578 |) M223 |) cocee
|| osec CB},000) |] cococss 22.0 | 33.6 Annealed, furnace cooled

83,000 | ....... 22).6 || 27.1 7 As received

3,000 |) cotoces 24.9 | 41.9 | 109 1650°F. (900°C.) (4), water quenched; 1250°F.
0.48 | 0.68 | 0.41 | 0.010 | 0.019 (675°C.) (6), air cooled

Git WWD |} scocoses 21.3 | 29.5 8.59 1650°F. (900°C.) (4), air cooled; 1290°F.
(695°C.) (6), air cooled

Os pss Oss |] oscn0

I) 65000 S41 000 8) cece20 19.8 | 24.5 5.59 1650°F. (900°C.) (4), furnace cooled
Oot |) Oo69 || 28k} |) ccose
|f oocue 83,000 | ....... 195 | 192) 5.89 1650°F. (900°C.) (4), air cooled; 1400°F.
(760°C.) (6), furnace cooled
@S3t |) Ms |) see! |] coos
|! cosas S47\0008 ieee 22.5 | 26.6 5.99 1690°F. (920°C.) (5), air cooled; 1290°F.
(695°C.) (6), furnace cooled

Courtesy of American Foundrymen’s Association.

2 The letter B designates Brinell hardness.
+ Numbers in parentheses following the temperature indicate number of hours at temperature.
¢ Values in m.-kg. per sq. cm.
@ Specimen 30 X 30 X 160 mm. Cylindrical notch 4 mm. in diameter, 15 mm. deep. Values in meter-kilograms per square centimeter.
¢ Izod, ft.-lb.
4 Charpy, ft.-lb.
9 Fremont, kg.-m.
42 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

HIGH ALLOY CAST STEELS

Manganese Steel.
il, Contains 10 to 14 per cent manganese with less than 1.5 per cent carbon.
. Extremely hard, strong, and tough, with high resistance to wear.
. Usually cast to form, but can be forged at a yellow heat.
. Difficult to machine, can be partly softened by quenching from about 1830°F.
bw
Ww
ore. Hardness is restored by heating to about 1380°F. and cooling slowly in air.

Nickel Steel.

I. Contains ordinarily 0.52 to 3 per cent nickel with 0.15 to 0.60 per cent carbon.
2. Has high elastic limit and tensile strength.
3. Corrosion resistance increases with the nickel content.

Chrome Steel.

iF Contains usually 0.5 to 3.5 per cent of chromium with 0.2 to 0.6 per cent
carbon.
2. Has high elastic limit, tensile strength, and hardness.
3. Up to 1 per cent of chromium has little effect on steel. With 1 per cent car-
bon and 2 per cent chromium, great toughness is attained.
4. Low-carbon chrome steels can be forged with as high as 12 per cent chromium
present, but the alloy becomes brittle as the carbon increases.
or. Chrome steel attains great hardness when quenched in water.
6. Steels with about 15 per cent chromium are relatively corrosion resistant.

Vanadium Steel.

I Small percentages of vanadium combined with chromium and manganese in

steel result in an alloy that has high tensile strength and elastic limit.
2. Vanadium makes nickel steel more homogeneous and decreases the fragility;
it is seldom used with more than 8 per cent nickel.
3. Additions of 0.15 to 0.25 per cent vanadium to chrome steel counterbalances
the extreme hardness of chromium and produces an alloy with better machin-
ing properties.

Tungsten Steel.
. Is very hard and brittle, difficult to forge, and cannot be welded when the
tungsten exceeds 2 per cent.
. Can be worked at a red heat, but is usually cast in the form of tools and ground
to the desired form.
. Addition of tungsten to steel produces a close and uniform structure.
. High-carbon tungsten steel retains high magnetism.
ye
ot
co Steel alloys with 5 to 8 per cent tungsten are self-hardening.
 MATERIALS 43

Molybdenum Steel.
1. Effect of molybdenum on steel is between that of tungsten and chromium.
2. Molybdenum in chrome steel improves the forging qualities.

High-speed Steels.
1. Derive their properties from selected combinations of the several metals listed
above.
2. Cobalt, uranium, titanium, and silver are also used in high-speed steels.
3. A typical high-speed steel analysis is iron, 68.79 per cent; carbon, 0.51;
manganese, 0.26; silicon, 0:14; phosphorus, 0.02; sulphur, 0.04; chromium,
7.08; tungsten, 22.68; and molybdenum, 0.48 per cent.
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46 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

PROPERTIES OF CORROSION- AND HEAT-

Physical properties
Chemical composition*
At room temperature At elevated temperature

Stress Stress
Elon- Re- produc- produc- Machining Welding
Alloy Man-
Car- Chro- Sili- Tensile Yield gation duc- Izod ing 1 ing 1 behavior behavior
ga-
bon, mium con, strength, point, in tion of impact per cent per cent
nese,
per per per lb. per lb. per 2 in., area, strength, elonga- elonga-
per
cent cent cent sq. in. sq. in. per per ft.-lb. tion in tion in
cent
cent cent 10,000 100,000
hr.

Tron-chromium Alloys
Al 0.10 | 12.0 1.0 75 ,000- 45, 000— 18-24} 30-50 4,500- About same as medium Satisfactory, if welds an-
95,000 60,000 10,0007 carbon steel nealed and air cooled
2,000—
4, 0007)
1,000-
1,600

0.12 | 19.0 1.0 75 ,000- 45 ,000- 10-20) 15-35} 3-10 10,000} About same as medium Welding not recommended
110,000 70,000 4,200- carbon steel for other than very thin
7,000} sections
1, 950-
4,500¢
900-
1,600

0.50 | 28.0 1.0 40 ,000- 30, 000- 0-5 1-5 About same as medium Satisfactory; slow cooling
60,000 45,000 carbon steel required to 600°C. then
rapid cooling

Iron-chromium-nickel Alloys
aa
0.20] 8.0) 20.0 1.0 75 ,000- 40, 000- 20-30} 20-30 5407 |2 20,0007 Tough; intermediate be- Satisfactory
85,000 50,000 tween carbon steel and
595T 9,500 Monel metal

650T 5,5007

7057 3, 6007
815t 7507

0.15 | 18.0] 8.0 1.0 70, 000-— 25 ,000- 40-75] 40-75] 50-105 480T 15, 000- Tough; intermediate be- Satisfactory if heat-treated
80,000) 40,000 20,0007 tween carbon steel and after welding
540 10, 000- Monel metal
15, 0007
595T 7,000-
8 ,500F
650 4,000-
5,500
705 2,600-
3, 5007
815T 650-
750

0.06 | 18.0} 8.0 1.0 70 ,000- 25 ,000- 40-75} 40-75) 60-105 480 -/18 ,000— Tough; intermediate be- | Satisfactory; desirable to
80,000 30,000 20,000 tween carbon steel and heat-treat after welding
5407 .|12,000- Monel metal
15, 000+
595 7,500-
8,500
650T 4,500-
5, 500F
7057 2,500-
3,500
|

Courtesy American Foundrymen's Association.

* Compositions given in this table differ slightly from the present nominal commercial compositions. The differences, however, are not significant in respect to the
properties quoted.
+ Data on the wrought alloy.
 MATERIALS 47
RESISTANT CAST STEELS

Coefficient of Thermal Specific elec- Miigestaautin Gamer

thermal expansion conductivity tric resistance ture)for)safejuse,
deg. C.

Mating Specific Specific . Other media for which Typical

Tem: tempera- gravity] Tem- Con- heat | Tem- Resists recommended applications Alloy
eff- | deg. C. duc- ance, ; Sul-
perature pera- |... pera- : Oxide | Fuel
cient, tivity, mi- phur
range, eS ture, ture, gas gas
daz, G, ||22 Ee deg, 6. °8*
units
See, COs
per ce.
gas

20-1007 |0.0000107/}1495-1385| 7.6 20t |0.096t/ 0.15- | 25+ | 62+ | 760¢ | 760+ | 760+ |Alkaline liquors, foodstuffs, |Machine parts such as| Al
0.16+ oxidizing acids, some or-| pump and valve bodies
20-700 |0.0000127|......... 100¢ |0.096f/ ..... 700¢ | 113+ ganic acids, steam |

20-100¢ |0.000010}|1510-1370| 7.6 20 |0.054-] 0.15 | 20+ 65f | 8707 | 870+ | 815t | Oxidizing acids, especially |Nitric acid plant equip-| B2
0.072 nitric, foodstuffs, sea wa-| ment, valve trim, steam
AOD MOORE cesccoscll
seo |] cose Nocscoc 700¢ | 117+ ter, alkaline liquors, steam | pump valves, castings for
moderate temperatures
and low stresses, such as
grate bars

20-100 |0.000010 |1450-1350) 7.5 20 |0.064 | 0.15 25t| 68f | 1035-| 980- | 980- | Foodstuffs and alkaline liq- |Annealing boxes, lead pots, | C3
1175 | 1150 | 1150 | uors, fumes of volatile} roasting furnace rabble
20-1000 |0.000018 |......°.. 100 |0.064] ..... 1000+) 118+ heavy metals, oxidizing] arms, cement chutes,
acids, mine waters, and of |}pump and valve bodies
especial yalue in sulphur-
rich atmospheres at high
temperatures

20-100t |0.000018+|1490-1430] 8.0 20¢ }0.074t] ..... 20¢ | 86t | 760- } 760- Sea water, sulphuric acid in| Ship propellers, pump and} D+
980 | 980 wide range of concentra-} valve bodies, impellers,
20-8007 |0.0000197 tionand temperature, mine| rayon-producing equip-
waters, steam, high-sul-] ment, oil still header-box |
phur oils, alkaline liquors plugs ,

20-1007 |0.000016}/1470-1400) 7.8 20 10.063 0.12} 257 74t | 870- | 760- | 150- | Sea water, alkaline liquors, |Pots, retorts, pump and| E‘
925¢ | 925t | 700t | hot dilute or cold concen-| valve bodies, equipment of
20-10007/0.0000207)......... 100 |0.068] ..... 7007 | 118} | trated sulphuric acid, acid | chemical plants, paper
sulphates, cold oxidizing] mills and dairies, marine
acids, mine waters, food-| fittings, ornamental work
stuffs, organic acids

20-100} |0.900016+)1470-1400} 7.8 20f |0.058t] 0.12 | 20+ 75t | 870- | 760- | 150- | Alkaline liquors, hot dilute |Pots, retorts, pump and] F#
925¢ | 9257 | 700¢ | or cold concentrated sul-| valve bodies, equipment of
POCO CLOWN accacscosl!
ooo || esee flocwssall sooo 500- | 112+ phuric acid, acid sulphates,) chemical plants, paper
800+ sea water, cold oxidizing | mills and dairies
acids, mine waters, food-
stuffs, organic acids

a NE NE ee ee eee
1 This class of alloys is covered by A.S.T.M. Tentative Specifications A168-35T.
? This class of alloys is covered by A.S.T.M. Tentative Specifications A169-35T.
3 This class of alloys is covered by A.S.T.M. Tentative Specifications A170-35T.
4 This class of alloys is covered by A.S.T.M. Tentative Specifications A198-36T.
 48 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

PROPERTIES OF CORROSION- AND HEAT-

Physical properties
Chemical composition*
At room temperature At elevated temperature

Stress | Stress ie :
Alloy Man- Elon- | Re- Tem- produc-| produc- Machining Welding
Car- |Chro-| Nick- |~ a. | Sil: |Tensile |Yield |gation} due- | Izod va. |mel | ing1 behavior behavior
bon, |mium,| el, wee con, |strength,} point, in | tion of} impact pie per cent|per cent
per per per ae per | lb. per | lb. per |2 in., | area, |strength, ab ’ | elonga- Jelonga-
cent | cent | cent ee cent | sq. in. | sq. in.| per per | ft.-lb. ei tion in | tion in
cent | cent “| 10,000 |100,000
hr. br.

Tron-chromium-nickel Alloys
(Cont.)
G5 | 0.50 | 22.0 | 22.0 1.5 | 60,000-)45,000-| 5-10 | 3-10 5407 |13,000-/16 ,2507) Tough; slightly
easier than | Satisfactory
70,000 |60,000 25 ,000f 18-8
595f | 8,000-]....... |
16,0007
6507 | 4,000-
9, 5007
705t | 2,000-]......
5, 0007
BEI \lsoccess 2,300t |

Hé | 0.30 | 29.0 9.0 1.5 | 70,000-/55,000-| 1-3 1-3 .|Tough; but more readily | Satisfactory, if subse
80,000 |65,000 machined than 18-8 quently heat-treated

3 0.30 | 26.0 | 16.0 1.5 .| Intermediate between 18-8 | Satisfactory

and 28-8 alloys

J8 | 0.50 | 18.0 | 36.0 2.0 | 60,000-/40,000-] 1-8 | 2-10] ...... | .... ].......J....... Similar to annealed high- | Satisfactory
70,000 |55,000 speed steel

Nickel-rich Alloys
K 0.60 | 13.0 | 62.0 1.0 1.5 | 60,000-/35,000-| 1-5 1-5 540t |12,000%]....... Similar to annealed high- | Satisfactory
75,000 |45,000 650 | 9,000t speed steel
760t | 5,500t

L 0.40 | 20.0 | 64.0 1.5 1.5 | 50,000-|40,000-} 1-3 TERE aoe tered| tae. |ioneretel
tetp accs Similar to heat-treated | Satisfactory
70,000 }50,000 simple steels but at lower
speeds and feeds

* Compositions given in this table differ slightly from the present nominal commercial compositions. The differences, however, are not significant in respect to the
properties quoted.
+ Data on the wrought alloy.
¢ Data on cast alloy containing 3 per cent tungsten.
 MATERIALS 49

RESISTANT CAST STEELS (Continued)

Coefficient of Thermal Specific elec- Bieeshiruica tenor:

is ES 3 2 ture for safe use,
thermal expansion conductivity tric resistance
deg. C.

Melting Specific! Specific 4 Other media for which Typical

Meme tempera-| -avity| Tem- Con- | heat Tem- Resist- a recommended applications Alloy
Coeffi- ture, a duc- ance, Fuel Sul-
Peraturel cient, | deg. C. pore’ |tivity, per’ | mi- |Oxide] "| phur
pene: per 1°C. LID, C.g.5. UE) chroms| gas os gus
deg. C. deg. C. nitty deg.°C. Farce

20-100 0.000016 1415 7.9 20 | 0.052) ... 20 GK) |} TG) |)FUND |) snes. |} conacocnonsenonconscacs Grids, hearth plates, rollers, | G5
20-1000 |0.000019 rails, chains, containers,
etc. in heating furnaces not
carrying gases with high
sulphur content, apparatus
for hydrogenation of refin-
ery waste gases

20 0.000014 |1500-1400 0.025) 1109 | 1100 | 1000 }Mine waters, sulphur-rich |Roasting furnace rabble} Hé
atmospheres at high tem-| arms, oil still tube sup-
peratures, nitric and other | ports, pump parts for hot
oxidizing acids oil in refineries, steel mill
soaking pit dampers

20-100 |0.000015|......... 0.039} 0.14 80 | 1150 | 1150 | 180- |Mine waters, sulphurous | Furnace hearth plates, ce-| I?
1150 | acid and sulphite liquors, | ment kiln parts, recuper-
20-1000 0.000018 |.........}
... | .. | .....] ee... 117 mixed acids, oxidizing | ators, stack dampers, coal
acids, high-temperature | distillation retorts
atmospheres of moderate
sulphur content

20-100 |0.000014 |1485-1400 0.027) 0.11 118 | 1000-} 1000- Sulphuric acid in wide range] Grids, hearth plates, rollers, | J
1100 | 1100 of concentration and tem-| rails, chains, containers,
20-1000 |0.000018 perature, alkaline solu-| etc., in heating furnaces
tions, fused alkalies to| not carrying gases with
900°C. even moderate sulphur
content, rayon-producing
equipment, ceramic fur-
nace parts, carburizing
boxes

20-100 |0.000012 |1400-1260) 0.033]0. 14(20- 108 | 800- | 800- Synthesizing ammonia, sul- |Carburizing containers, oil-| K
1000°C.) 1150 | 1150 phuric and hydrochloric | burner parts, special glass
20-1000 |0.000016 acid in some concentra-| molds, chemical reaction
tions and temperatures chambers

20-100 0.000013 |1440-1250 0.033] 0.11 124 | 1100-| 1100—' Fused alkalies
and chlorides |Carburizing containers, oil-| L
1260 | 1260 to 1000°C. burner parts, containers
20-1000 |0.000017 for fused alkalies and cya-
nide, resistance grids, boil-
er baffles, enameling racks,
pyrometer tubes

5 This class of alloys is covered by A.S.T.M. Tentative Specification A172-35T.

6 This class of alloys is covered by A.S.T.M. Tentative Specification A173-35T.
7 This class of alloys is covered by A.S.T.M. Tentative Specification A171-35T.
This class of alloys is covered by A.S.T.M. Tentative Specification A175-35T.
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

PROPERTIES OF U.S.S. STAINLESS STEEL

Alloy U.S.S. 18-8 U.S.S. stabilized 18-8

Typical chemical composition Type 302* Type 304 Type 321 Type 347

OPH Ncinaouecm so BO ooo ORO a omoaoAned 0.08/20 0.08 max 0.10 max 0.10 max.
Nang aneseeeeeeee eee een renee 1.25 max 2.00 max 2.00 max 2.00 max.
IBMYNAMWNWs ooscosoccgvgvsacdcooenpanse 0.03 max 0.03 max 0.03 max 0.03 max.
Sulphur eee cere oer eee Learns 0.03 max 0.03 max 0.03 max 0.03 max.
Silicon ee ntee Cote ee eee ene 0.75 max 0.75 max 0.75 max 0.75 max.
(Choveopsab evens n oodcocoonebonoudenusbodoase 18.0/20.0 18.0/20.0 17.0/20.0 17.0/20.0
IN edo choose rbasooepeobrooUeDe ee 8.0/10.0 8.0/10.0 7.0/10.6 8.0/12.0
sitaniuimneeeee ee eee eee ee cert: Sollee dea ute BMI” wea oite slacoced 4 xX C min
(Ohl knee oshihan ann eee eee ae eye oe es. Oa a eis coe sonceoa se Lilly oo onphodedad 10xC

Physical properties

Density lb:yper.cu.pi nee illite 0.286 0.286 0.285 0.285

Specific electrical resistance at 68°F .: a se fA neal
IMicrohms\penicchere eerie rere { 70 “70-83 ;‘ 70 0) 71 71
. . 27.6 (cold worked, | 27.6 (cold worked,
Microhms per cu. in............-..---- ! 7 27 (ee 97 6-323) \ 28 28
Low-carbon steel= 1.00............... 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.5
Melting range, deg. F.................-.- 2550-2590 2550-2590 2550-2590 2550-2590
MMOD, occodopagvodgp0Deso0s50q0ag0au Austenitic Austenitic Austenitic Austenitic
Magnetic permeability:
Astannealedhraerteree
remree iter el zw = 1.003 nw = 1.003 nw = 1.003 uw = 1.003
After 10 per cent reduction of area....... # =1.10 #=1.10 uw =1.10 zn =1.10
Specific heat: a
B.t.u./deg. F./lb., at 32-212°F......... 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
Low-carbon steel = 1.00 (0—100°C.).. iloil 1.1 it Thsil
Thermal conductivity:
B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F'./in., at 212°F... 113 113 112 112
Low-carbon steel = 1.00, at 100°C. 0.33 0.33 0.32 0.32
B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F. /in., at 932° 150 150 153 153
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
Per deg. F. X 108 (82—212°F.).......... 9.6 9.6 9.3 9.3
Per deg. F. X 108 (82-932°F.).......... 10.2 10.2 10.3 10.3
a

Mechanical properties at room

temperatures Annealed Cold
peered Annealed Cold
een Annealed Cold
adh Annealed Cold
worked
|
Tensile strength, 105 Ib. per sq. in......... 80— 95 105-300 80— 95 105-300 80— 95 105-300 80— 95 105-300
Yield point, 108 lb. per sq. in............- 35- 45 60-250 35— 45 60-250 35— 45 60-250 35— 45 60-250
Modulus of elasticity, 108 lb. pe Eigh Wo soce 29 29-— 26 29 29— 26 29 29-— 26 29 29- 26
Elongation in 2 in., per cent. ....| 55— 60 50- 2 55— 60 50- 2 50-— 55 50- 2 50-— 55 50-— 2
Reduction of area, per cent............--. 55-— 65 65— 30 55— 65 65— 30 55— 65 65— 30 55- 65 65— 30 -
0.020 | eee eeee fees eee | ceeeeeee
Charpy impact strength, ft.-Ib.......-..-.]-. The AE eae 17
Izod impact strength, ft.-lb.............- UEANO! |) socacage 75-110
Endurance limit (fatigue), 10° lb. per sq. in. 35 90— 95 35 90— 95 45 90— 95 45 90-— 95
Brinell hardness number. . .|_ 135-185 170-460 138-185 170-460 135-185 170-460 135-185 170-460
Rockwell hardness number. . B75—B90 C5-C47 |B75—B90 C5-C47__|B75—B90 C5-C47._|B75-B90 C5-C47
Stress causing 1 per cent elonga on (creep)
in 10,000 hr.:
At 1000°F., lb. per sq. in. 17,000 17,000 17,000 17,000
At 1200°F., lb. per sq. in 7,000 7,000 7,000 7,000
At 1350°F., lb. per sq. in 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000
At 1500°F., lb. per sq. in 850 850 850 | 850
Scaling temperature, deg. F. (approx.)....4 1,650 1,650 1,650 Ul GEO)
Initial forging temperature, deg. F........ x 2200 5 2,200 +S 2)ee IN 2,2200
ot under ot under ot under ot under
Finishing temperature, deg. F............ 1600-1700 1600-1700 1600-1700 1600-1700
1900—2000°F. 1900—2000°F. 1900—2000°F. 1900—2000°F.
Annealing treatment.............-..-.--. and quench and quench and quench and quench

Cold forming, drawing, stamping.......... Excellent Good Good | Good

IMachinabilitvaeeeeieci intr ist nar: Fair tough Fair tough Fair tough |Fair tough
Welding (arc, gas, resistance, atomic hydro- Very good, anneal Very good, anneal Very good, not Very good,’ not
gen) after welding for maxi- heavier than 1g in. necessary to anneal necéssary to anneal
mum corrosion for maximum corro-
resistance sion resistance
Precautions (see notes) (B) (B)
a
eee
*US.S 18-8 free machining, Type 303, same as 302 except S or Se 0.07 min. or molybdenum 0.60 max.
t Commercial grades, thin gages of sheet and strip
4 Hard = 125,000 lb. per sq. in.
ig Hard = 150,000 lb. per sq. in.
84 Hard = 175,000 lb. per sq. in.
Full hard = 185,000 lb. per sq. in.
 : MATERIALS yl

PROPERTIES OF U.S.S. STAINLESS STEEL (Continued)

Alloy U.S.S. 18-8 Mo U.S.S. 25-12 U.S.S. 12 U.S.S. 17 U.S:S. 27

Typical chemical composition Type 316 Type 309 Type 410¢ Type 430 Type 446

CEM euk cdc aoon oo SOD E Odor E Ose OAD 0.10 max. 0.20 max 0.15 max. 0.12 max 0.35 max
Manganese....... 2.00 max. 2.00 max 0.75 max. 0.75 max 1.00 max
Iphosphocuseee eee ore eee 0.03 max. 0.03 max 0.03 max. 0.03 max 0.03 max
Sulphur eee ee ers eveteier ston sera ierer 0.03 max. 0.03 max 0.03 max. 0.03 max 0.03 max
MUCOnsgcésdonsabudbsscomaevasara shed 0.75 max. 0.75 max 0.75 max. 0.75 max 0.75 max
Chromium. 16.0/18.0 22.0/26.0 10.0/14.0 14.0/18.0 23.0/30.0
Nickel. ..... - 14.0 max. 12.0/14.0
Molybdenum 2.00/3.00

Physical properties

Density, lb. per cu. in.............-.-- 0.291 0.283 0.276 2.273 0.270
Specific electrical resistance at 68°F.:
Microhms per cc.... dic W083 78 Bye 59 67
Microhms per cu. in 28.5 30.7 22.4 23.2 26.4
Low-carbon steel = 6.6 oil 52 54 6.1
Melting range, deg. F.............:--- 2500-2550 2530-2570 2750-2790 2710-2750 2710-2750
Struclureye meee eee eect Austenitic Austenitic Martensitic Ferritic Ferritic
Magnetic permeability:
Astannealed teenie sci) instoteee Nels zw = 1.003— nh = 1.003 Ferromagnetic Ferromagnetic Ferromagnetic
After 10 per cent reduction of area... . m= Uo) » = 1.003 Ferromagnetic Ferromagnetic Ferromagnetic
Specific heat:
B.t.u./deg. F./lb. at 32—212°F........ 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11
Low-cearbon steel = 1.00 (0-100°C.)... iL, il ita at 1.0 1.0 1.0
Thermal conductivity:
B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F./in., at 212°F.. 108 87-116 173 169 145
Low-carbon steel = 1.00, at 100°C... . 0.31 0.25-0.34 0.50 0.49 0.42
B.t.u./sq. ft./hr./deg. F./in., at 932°F. . 145 125 199 181 169
Coefficient of thermal expansion:
Per deg. F. X 108 (32-212°F.)........ 8.4 8.3 6.1 6.0 5.9
Per deg. F. X 108 (82-932°F.)........ 9.6 9.6 UD 6.7 6.3

Mechanical properties at room Aerealed Cold WWenealed Cold A led Quench: A led Cold A led Cold
temperatures worked neabec! worked |-~Dneale Pees nnearec| worked nneatec’) worked

Tensile strength, 103 lb. per sq. in....... 80— 95 |105-300+) 90-110 | 110-270 | 65— 85 | 100-200} 70- 90} 100-180 | 75—- 95| 85-175
Yield point, 103 lb. per sq. in...........| 35— 45] 60-250 | 40— 60| 65-230] 35— 45] 60-180} 40- 55] 65- 30 | 45- 60| 55-155
Modulus of elasticity, 10® lb. per sq. in. . 29 29- 26 29 29-— 26 28 28 29 29 29 29
Elongation in 2 in., per cent...........-| 50— 55] 50— 2 35— 50| 25— 2] 35- 25] 25— 10] 30- 20 25— 2 30= 20)| 25— 2
Reduction of area, per cent............. 55— 65] 65— 30 45— 60} 55— 20| 65— 60} 65—- 25] 55-— 40 40— 20 50— 40] 55— 25
Charpy impact strength, ft.-lb.......... 70-110
IOGl THe OEAS SERA, Wi) npcosacssoecollacaWodocllacococcallocevonnallaosoocu- 100— 60|100— 5 8— 25
Endurance limit (fatigue), 10% lb. per sq.
Thiao Neg SRS Eo ae aac Remi non 43 90— 95 Ubives| (tAcacesc] anemone Maren cen Osim essanoed 50
Brinell hardness number..............- 135-185 |170—460 | 150-185 | 170-375 | 135-165 |293-390 | 145-185 | 185-270 | 140-185 | 150-250
Rockwell hardness number.......... . --|B75—-B90| C5—C40 |B80—B90} C5—C40 |B75—-B85|C30—C40/B80—B90|B90-B105|/B80— 90 | C0-C25
Stress causing 1 per cent elongation
(creep) in 10,000 hr.:
At 1000°F., lb. per sq. in 25,000 17,000 13,000 8,500
At 1200°F., lb. per sq. in. 18,000 11,000 2,300 2,100 1,600
At 1350°F., lb. per sq. in 8,000 3,400 1,400 1,200 400
At 1500°F., lb. per sq. in g 3,000 850
Sealing temperature, deg. F. (approxi-
INAS) Pewee y-facebsrce
tay nasheeds ee 1650 2100 1300 1550 2100
Initial forging temperature, deg. F...... 2200 2150 2100 2000 2000
Finishing temperature, deg. F.......... 101700, 6 1001700, ne over ae, Not over 1400 1300-4450,
. 1950—-2050°F. 1950-2050°F. urnace coo Air cool from Rapid cool from
Annealing treatment...............--- and quench and quench | from 1550— { 1500—1400°F. 1650—1550°F.
{ 1100°F. or air
cool from
é 1300-1400°F.
Cold forming, drawing, stamping........ Good Good Fair Good Poor
Wistchinabilityasereeeneee teneietacne 90 Fair tough Fair tough Fair Fair Fair
Welding (arc, gas, resistance, atomic | Very good, anneal! Very good, anneal Fair Fair Fair
hydrogen) for maximum for maximum Welding hardens Welds are brittle | Welds are brittle
corrosion corrosion Anneal to restore when cold when cold
resistance resistance ductility Slight response Slight response
Z to anneal to anneal
Precautions (see notes) (A) (A) (C) (D) (D)

ftU.S.S. 12 free machining, Type 416, same as 410 except S or Se 0.07 min. or molybdenum 0.60 max.
(A) Preheat slowly to 1600°F., then heat rapidly to the forging or annealing temperature. Exposure to temperatures between 800 to
1600°F. produces marked susceptibility to intergranular corrosion. If the metal is unattacked, this can be cured by repeating the annealing
treatment.
(B) For maximum corrosion resistance in high temperature service, use following stress relieving operations—heat 2 hr. at 1550°F.,
air cool.
(C) Preheat slowly to 1450°F., then heat rapidly to 2100°F. for forging. Full corrosion resistance is developed only in the heat-treated
condition. (Temper below 1000°F.)
(D) In forging, preheat slowly to 1450°F. Excessive grain growth takes place above 2000°F. Expert welding is required to avoid
excessive grain growth. Prolonged exposure at 850 to 950°F. produces cold brittleness. To prevent this, heat to 1650 to 1550°F. before
cooling, and quench. Stainless steels cannot be forge hammer welded.
52 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF IRON-NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS

Ultimate and working stresses at

Group classification, typical composition of
Mechanical properties at normal temperatures (see note 1) elevated temperatures,
each type, per cent
(see note 2)

i- = Herds
2 Yield
5
tee oe 2
Redue-
ae —
aie —| 4999° o () ) o
Type| C si |mn| ana Cr Ni point, icone aye tion of | Impact, | 1200° } 1400 Hany 1800° | 2000
lb. per area, ft.-lb. - F. F. F, F. F.
1p i lb. per | cent staat Bri- |Rock-
Sdepy sq. in. |in 2 in. is as nell well

0.07] 0.08 |0.12/0.025| 11.70] Tr | 60,000} 80,000} 30 70 90 170 | 85-B |24,000/12,000|10,000

140,000}160,000} 10 35 30 340 | 35-C | 3,600] 1,560) 1,025
A-1 =
0.35] 0.19 |0.15}0.025| 12.00} Tr |100,000}110,000) 25 55 35 220 | 20-C
180 ,000}240 ,000 5 20 5 440 | 45-C

A-2 |0.09| 1.25 |0.35|0.025| 18.50} Nil | 50,000) 75,000) 35 75 0 140 | 80-B
80,000} 95,000} 25 60 12 200 | 95-B

A-3 |0.23] 0.75 |0.65]0.025| 28.50} Tr | 60,000} 80,000) 35 60 6 150 | 80-B |40,000/18,500) 9,000) €,500} 5,000
80,000}120,000) 25 40 2 210 | 95-B | 6,000) 2,400 925 325 120

Castings from the above alloys have elongation and reduction in area from 5 to 20 per cent, much less than for the ‘abricated forms.

B-1 |0.08] 0.25 }0.40/0.03 | Nil 5.00} 35,000) 75,000) 35 70 90 160 | 85-B
65,000/100,000) 25 55 50 210 | 95-B

B-2 |0.15] 0.20 |0.43|0.03 | Tr |36.10) 30,000) 70,000) 35 65 110 160 | 85-B
45,000) 90,000) 25 55 60 170 | 85-B

B-1 material, resistant to mild forms of corrosion, was extensively used for turbine blades; has been superseded by the low-carbon, 12 per
cent chromium A-1 type.

0.07| 0.30 }0.40}0.03 | 18.00} 8.00) 30,000) 80,000) 65 75 120 130 | 75-B
45,000/100,000} 50 65 90 160 | 85-B
C-1
0.15] 0.30 }0.40}0.03 | 18.60} 8.00) 30,000) 80,000) 65 75 120 130 | 75-B |Brittle|}30,000}15,000) 9,000
45,000)100,000) 50 65 90 160 | 85-B | Range} 3,900) 1,525 450

C-2 |0.25] 0.35 |0.45/0.03 | 25.00 |10.00) 40,000} 80,000) 55 70 90 150 | 80-B |55,000/34,800)18,250|10,850) 5,500
60,000/110,000} 35 50 50 200 | 95-B | 8,250} 4,520) 1,870 540 125

C-3 |0.15] 0.75 |0.6010.03 |25.80 }19.75) 40,000} 80,000) 50 65 100 140 | 80-B |50,000|35,000|20 ,000}11,500} 6,500
45,000} 95,000} 30 50 60 180 | 90-B | 7,500) 4,550) 2,000 575 150

High silicon, copper, or molybdenum are often found in the C-group. Titanium, vanadium, and columbium are often added to retard or
control carbide precipitation.

D-1 |0.15/0.50—/0.45|0.03 |10.00 |20.00} 45,000) 85,000) 35 55 90 160 | 85-B |52,000/32,000|16 ,000
2.00 60,000/100,000} 20 35 50 200 | 95-B | 7,800) 4,150) 1,625

D-2 0.35] ....]....]0.03 |12.00-)35.00} 45,000} 80,000) 35 60 60 160 | 85-B |55,000/40,600|23 ,400]13, 250} 7,500
20.00 65,000/110,000} 20 45 40 180 | 90-B | 8,250} 5,275) 2,400 650 175

D-3 |0.45} W |....)0.03 |20.00 |60.00) 35,000) 60,000) 35 60 100 140 | 80-B |55, 000/35, 250/22 ,500/15,250) 9,250
2.00 50,000) 80,000; 20 45 50 160 | 85-B | 8,250) 4,575} 2,800 750 225
eeeSSeS —————

D-1 type is obtainable in nearly all forms including seamless pierced and drawn tubes. D-2 type with modifications is available in various
forms. Most of this material is used for heat resistance. For turbine blading, a lower chromium content is used for temperatures above
800°F. D-3 type is obtainable only in restricted forms. Modifications of this type are obtainable in certain forgings although it is difficult to
fabricate. With the addition of 15 to 20 per cent molybdenum, this material becomes immune to hydrochloric and sulphuric acids.
Note 1: In columns headed yield point and ultimate stress, the first figure refers to the annealed condition; the second figure is for cold-
worked or hardened material. Differences between these figures and other published data are accounted for by modifications of analysis or
by variations in heat-treatment or work hardening during fabrication. F
Note 2: The first figure is the ultimate stress obtained after 1 hr. at temperature; the second figure is considered by the author to be a
conservative design stress for use at these temperatures. These working stresses are based on experience and have been used satisfactorily.
But they should not be confused with creep strengths.
 MATERIALS 53
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES OF IRON-NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOYS

Available forms Forging, hardening, General information

and annealing tem-
peratures, deg. F. a

Type Cole Sheets,| Seam-

CBs 1910S Billets} Bars raya plate, | less Notations Applications
ings ings or fs Hard-| An-
strip | tubes | Forge
ground en neal

V V 2100 | 1750 | 1550 | Magnetic General engineering purposes, turbine

V V Vv Vv V/ Sel|dom 1600 | 1800 | 1600 | Hardening type} blading
usjed
A-1
2100 | 1700 | 1550 | Magnetic For general corrosion resistance where
V V Vv Vv V ? No 1600 | 1750 | 1600 | Tosoften draw| hardness is required. For cutlery, sur-
at 1300— gical instruments
1400°F.

A-2 V V/V V BVA Vv Vv Vv 2000 1450 |Magnetic General corrosion-resistant material for
1200 Nonhardening | fabrication. Chemical equipment, ni-
tric acid towers

A-3 V/V Vv V/ V/ ~/ | Plates V 2100 .... | Magnetic Special cases of corrosion resistance, tem-
1400 1600 |Nonhardening | peratures up to 1800°F., for SO2 and
SO3

B-1 V Vv Vv Vv Vv V/ V 2000 | 1500 | 1450 | Magnetic General engineering purposes, low tem-
1200 | 1600 | 1500 | Nonhardening perature turbine blading

B-2 V Vv V V V/ Vv No 2000 Quench| Nonmagnetic | Resistant but not immune to hydro-

1200 Quench| Nonhardening | chloric and sulphuric acids. Non-
magnetic material for electrical parts

B-2 material is used whe re an austenitic material is required. This type of material with 10 to 12 per cent chromium is being used by
turbine designers for higher temperatures than now prevailing.

Vv Vv Vv a/ Vv Vv VV 2100 Nonmagnetie | Chemical equipment; architectural, food,

1400 Nonhardening laundry, dyeing industries
C-1
V Vv Vv V/ V V V 2100 Air | Nonmagnetic General fabrication; riveted and welded
1400 or Nonhardening | structures for chemical equipment
water
C-2 V V VV V VV V V/ 2100 quench} Nonmagnetic | General fabrication, resistant to sulphite
‘ 1400 1800 | Nonhardening | solutions in paper processes
to
Hol- | 2100 2000 |Nonmagnetic | For mixed acid conditions in paper, dye,
C-3 Vv Vv Vv Vv Vv V/ low 1400 Nonhardening | and general chemical processes. Re-
forged sistant but not immune to hydrochloric
and sulphuric acids

Selenium or zirconium sulphide may be added for free machining. When some of these elements are present the materials may become
slightly magnetic.

2000 ‘ Nonmagnetic | Resistant to salt water, cold dilute sul-

D-1 Vv Vv Vv V Vv V Vv 1200 Nonhardening phurie acid. For oil refineries, naval
equipment, and general chemical uses

D-2 Vv V/ V/ V/ Vv Vv | Plates oe Nonmagnetic | Low chrome, for high temperature tur-

Nonhardening bine blading. High chrome, for heat
A water 5 5 ae
Low chromium type only Letra resistant material for carburizing boxes
1800- and furnace parts
z 2000 R
D-3 Vv ? ? ? ? ? No Nonmagnetic | or temperatures up to 2000°F., for fur-
Nonhardening | nace parts, forgings, electrical equip-
ment. Resistant but not immune to
hydrochloric and sulphurie acids
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 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CORROSION-RESISTING

Ultimate |Per cent Serine K ij

Metal or Percentage Condi- | strength, |elonga-| Specific ee we
ois 6 Sete .,_| temperature, |temperature
alloy composition tion lb. per | tion in |}gravity y
: : deg. F. deg. F.
sq. in. 2 in.

Silver Ag 99.90 Annealed} 25,000 60) TOLA9S) See eee 1000-1150

Nickel Ni 99.4 Hard 100,000 | 2-8 8.85 | 1200-1400 | 1200-1500

Annealed} 70,000 | 43-53

Copper Cu 99.90 Hard 55,000 5 | 8.93 700-800 800-1100

Annealed} 35,000 35

Iron Fe 99.95 Hard 44,000 ZO Cit Obs|teereee semre se 1200-1500

Monel Cu 28, Ni 69 Hard 110,000 | 2-8 8.80 900 1300-1600

Annealed} 70,000 | 35-50

Nickel silver | Ni 18, Cu 65, |Hard 95 ,000 2| 8.75 900 1100-1300

Zn 17 Annealed} 58,000 33

Sterling silver |Ag 92.5, Cu 7.5 |Hard 63 ,000 Si) SIDE a pple
oro 6-0 1100-1250
Annealed} 40,000 35

Gilding metal |Cu 90, Zn 10 Hard 65,000 1} 8.80 700 1000-1200

Annealed} 32,000 40

Bronze Sn 2.0, Zn 7, |Hard 130,000 P| SB )GO) Ie ewetet eee 1100-1250

Cu 91 Annealed} 51,000 50

Chromium Cr 16, C 0.1 Hard 95 ,000 25 | 7.67 1450 1500 air cool
steel Annealed} 75,000 30

Chrome- Cr 18.5, Ni 8.5, |Hard 100 ,000 65

nickel-steel C 0.12 Annealed} 80,000 50 | 7.86 1700 2100 quench

White gold Au 58.5, Cu 24, |Hard 144,000 Beale ejaPp alll eae hateeu abe 1250-1450
Zn 5.0, Ni 12.5) Annealed} 100,000 29

Yellow gold Au 58.5, Cu 30, |Hard 130,000 3

Ag 5.5, Zn 6.2 | Air
quench 83 ,000 36 | 13.0
Water
quench 70 ,000 40
 MATERIALS 59

METALS AND ALLOYS

Corrosion-resistant properties

etl Nitric ELVCRO- Acetic stolen Am- Sul-

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68 No|No|}No|No|]No}|No| ? Ri Si Vi WZ | oy | No ?

68 VY |No|No|No|}No|No!}] Y | No| VY | ? |No}|No]| No ?

68 No|No!|No|No| /| /V|V|V!i1V/il|V|vV/1VvV/ No V/

68 | V/%!|No|No|No!]No|No| 4] V!/| V¥ | VV |No!]No} No Vv

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68 Resists all but aqua regia

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64 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CAST AND WROUGHT MAGNESIUM-BASE ALLOYS

A.S.T.M. Chemical composition in per cent* Per

designation magnesium with Tensile | Yield cent Shear Bri- | Impact
Roem strength,| point, elon- |strength,| nell | strength
me lb. per | lb. per |gation| lb. per | hard-}| Izod,
- Manga- Sue sq. In. sq. in. in sq. in. | ness ft.-lb.
Spec. No. Alloy | Aluminum 5 Zine con, 5
nese, min. 2 in
max.

Sand and perma-

nent mold cast-
ings +
As cast 22,000 | 13,000 2 18,000 54 7)
2 9.0-11.0 0.10 | 0.3 max.} 0.5 Heat-treated 35,000 | 12,000 9 20,000 52 4
H.T. and aged 36,000 | 19,000 2 22,000 69 2

pie As cast 19,000 | 14,000 0.5 | 17,000 65 0.47

ae MIS | WEN aS avers) O8) I rim andere ||22,0000 ||20,00 || 0.6 ||19,000 | & | 0.5
As cast 27,000 | 12,000 6 18,000 55 3
4 Deo On 0.15 2.5-3.5 0.5 Heat-treated 38,000 | 12,000 | 11 18,000 55 5
H.T. and aged 38,000 | 19,900 5 20,000 70 2

14 9.0-11.0 0.10 |0.5-1.5 | 0.5 H.T. and aged 36,000 | 22,000 1 20,000 77 1
7.0-9.0 0.15 0.3 max.| 0.3 Heat-treated 33,000 | 11,000 | 10 18,000 48 2a
3.5-5.0 0.20 0.3 max.| 0.5 As cast 24,000 9,000 6 14,000 44 2.07

As cast 23,000 | 14,000 1 18,000 65 0.57

8.75-9).25| 0.10) | 1.8—2.2 | 0.3 Heat-treated 39,000 | 14,000 | 10 20,000 63 2.07
H.T. and aged 38,000 | 20,000 3 22,000 78 0.8t
Die castings
B94-39T 12 9.0-11.0 0.10 0.3 max. | 1.0 Die-cast 31,000 | 22,000 Wo |} soecon 62
13 8.3-9.7 0.10 0.4-1.0 0.5 Die-cast 34,000 | 21,000 |) Goonos 50 2
7..0-9)..0' 0.15 0.3 max.| 0.3 Die-cast 30,000 | 17,000 PASB)-||) Gaob 00 53
5). 8-7 .2 0.15 0.3 max. | 0.3 Die-cast 27,000 | 17,000 CNET liexererete a 50 3
Forgings
1 7. 8-9.2 0.15 0.3 max.| 0.5 Pressed 42,000 | 24,000 5
6 3.3-4.7 0.2 0.3 max.| 0.5 Forged 34,000 | 19,000 6
8 5.8-7.2 0.15 |0.4-1.0 | 0.5 Pressed 42,000 | 26,000 | 10

B91-38T { Pressed 45,000 | 30,000 8 22,000 78 1.8t

9 Uke pr 0.15 0.2-0.8 0.5 \ Pressed and aged} 46,000 | 33,000 @ || eageos 82

15) 9) ee es { Forged 41,000 | 24,000 | 16 Paeieein | ck)

MGA ffl] Sere | Caeh) PASSO 1 OS 1) Taalendaccd ||2.000 ||B00 |i |)onc~s- 62
Extruded bars,
rods, shapes,
and tubing
6 3.3-4.7 0.20. |0.3 max.| 0.5 As extruded 40,000 | 29,000 | 16 20,000 47
8 5.8-7.2 0.15 0.4-1.0 0.5 As extruded 44,000 | 32,000 | 17 20,000 54 3.0
9 7.8-9.2 0.15 | 0.2-0.8 | 0.5 As extruded 47,000 | 35,000 | 12 20,000 61 Pir

B107-38T 9 1..8—9)..2 0.15 0.2-0.8 0.5 Extruded and 51,000 | 38,000 9 23,000 70 1.6t
aged
11 12H) |hoocasace 0.3 As extruded 42,000 | 30,000 7 18,000 42 %- Ip
15 0.20 2.5-3.5 0.5 As extruded 42,000 | 30,000 | 19 20,000 51
15A 0.20 2.5-3.5 0.5 Extruded and 44,000 | 34,000 | 13 21,000 54
aged
Rolled plate,
sheet, and strip
Hard rolled 44,000 | 35,000 AlN aan 60
6 3.3-4.7 0.20 0.3 max.| 0.5 Annealed 36,000 | 22,000 | 10 18,000 50
{ Hot rolled 40,000

= 5 e f 2 Hard rolled 45,000 | 34,000 Q | ocuccs 70

B90-38T u 3D. 8-7 .2 0.15 0.3 max.| 0.5 mea ealed 39,000 |20,000 |15 | ...... 57

Hard rolled 37,000 | 29,000) 10 | .-.... 53

Ma Misa aon 1,230) l}aoossacac 0.3 Annealed 32,000 | 16,000 | 16 17,000 48
Hot rolled 34,000 | 19,000 | 13 | ...... 47

* Total impurities 0.3 per cent.

+ Charpy, ft.-lb.
Notes: Physical properties for these alloys may be taken as: Weight, lb. per cu. in., 0.065; modulus of elasticity, 6,500,000 lb. per sq. in.;
melting points from 1080 to 1200°F.
 MATERIALS 65
PROPERTIES OF INSULATING MATERIALS

Properties Hard rubber Vulcanized fiber Laminated phenolic

Power factor, at radio frequencies 0.01-0.03 0.05 0.03-0.07

Dielectric constant, at radio fre-
GWANHEs coadacbacanonneonadons 2.7-4.0 4.5-6
Dielectric strength (specimen 1g
in. thick. Step by step test at
25°C.) 500-1,000 volts per mil 25-250 volts per mil 150-600 volts per mil
Tensile strength 3,000—5,000 lb. per sq. in. 9,000—16,000 lb. per sq. in. 6,000—20,000 Ib. per sq. in.
Water absorption, per cent in 24 hr. 0.02 20-60 0.3-2.5
Specific gravity...............-.. 152175) 1.2-1.4 1.3-1.4
Coefficient of linear expansion, per
60-80 X 1076 25 X 1075 20-30 X 1076
Deteriorates slowly unless well Improves Improves
vulcanized and protected from
light
Softens at 50 to 65°C. Melts Will aoe melt; not readily inflam- Not readily inflammable. Tem-
at 200°C. mable, but chars and becomes peratures from 60—-150°C. tend
brittle at high temperature. to renew chemical reactions,
Burns at about 340°C. resulting in shrinkage and loss
in weight
Eiffectolsunlich teenies Discolors and disintegrates after No effect No visible effect
a few months. Sulphate films
formed on surface reduce sur-
face resistivity
Effect of ultraviolet light......... A few hours exposure is in its No data Lowers surface resistivity
effects equivalent to many
months exposure to sunlight
Effect of moist air............... No effect Absorbs water freely but without Absorbs slight amount of water,
permanent injury; while satu- reducing dielectric properties
rated it becomes soft and flexible
and swells; warps and twists
upon drying
Effect of steam.................. The only effect is that resulting Same as above, except absorption Best grades not affected beyond
from the high temperature is more rapid slight absorption of moisture;
after a few days in steam the
cheaper grades will swell appre-
ciably and split; superheated
steam tends to warp and blister
all grades
SONGMSs coop occsccocguasecouuND Affected by most organic solvents Organic solvents have no perma- Not affected by most organic
and mineral oils; unaffected by nent effect; oils are slightly ab- solvents, oils, or weak acids; at-
alkalies, weak acids, and certain sorbed; affected by acids and tacked by alkalies and strong
concentrated acids alkalies acids
Metallic inserts.................. Hard rubber is rapidly deterio- No effect No effect
rated by contact with iron or
copper, the metals themselves
also corroding. Inserts should
be coated with tin, paper, unvul-
canized rubber, or other mutu-
ally protecting medium
Machining qualities............. Admits of a high-polish but ma- Admits of a fine finish; may Admits of a good polish; can be
chines less accurately than would be sawed, punched, drilled, sawed, punched, drilled, stamped,
be supposed, because of its great stamped, embossed, turned, turned, planed, knurled, em-
resiliency. It has tendency to pianed, bent, tapped bossed, milled, tapped either
warp, can be molded but not ac- with or against the grain, though
curately to size not so easily as hard rubber and
vulcanized fiber

|
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68 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PHENOLIC LAMINATED MOLDED MATERIALS

g Q .
BS Watentatsorotion (Compressive Dielectric | Power factor at |Dielectric constant
8 ° strenethi 1,000 ke. and at 1,000 ke. and
& at 30°C. strength & 5 a
ol Flexural Tensile (short 25°C. 21°C.
3 strength, | strength, time),
2 modulus lb. per 14 ,-in.
<4
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After BGK ||UE
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z
ot As
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= ps 24 hr., ri 25°C., volts ; hr. in Z hr. in.
d y sample, in. tion lb. per | lb. per 2 received received
a oI per cent : . per mil water water
= A Sq. In. Sq. 1n.

1|xX 1X3
xX Mel 2.0 6.5 Gil OM || ceases 21,000 12,500 700 0.05 0.075 5.5 6.5
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3) XX |1X3xX he 1.3 6.0 835,000 || ooaces 16,000 8,000 700 0.045 0.060 5.5 6.0
4 | XXX /]1xX3xX We 1.0 6.0 SHC |} ssaces 15,000 7,000 650 0.035 0.045 5.0 6.0
5) | SXexe 127K 2% Fe YO! Wl ‘soda. |] caoce0 || soca || occdco ||! canna 250 0.007
(4 in. |(at 1 ke.)
thick)
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7 | AA 1x3x\% 0.7 265)
8|D 1X3 xX Me 1.3 6.0 SB,(000 |] scocos 16,000 8,000
9 |LE 1x3x\ 0.7 4.0 37,000 | 25,000 19,000 9,000 500 0.045 0.065 5.0 6.0
10 |LE Ie XesEx<e a 0.50 3.0 37,000 | 25,000 19,000 9,000 500 0.045 0.065 5.0 6.0
11 |CE 1x3xh% 1.5 6.0 36,000 | 25,000 19,000 9,500 425 0.055 0.10 5.5 6.5
12 | CE 1x3x\ 0.75 4.0 36,000 | 25,000 19,000 9,500 425 0.055 0.10 5.5 6.5
13 |L x3 xia 1.0 5.0 35,000 | 24,000 20,000 10,000 150 @s1Q |) seco 7.0
14 |}C 1xX3x% Wodl 6.0 38,000 | 26,000 20,000 10,000 150 ORLOR Here. 7.0
15 |L 1X3xXi% 1.0 5.0 37,000 | 25,000 19,000 9,000
 MATERIALS 69
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES OF PHENOLIC LAMINATED MOLDED MATERIALS

&
2 ’ |
ea Bese Colors Finishes Predominant General uses
Y 1B material characteristics
& ||St
et ||ea =

il |} Paper Natural tan, black; |High polish, satin] High mechanical strength—
also black surface, good machining qualities—
These four grades have been
natural core ean be satisfactorily punched
developed primarily for in-
while hot
sulation in the radio, elec-
|| 1 Paper Natural tan, black; |High polish, satin |Excellent cold-punching and
trical, and electronic fields.
also black surface, shearing qualities, consistent
They offer insulating quali-
natural core with fair mechanical and elec-
ties in different values up to
trical properties
the most exacting require-
3 | XX Paper Natural tan, black High polish, satin} High insulating value, good
ments. Grade selection de-
machining and mechanical
pends on the electrical and
qualities
mechanical strength required
4 |XXX | Paper Natural tan, black Satin Low dielectric losses and low
by the application
power factor under high-
humidity conditions
5 | XX Paper Natural tan Ground High insulating value. Tube Any insulating purpose
form only
6 |A Paper (asbestos) |Natural tan, black Satin Unusually high heat resistance General insulation and mechan-
ical uses where heat resistance
is of primary importance
7) AA Fabrice (asbestos) }Natural tan, black Satin High heat resistance—mechan- Similar to Grade A, but offering
ical strength—low moisture greater mechanical strength—
absorption used for valve disks in contact
with steam, etc.
8|D Paper Red, green, ete.; also |High polish, satin |Decorative Wall panelings, table tops, desk
marble, mahogany, | dull tops, and general decorative
walnut, and others uses
to order
9 | LE Fabric (fine- Natural tan, black High polish, satin |Good electrical and machining Replaces other grades for elec-
weave) qualities trical and radio insulation
when greater toughness and
resilience are also desired
10 | LE Fabric (fine- Natural tan High polish, satin |Good electrical and machining Where exact dimensions must
weave) qualities, plus low water ab- be maintained on machined
sorption parts and remain unchanged
under temperature variations.
and where resistance to water
absorption is important, such
as sleeve bearings in deep-well
pumps and for gasoline-pump
vanes

11 | CE Fabric (medium- | Natural tan, black High polish, satin |High mechanical strength with General mechanical uses
weave) good machining and electrical
properties
12 | CE Fabric (medium- | Natural tan High polish, satin |High mechanical strength with Similar to Grade CE, particu-
weave) good machining and electrical larly where it must remain
properties, plus low water ab- unaffected by water absorp-
sorption tion
13 | L Fabrice (fine- Natural tan Satin Tough, resilient, high mechan- Fine-pitch gears, intricate
weave) ical strength and good ma- punchings, and for mechan-
chining qualities ical uses
14 | ¢€ Fabric (heavy- Natural tan Satin Excellent wearing qualities— For nonmetallic industrial gears
weave) greatest possible resistance to and for mechanical uses where
impact loads unusual toughness and a high
ratio of strength to weight are
required
15 |L Fabric (fine- Black Satin High mechanical strength, low Water-lubricated bearings
weave graphite- water absorption—low coeffi-
impregnated) cient of friction when lubri-
cated
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70
 CHAPTER III

BEAMS AND STRUCTURES

PaGE PAGE

Stress Calculations for Thin Aluminum lEtollowaGirdershaneene eerie: 80

Sheet Sections....................---- 72 Box Sections Subjected to Torsion....... 85
Compression Members................-. 72 Chart for Determining Bending Moments... 90
Angles in Compression................. 75 Deflection of Variously Loaded Beams...... 91
Shear!Miembersss544. 4-000 00gee eae eons. 75 Stresses in Cantilever Beams.............. 92
Vertical Stiffeners for Shear Resisting Tensile Strength of Round Wires........... 93
AVI losMn erat carter eel cae ek Mi as elpanees 77 Rectangular Moments of Inertia........... 94
Diagonal Tension Webs.............-.-- 77

71
72 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Stress Calculations for Thin Aluminum Sheet Sections

A condensation of the article by the same title by S. A. Kilpatrick and O. J. Schaefer, of The Glenn L. Martin
Company, in Product Engineering, February, March, April, and May, 1936.

4 COMPRESSION MEMBERS
By the method presented here, compression members made of formed aluminum sheet for
shapes as shown in the table below can be calculated for any length cf member and any thickness
of sheet.

L = length of the column, in in. ‘ f = ultimate compressive stress of material,

p = radius of gyration generally taken as yield point
t = thickness of the sheet, in in. E = modulus of elasticity
ll 10,500,000 for 24 ST aluminum
C= factor at given L : : :
ll coefficient for end restraint, as in the
LC GNI Une Eis Nea Zh/p
K, = shape factor for short columns at about Rnicincrronanale
L/p = 20 P/A = failing stress = load at failure divided
o« = allowable stress, in lb. per sq. in. by the section area
f
C= = SS (1)
1

In the preceding equation, '

B =
if
—_——__
7
ft?
— 2
Cr°H i (2)

. For compact sections, tubing, corrugated sheet, and the simplest sections, use
ji se B)
PS Tae
aea?
First, calculate o from the equation. Apply the shape factor K,, given in the
table, to the following equation:
A\
Te Eek, (4) (3)
Then,
= ¢ tanh (Kt) (4)
=|U
tanh = hyperbolic tangent
Note: In general, for sections having a high shape factor, K., the shape factor, will be inversely proportional to the
external dimensions. If the shape factor thus calculated is less than 10, as would obtain if the external dimensions of
shape 1 were doubled, the value calculated should be squared and the value of ¢2 should be used in place of ¢ in Eq. (4).
Tf section such as shape 8 does not have ample fixity along one edge as represented by the wood block or as obtain-
able by closely spaced stiffeners, the section should be calculated as a simple angle.

As an example of the use of the table, a column of section similar to shape 2, shown
in the table, is to be designed to be made of 24 ST aluminum sheet 0.051 in. thick and
the length of the column is such that L/p is 50. The straight edges of the column are
restrained.
From the table, for a short column of this section, for L/p less than 25, we get
K, = 12. The yield point of the material by test, or from figures given by material
manufacturer, is f = 50,000, and H = 10,500,000 for 24 ST. The coefficient of end
restraint C is 1.
 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES 73

SHAPE FACTORS FOR FORMED ALUMINUM COMPRESSION MEMBERS

|
Material Test End K at test | = 2 Ib: Der Test, yield
Shape 0 ae | Ko sq. in., at point, lb.
aluminum L/p condition L/p | an
test L/p per sq. in.

pes +-0.025-0080 24ST 12.6 Flat 15.6 15.6 48,000 48,000

} °
|
Rivet. 025" ~
pitch \ ee
a te

1 8

= 24ST <25 Flat 12 12 59,800 50,006 e

(O5TS Le ae

} Rivets spaced
R=4t! at /"in double
row
----Wood block
2 (not bearing atends) |
as 24ST <25 Flat 10.8 10.8 50,000 50,000
-/4 - Lei
[eZ 0.064 to 0.128
Vigor sie ere
Gs Glia
Wood block “4 pinch, “x,
(not bearing SHAE! |
é at ends)~_ S DARD A|

F 24ST 17/5 Flat 27 27 45,000 46,000

2 R (inside)
/ =10
N= |
a
SS

saeay!

fi

f 24ST <25 on 5a| Flat on 5a! (a) 14.3 (a) 14.3 | (a) 52,000 | (a) 50,000
iain and 5b and 5b (b) 22.6 (b) 22.6 | (b) 52,000 | (6) 50,000
“7, From 15 to | Knife on 5c | (c) 15.4 (at (c) 14.5 (c) 55,000 | (c) 50,000
Sain Af TBs 70 on 5e | Lfp = 15) (at L/p = (avg.)

Se
oJ(~ a ! ———
5 | 0)

/
aonb Ss S
SSS |
006 |
|

We > Q) |
Wood block S S ¥\ | |
OND) & RS aoc | |
“10! Rivet at 2"pitch |
on 5a,b and'c |
a) |

pe = W ------------- >| 24ST Noted (a) and (b) | (a) 22.6 (a) 22.6 | (a) 44,300 | (a) 47,000
| SIP aay | flat (b) 32.6 (b) 32.6 (b) 48,200 | (5) 50,000
D N (c) knife (c) 832.0 (at} (c) 32.0 | (c) 53,000 | (c) 52,000
is) NS | L/p = 15)
~~~ Short blocks, a gaps

P R D | te [w
la | 40 [1042] 15 | 281 | 184
b [2917 | 082 [0.875 | 346
c {2917 | 082 |0.875 |1490
6
74 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SHAPE FACTORS FOR FORMED ALUMINUM COMPRESSION MEMBERS (Continued)

: Material Test End K at test 5 a 1B: 11D BE wold

Shape acne L/ Heo L/ Ko sq. in., at point, lb.
e e P test L/p per sq. in.

17ST 26.6 Flat 1523 15 45,000 40,000

Pes 4
ay
|e | |-+
3!

ene
Fee
l. 16
Ns oy

8
4

17ST 27-55 Flat 23 at L/p = 19.0 30,000 44,000

A 55 atL/p = 55
K-26 + Z
| FE
i leo
| peeye
| Shae 5 P
a8 Le Vg dam. lightening
8 hole,, pitch 2y"
PITC!) £g

: 2
1 D*t
A(effective)=A AP
A= Area without hole
D= Diam. hole; P=pitch
8

17ST 35.4 Flat 25 22.7 34,500 41,000

7H
‘
/[2 BS
gBholes |
‘8 rivets, p=3 |
‘ |

17ST Length = Flat 23/W 29 .6*/W 32,000 About

24 in. 40,000

(flat sheet simply

suppor fed on edges
SEW aa

Bureau of Stds. tests

10

1
*Ko=Kx3
40,000
32,000
 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES 75

Calculate B in Eq. (2) above, with C = 1.

Use this value of B to calculate o in Eq. (1), from which « = 22,700 lb. per sq. in.
From Hq. (3),
4%
i = 12 |
22,700
= 178
From Eq. (4),

= 22,700 tanh (17.8 X 0.051)

|
= 22,700 X 0.72 = 16,200 lb. per sq. in.

ANGLES IN COMPRESSION
For angles, the following table gives the value of o for different values of L/p:

For allowable stresses for angles,

ie =o tanh kK Gr
A b
where ¢ =‘thickness of angle b = width of leg
Ib; 2

K = 149.1 + 0.1 e = 17)

This equation holds only for C = 1.

SHEAR MEMBERS
Shear-resisting web designed to avoid buckling
Kr?D 2
ae ey)
where f, = critical shear stress or buckling stress D = flexural stiffness factor
t = thickness of plate ie Bi?
b = depth of the panel or the distance wt 1
between stiffeners, whichever may mM?
be the lesser E = 10,500,000 lb. per sq. in. for 24 ST
= coefiici ding value of th : 5
es ra glen cepa See eae ee Poisson’s ratio = 0.25 for 24 ST
ratio b/a as given by the curve, Fig. 4 m
Note: The accompanying Fig. 4 gives values of K, and Fig. 5 indicates the dimension a and 6. If in a design
problem 6 is greater than a, the terms should be transposed. In the equation below, b is always the smaller of the two
dimensions.

Substituting in Eq. (1),

__ 9,240,000K
Ib = ary) (6)
76 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Limitations of the equations:

1. Valid only for panels subjected to pure shear load.
2. If f, exceeds the shear yield point of the material, shear yield point should be
taken as the critical stress. For 24 ST, the shear yield point is 24,000 lb. per sq. in.
approximately.
3. The equation does not give dependable results for sheets less than about
0.032 in. thick.
9 __-- g%_--- Shiffeners on both sides

9 rd
Z| c=) |

Te C
= i4 ‘ Flanges
re o7 ronson —4- OL! a
S ‘ b one SEE Doth sides }° “

ig Eu
14 { _ be es

6 — a =-----ol SHiffeners one side only

K Fie. 5.—Dimensions a and 6 on a typical shear resisting
5 web with chord and stiffener angles on one or both sides.

Z ---367-"--»4| 8000/b

Lae] f
1 ———— Ss a me

0
Oo Ol 02 03 04 on 06 07 08 09 10 El
Ratio q {zo00u, 4000/b {
Fic. 4.—Coefficient K for calculating shear members, Fic. 6.—Example of a typical shear
for different values of b/a or a/b. resisting web.

EXAMPLE

Dimensions of, and load on, a typical shear-resisting web are given in Fig. 6.
Assume Q/I = 0.1742, where Q is the statical moment, 7.e., the summation of the
various elementary areas above the neutral axis times their respective centroid dis-
tance from the neutral axis.
shear load K Q/I
Applied unit shearing stress =
web thickness
0.1742
= 4000 X 0.064
= 10,900 lb. per sq. in.
bY? AB\A
(7) i (43,) = eal

From Fig. 4,
K = 5.51 for b/a = 0.117
_ 9,240,000 X 5.51
f= 4,520
= 11,250 lb. per sq. in.
 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES “7

Therefore, since the applied unit shearing stress of 10,900 Ib. per sq. in. is less than
the critical buckling stress of 11,250 Ib. per sq. in., the web will carry the 4,000-Ib.
shear load without buckling.

VERTICAL STIFFENERS FOR SHEAR-RESISTING WEBS

An approximate formula for computing the required moment of inertia of the
stiffener is
j,Fi = 2204NSSIE
(VR
For 24 ST aluminum, EL = 10,500,000, this equation becomes
: oe Vh y
oF (86,500,000
where d = distance between stiffeners A = distance between centroids of upper and lower chords
t = thickness of stiffener
Note: Best practice is to make the stiffener thickness equal to that of the web and then compute the required
moment of inertia by the above equation.

DIAGONAL TENSION WEBS

To determine when a web should be designed as a shear resisting web and when
it is to be designed to carry the shear load in diagonal tension, calculate WV/h,
where V is the applied shear, in pounds, and h is the depth of the beam, in inches.
Usually, if this ratio is less than 7, the web should be designed as a diagonal tension
member. If this ratio is more than 7, a shear resisting web should be used. If the
ratio is 7, or nearly so, both types of web members should be investigated to determine
which is the more economical.
The diagonal tension stress S; in a tension field web is
eet Oo
oe hk Sin Dor
where h = distance between centroids of upper and lower chords

For a = 45 deg.,
2V
Sa = ae

Theoretical maximum allowable S; is equal to ultimate tensile strength of the

material. An allowable S; equal to about 0.7 ultimate tensile strength is recom-.
mended for calculations.

Vertical Stiffeners

Compression load P’ in the stiffeners can be determined from

IP = (=) tan a
h
78 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

For a = 45 deg., tan a = 1,

Because the web in diagonal tension tends to hold the stiffeners straight, prevent
bowing as a column, the stiffeners need not be
designed for the full column length, but only
eT total Crepinepeenrener to the equivalent column length as given by
the curve in Fig. 7. The design of a vertical
is)=H stiffener is the same as for any pin-ended
compression member.
Stiffeners must not be spaced farther
apart than one-half the depth of the beam.
04
Chord Load
fo)Nn
At any point distant X from the applied
lo)ie)
load (Fig. 8), the total chord load is
Terms
Length
Column
Equivalent
of
inL S

fo}
® 2 @ @ @ io BB ww! i I xo
ee h 2 oi
d R
A(Cona=eahA) For a = 45 deg., this reduces to
Fic. 7.—Equivalent free buckling length for M V
tension field stiffeners is obtained by multiplying Sparse a a
the total actual length by the factors from this h 2
curve.
where M = XV
The web is always neglected in computing the section modulus of the beam, for
it has no resistance to compression.
r= GE ple eS he Jo" Seo ae a >|
/3.xlz x 0040 "chord, |
nh
aad Ve

'

:
Stiffeners_/ Upper chord are). Q H e
g x I'x 2xQ05/"
7 \ T N a eS
“\ WINN 8 stiffeners

N
N 7
5-
a eit
ie a ae 7equal spaces ~~~~ =~" S
SeSesseoeg Ce NO ppp
Vsx/exe Ss
Ss
\ ; i, Ix x/2.x@ chord angles S
Lower chord centroid Ss
Fie. 8.—Diagonal lines represent the diagonal field Fic. 9—Example of a tension field web beam.
tension in a thin web.
EXAMPLE
Assume two loads and dimensions as given in the accompanying Fig. 9,
2V
Sp = ht sin 2a
where a = 45 deg. h = 20 in.
V = 10,000 lb. t = 0.025 in.

Sr
_ 2X 10,000 = 40,000 lb. per sq. in.
© 207101025
 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES 79

For 24 ST, allowable stress would be 0.7 < 62,000 = 48,000 lb. per sq. in.
To calculate lower chord:
ii W
a TAO)
where M = 10,000 X 35
h = 20 V = 10,000

Maximum compression in lower chord = — a oom an oes — 22,500 lb.

Area of compression chord is 0.719 sq. in. Hence compressive stress developed is
IP = 22,500 ‘
7 07197 — 31,300 lb. per sq. in.

Maximum allowable stress, as calculated for compression member:

oO = 45,000, yield point of material, used in order to calculate crippling stress
K = 10.8 (assumed)
i = O95 ita,
IP
A =o tanh Kt

= 45,000 tanh (10.8 < 0.125)

= 39,300 lb. per sq. in.
Hence, as this is greater than the 31,300 lb. per sq. in., stress developed, the chord is
safe.
To calculate wpper chord:
M _V _ 10,000 X 35 _ 10,000
Maximum tension = +
h DOD 20 2
17,500 — 5,000 = 12,500 lb. .
Tension chord area = 0.237 sq. in.
2,500
= 52,700 lb. per sq. in.
A, O2B7
Assuming 15 per cent reduction in area on account of rivets, and for anultimate
tensile strength of 62,000 lb. per sq. in., the allowable stress will be
0.85 X 62,000 = 52,700 lb. per sq. in.
which is not less than (and happens to be equal to) the actual stress. Hence tension
chord is safe.
Stiffeners
Compression load by equation given above is
ribs Vo
[Y= sla) tan a

a = 45° tana
= 1
80 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Stiffener load P’ is therefore

» . =O 0X5 _
1 a ae 2,500 lb.
Stiffener area = 0.173 sq. in.
JP =2 500) :
A = 0.173 = — 14,450 lb. per sq. 1n.

es 0.25
h

From the curve for equivalent column length (Fig. 7) for d/h = 0.25, equivalent
length will be 0.89 < 20 = 7.8 in.
Radius of gyration of stiffener = 0.443
L 7.8
5 Ome LS
a = 45,000
K = 10 (assumed)
¢t = 0.051 in.
= =o tanh Kt
= 45,000 tanh (10 X 0.051)
= 45,000 X 0.45
= 21,200 (approx.)

DESIGN OF HOLLOW GIRDERS

Symmetrical Pure Monocoque Sections
The derivations of the equations for unsymmetrical sections for semimonocoque structures were developed by
Guy L. Bryan, Jr., of The Glenn L. Martin Company.

In a monocoque structure, such as shown in Fig. 10, consisting of corrugated sheet

| sections for upper and lower chord sections and thin
ieee eae : sheets for the web side skin, the maximum bending
| aff | ) Transverse Moment stresses can be approximated closely by the
ae value’ soveranulley
ot $
Ry Neutral
—OXIS 4 =. My
7 (7)
te

, x

D 4b where M = applied bending moment

bd Gee? 1 /orizontal y = distance from neutral axis to fibers in question
tt 8 pte Terenice I, = moment of inertia of the cross section about the
Fic. 10.—Symmetrical semi-
neutral axis.
monocoque structure consisting of
corrugated-sheet chord sections, thin 5 RB 5 f !
web side skin, and transverse In calculations for this type of section, the thin side
ees skin is neglected in all computations because it is
incapable of resisting much compression. The sheet simply dimpies. Also, the error
resulting from ignoring the strength contributed by the portion of the side sheet in
tension is negligible.
 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES 81

To determine the location of the neutral axis, proceed in the conventional man-
ner, as follows:
1. Divide the corrugated sheet chord sections, upper and lower, into convenient
short lengths L as indicated. L must be short enough so that the moment of inertia
of the section of length LZ, about its own neutral axis, will be small compared with its
moment of inertia about the neutral axis of the whole section of the structure.
2. Determine the areas A of the unit sections of length L, and locate the centroids
or centers of gravity of these sections.
3. Choose any convenient horizontal reference line.
4. Determine the distance R from the centroids to the arbitrarily chosen hori-
zontal reference line.
5. Tabulate in adjacent columns the areas A with their corresponding R, and
calculate and tabulate the products AR.
6. Add all the AR values.
7. Divide the summation of AR values by A, and the result will be 2, which, as
indicated in the figure, locates the neutral axis.
To calculate J,, the moment of inertia, proceed as follows:
1. Determine and tabulate the y values, 7.e., the distances from the centroid of
each short length element to the neutral axis. It is necessary to do this only for the
elements lying to one side of the axis of symmetry.
2. Tabulate in the adjacent column the square of each y value.
3. Multiply each elemental area A by the square of its centroid distance y.
4. Add the Ay? values.
5. Multiply this summation by two if the elemental areas on only one side of the
axis of symmetry have been tabulated.
6. The result 2> Ay’ will be the moment of inertia J, of the section about the
XX axis.
This method is applicable only when the section is symmetrical and the bending
moment is normal to the neutral axis.
Unsymmetrical Pure Monocogue Sections
An example of an unsymmetrical box beam is shown in the accompanying
Fig. 11. The fiber stress at any point on the beam cross section can be expressed by
the equation
7 (M,H — M.1,)y + (MH + M,I,)x (8)
5 Ill, = 16P
XX and YY are any convenient set of rectangular axes passing through ‘he cen-
troid of the section, which is located by using the same method as described above for
the symmetrical section.
I, and I, are calculated by the same method as used for the symmetrical section,
I, being the moment of inertia about the XX axis and J, the moment of inertia about
the YY axis.
M, is the component of the bending moment perpendicular to the XX axis.
M_, is the component of moment perpendicular to YY axis.
82 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

M, and M, are obtained by resolving the applied bending moment, which may
be at any angle to the XX axis, into its components about the XX axis and YY axis,
respectively.
H is the summation of the product of each elemental area times both of its coordi-
nates, 7.e., H = DAcy, the values of x and y being the distances from the centroid of
the elemental areas to the YY axis and XX axis, respectively. Distances above the
XX axis and distances to the right of the YY axis are positive. Distances below the
XX axis and distances to the left of the YY axis are negative. Hence if XX and YY
are principal axes, H is equal to zero.

Ro pasmam age =|SaasssS == 005f~--

Corrugations
2 218 2 10sl
|

d | cesHorizontal
alt =~ 90 reference
[te ws ev ®
Vertical reference Ko0352" smooth sheet
Fic. 11.—Unsymmetrical box beam.

From the preceding equation, the normal stress f, at any point in the cross sec-
tion can be calculated. When H is equal to zero, 7.e., XX and YY are the principal
axes,

Bea (9)
Further, if H is equal to zero and the section is symmetrical about one axis, at
least, and the applied bending moment makes an angle of 90 deg. with the XX axis,
and the reference axis is in the plane of the resulting bending moment,

j= 7H (10)
As an example of the most general case of an unsymmetrical section such as
shown in the figure and with the applied bending moment at an angle to the neutral
axis, assume that f, had been calculated from Eq. (8) and had been found to be
fo = —1,086y + 852 (11)
For the elemental or elementary area 4 in. Fig. 8,
xz = —54.43 + 38.27 = —16.16
y = 31.63 — 6.81 = 24.82
25.57 measured to extreme fiber of corrugation
from which
fo = —1,086 X 25.57 — 85 X 16.16
I — 27,770 — 1,870
= —29,140 lb. per sq. in. compression
 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES 83

Allowable Stresses for Chord Sections

For chord sections consisting of corrugated sheets, determine allowable stresses

as for columns as explained on pages 72-75. The column length of the corrugations
is taken as the distance between the transverse frames of the semimonocoque con-
struction. The coefficient of end restraint C is taken equal to one in the usual con-
struction. If the corrugations are covered with thin sheet, a value of C = 1.5 is used.
Smooth Skin with Reinforcing Stringers
The foregoing equations cannot be used for calculating a semimonocoque struc-
ture with fore-and-aft stringers. Application of the equation f, = My/I, would
- imply that the sheet and stringers were stressed the same. This is true only to the
point of loading where the sheet begins to buckle. Beyond that load, the sheet con-
e
18 _| , 2082 "covering 3n
b ig 7 4 al
b= 655" TSS | —+
\ SoS Se Sh a= SSeS SSS > \
SG YA 3 S '

QY ~
XI

6 so

CL. “Horizontal
Sym.abouF
y_ceterence line
; raf ‘Stringer area
\ Neutral axis-7 =Q/8) Sq. in.
=056

Fic. 12.—Typical section with smooth skin covering reinforced on inside with continuous fore and aft stringers.

tributes no further resisting, holding only its buckling load, and only the stringers
resist the further added load.
The accompanying Fig. 12 is a typical semimonocoque construction, a smooth
skin covering reinforced on the inside with continuous fore-and-aft stringers of hat
section. The allowable P/A for the stringers must first be calculated. For the sec-
tion shown, the allowable P/A of the stiffener or stringer is calculated by the method
explained under the heading Calculation of Compression Members, page 72. As an
example, for the construction shown, assume
Distance between transverse frames = 20 in.
Coefficient of end restraint = 1.5
Radius of gyration of hat section, p = 0.56
Calculations (see page 72) are as follows:
20

45,000 35.7°
BW
DIN
~ 1.52 X 10,500,000
84 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

_ 45,000 x 1.368 _ 61,500 41,000

7 ~ 1.368 + 0.3682 1.504
K, = 13 (assumed)
45,000\% _= 126
ik = 19 (ac)
= Ssr = 41,000 tanh 13.6 x 0.040
'U
|
= 20,200 lb. per sq. in. stiffener allowable

VE/Ssr
= Stiffener spacin
R = Radius of curvature
Sst = Stiffener allowable

Constants for fla =

=a n=0 =

0) 0.1 2 @3 @t @ 6 7 09
r= EVES
Fie. 13.—Curves for calculating the load carried by a curved skin reinforced by fore and aft stringers.

This is the allowable P/A of the stiffeners. The allowable load P that the curved
sheet reinforced by the stringers can carry is equal to

P = Ct VESsr
where H = modulus of elasticity = 10,500,000 8.35 {10,500,000
t = sheet thickness VS 425 V 20,200 = dette
C = coefficient dependent upon the para- =e
meters n and seen Jz
b NSsr
The value of C is obtained from the curves in
t = sheet thickness = 0.032 in.
Fig. 13 after n and \ have been calculated from
the formulas (see Fig. 12 for the numerical values 0.032 /10,500,000
used for 6, R and ¢) 2 = AoE 20,200

es = V/E/Ssr = 0.088
where 6 = stiffener spacing = 8.35 in. From the curves, Fig. 13 for n = 4.48 and
R = radius of curvature = 42.5 in. d = 0.088
Ssr = 20,200 lb. per sq. in., from the pre- ,
ceding calculated stiffener allowable C= 2:8

Hence, solving the equation for total load allowable on sheet,

P = C# VESsr
= 2.8 x 0.0322 10,500,000 x 20,200
2.8 X 01032? x 3,245 x 142.2
= 1,325 lb.
 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES 85

IP 1,325
Bie
Allowable A

1,320 %,
in.
<X O0B2 ~ 4,860 lb. per sq.
7 835
This sheet value will not be realized unless the rivets are spaced closely enough
so that the sheet cannot buckle between rivets. A rivet pitch not greater than forty
times the sheet thickness is suggested as a safe limit.
Neutral axis and moment of inertia of the section are calculated in the usual
manner except that a reduced area is used for the portion of the curved sheet which is
under compression.
sheet allowable D
Effective area = A Xx stiffener allowable d
where D = distance from neutral axis to ex- d = distance from centroid of the portion of
treme fiber of section sheet to neutral axis.

or

Appr = AK

Use K = 1if K calculates greater than one.

Because a sheet on the compression side is only partly effective, she neutral axis
shifts to shghtly below the center of the circular section (Fig. 12). The error resulting
therefrom is negligible.
For a bending moment of 3,300,000 in.-lb. in the preceding example, the maximum
compression in the fibers is

— 3,300,000 x 45.9
= 20,200 lb. per sq. in.
ty = 7,480
This is equal to the allowable P/A calculated above; hence it is satisfactory.

BOX SECTIONS SUBJECTED TO TORSION

Closed tubular or box sections are the most efficient and hence most generally
used. For a single-cell thin-walled box,
iE
= —_ 12

where f, = shearing stress, in lb. per sq. in. A = inclosed cross-sectional area in box, in sq. in.
T = applied torsional moment, in in. lb. t = thickness of skin or covering
4p

G=
GJ
where @ = deflection in radians per in. of length J = torsion constant of the section
G = torsional modulus of elasticity, gn- 1 1 (ds
erally taken as 0.4H for aluminum J 442 | é
alloy
86 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

For the section in Fig. 14,

G3 8 , Sa , 8 1».&
J t pele nena ta Ue)
When the sides of the box act as tension field members, in the preceding equation
for 6 the value of ¢ used should be five-eighths the actual thickness, which will give a
reasonably accurate value for 6, the angular deflection.
In the preceding equation for stress f, the torsional moment is assumed to be
applied so as to be distributed uniformly around the perimeter, an ideal condition
which is approached by placing bulkheads or ribs
at all points of application of load so as to transfer
external loads directly to the walls of the box.
For a multicell section such as the wing
section in Fig. 15 wherein sheets of different
thicknesses are used, and if the trailing edge

Fic. 14.—Single-cell thin-walled box section. Fre. 15.—Unsymmetrical box beam wherein
sheets of different thicknesses are used.

portion which resists only a small part of the torque is neglected,

t= 2(A hy ~ Ash») (14)

where h; = shear factor, in lb. per in. of portion hz = shear force, in lb. per in. of portion of per-
of perimeter bounding area A; but imeter, bounding area A» but not including
not including front spar web front spar web

Note that the portion of the perimeter S, is omitted, 7.e., the front spar web, the
shear per inch of which is given by
hs = hy = h»

Shear per inch of the three sides of thickness f1, t2, and ¢; is
T
h, = aK [bs(Ay =e A») Fr Ajb»|

K= b;(Ay =e A>)? =F A*.b; ar A* ibe

where b3 = s4/ts be = 85/ts

Shear per inch for leading edge covering
T
ho = aK [b3(Ay + A,) =F A»b,|

wherein

b; = a + a2 aR Ss
 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES 87

The shearing stress f, in any part of the box is shear per inch divided by thickness,
or

When any of the sides buckle to form diagonal tension fields, the wrinkles being
assumed to make an angle of 45 deg., the tensile stress S, is
2h
Srp = =

Torsional deflection in @ radians per in. of length is

gt
| miey (15)

where J is the torsion constant of the section corresponding to the moment of inertia [
as commonly used in the formulas for beams under flexure. The equations for @ and
for the shear loads per inch are strictly true only for shear resisting panels. If sides
buckle to form diagonal tension fields, the values of ¢ used in the equations for by, bs,
and 6; should be multiplied by %s. That is, use °s¢ instead of t. But for the stress
calculations for f, and Sz, always use for ¢t, the
actual thickness. However, if allowable buckling
stress of tension field sides is high compared with
actual stress, the use of an effective thickness
t, = °gt will not be accurate. For reasonable
accuracy, proceed as follows: Wawa
as;

Assume that the torsional moment causing

buckling is 50,000 in.-lb. and the total applied
torsional moment is 120,000 in.-lb. Calculate all
stresses and deflections under a load of 50,000
in.-lb. as in a shear resisting section. Then calcu- Fic. 16.—Front and rear spars are
late stresses and deflections under a load of 70,000 designed to resist all the bending, whereas
the box is designed on the assumption that
in.-lb. for the section as a tension field. Add the it resists all the torsion.
stresses and the deflections.
In a design as in Fig. 16, the front and rear spars are designed to resist all bending
whereas the box is assumed to resist all torsional moments. To accomplish this, the
proportion of the total bending moment resisted by each spar is proportional to the
ratios of the moments of inertia of the respective spars, to the total moment of inertia,
or
ME;I>
Mr
EG=
re oo16
MErlp
Mri
Coe = a Baa mehd
where M = total applied bending moment Ey and Ep = modulus of elasticity of material
My, and Mz, = bending moments in front and of the spars
rear spars TI, and Ip = moment of inertia of front and
rear spars
88 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

If the front and rear spars are of the same material, Hz; = E,, and cancel out.
In Fig. 16, £.A. is the center of resistance to bending, and in the figure
Tpb
Oe a Ts oO)
The point L.A. is called the elastic center, and the locus of these points is calied
the elastic axis. The torsional moment applied to the wing is the load times the dis-
tance of the center of gravity of the load to the elastic axis, 7.e. P(c — a) in Fig. 16.
This will be the torsion that will be assumed resisted entirely by the box.
For two spars acting in bending and interconnected only by pin-ended ribs, the
load P in Fig. 16 will be divided proportionally between the two spars, as follows:
P(o =
Bp = 4 (19)
P29 => = (20)

The root bending moments will be

Mr = Probl (21)

Mr = JPall; (22)

This proportioning of the loads applies also when the spars offer but little resistance
to torsion and the ribs are rigidly connected. If the spars have high torsional rigidity
or if a box as in Fig. 13 is formed, the distribution approaches that given by Eqs. (16)
and (17) for Mz; and Mj.
If all torsion about EA. is resisted by the box in torsional shear, there is complete
interaction between spars. If no torsion is resisted by the box, the interaction is zero.
The amount of interaction is obtained from
BL?
epee A,b? (
23 )

where L = total length of uniform cross B, = GJ when spars have relatively little
section of box resistance to torsion
B, = total of torsional stiffness A, = Irlr/(Ue + Ie), if EL is same for both
of two spars plus box spars

Generally for a stressed skin box, ratio C; is such that the moment would divide as
in Eqs. (16) and (17), for all points along the span except the root. The difference
between the moment obtained by the two methods is
Mr => Mr = Mr (24)

Mer = Mre ame Mri (25)

For any degree of interaction Ce between spars, the final bending moment in each
spar 1s
My, = Mr = Ce(M re a Mri) (26)

Me I= Mro — Cr(Mr2 — Mai) (27)

 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES 89

C; approximates 0.70 at wing root for a trapezoidally loaded box wing, for which,

M, = 0.7M a: + 0.3M ps (28)

M, = 0.7M ri + 0.3M pro (29)

On the assumption that C, increases linearly from 0.70 at the root to 1.00 at 20
per cent of the half span of the wing, Eqs. (16) and (17) apply from the wing tip to
80 per cent of the way inboard, and from this point inward to the root, Eqs. (26) and
(27) will apply, with C, varying from 1.0 at the 80 per cent distance to 0.7 at the root.

Allowable Stresses
These must be based on the combined shear stress and direct compressive stress.
In the accompanying Fig. 17, f. and f, are the allowable compressive stress and allow-

=12
Fie. 17.—The combined stresses for axial and shear loads are obtained through the use of this curve plotted from
the equation 1 — (f.a/f-) = (fea/fs)?.

able shear stress, each acting alone. When shear stress of f,. is acting together with a
compressive or tensile stress, f.. will be the allowable tensile or compressive stress.
Similarly, f;. will be the allowable shear stress when a compressive stress of f.. is
present. By means of the curve in Fig. 17, the allowable f.. and f,, are readily obtained
for any ratio. This applies for curved sheet, flat sheet, or tubes and may be used for
combined bending and torsion or shear combined with axial tension or compression.
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHART FOR DETERMINING BENDING MOMENTS

Various Conditions of Loading

Uniform load, Fixed ends

20
;
. Lose at center, fixed ancl Example
Cantilever beam 30
199,000 ji Uniform load, supp.and fixed ends
Uniform load,supported ends with concentrated
0,
7; \ ae load P= 2,000 Ib. ato
30,000
70,000 Load increasing to one end at end.L= 50in. 50
c=1 es
60,000 Load increasing to center
100
50,000 7 Load at center, supp.and fixed ends
40,000 Load at center, supported ends
200
30,000 Load increasing to fixed end
and
Two symmetrical equal loads
: ; é Key 300
Cc ;
20,000 Uniform load, one fixed end y turning scale 400
in ; 500
Two symmetrical and equal loads W
T 600
M 800
: 1000
|
10,000 Concentrated load at free enJ .
9,000
8,000
7,000 2,000
6,000
5,000 w=uniform load per unit length 3,000
; 4000
SS P= concentrated load, use P |b.=W Ib.
A208 L = total span in inches unless 5000
SN otherwise shown 6000 3
3,000 g000
Sx W= wl
SS SS I= 19000 ®
6ST 2,000 Join CandL extend W-TtoM 3
2
ic M = 100,000
f=
—— = INS 2 20000 :=+
mo)
0 cee = INN
8 30000 2
oe 3
= 000 2
So 900
>
ares 4 49000
% 800 ey 5 50.000 @
FOO BUNS ee 6— 60,000 ©
= 600 —~ _8 =F 80000 §
6 500 5 (00000 0
“a
a
400 > NS ita 3
dec
E S E
300 = WS « 200000
“G30
g 300,000 =
200 = 40 400,000 =
= 5) 500,000
= 60 600,000
c 80 800,000
100 5 100 1,000,000
a

200 2,000,000
300 3,000,000
400 4,000,000
500 5,000,000
600 6000,000
8,000,000
10,000,000

20,000,000
30,000,000
40,000,000
50,000,000
 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES 91

DEFLECTION OF VARIOUSLY LOADED BEAMS

0.3
60 E= 29,000,000 (steel). For other
material, multiply the answer
determined on chart by ratio,
Conc. load at free end E for steel
osRAI’ E for given material
0.2
Increasing uniformly to free end
4 20,000
15,000
pean ee DIY,
Uniformly distributed lo | 10,000

= 500: we
cae Oe z I). Deer eee
ol 5Conc. load at end
i 3 ;
3000

0.09 =D 2 2,000
8 i 8 1500
ay Increasing uniformly to fixedend 0 1000
0.07 5

Z 20 500
0.06
3conc.
onc. loads qu equally
goes alespaced
pa 30 300

0.05 D 50 200

Uniformly
nitormly distributed
Gl 1pu load
oa yes Fa my7 0.00!
Len 100 00 Fx.
a “pers
D aa w8 150 &
re 7
Concentrated load at center ie 200 ©5 2=
0.03 eee E 300. © £
5 400 =
K am 500 .£ rs)
Increasing uniformly to center a CoS +
{Rn
FACT |Tees =
Le pela)
1000
=:
©
=
CONE CCL ES z= ,
0.02
ND 2oO 1500 ©i) S Pe Ie
= 2000 *- Tle oO
" 0 444 a
a3 3000 = 3 e
‘4,000 a a
5,000 x)
+
6000
8,000 &
19.000 | 5
a
00! Decreasing uniformly to center @ 15,000 x
0.009 t/D 20,000 05 2
30,000
0.008 i 15 Rete es AB0
50000
24000 } 04
0.007
800 6
0.006 100000 ol :
j 150,000 \
0.005 200,000
09 Example
08 Given, simple beam with uniformly
oot distributed load W=5,000b,
O7 L= loft, 1=200 Ans.=6.02in.
- —— - Note:
0.003 Uniformly distebured load 06 Simple support shown thus a

TOIL 3 y
0.0025 bet
WATT ere 05 Fixed end shown thus 4—
free butguided end shown thus }—
92 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

STRESSES IN CANTILEVER BEAMS

0.10

0.09 Sears 9 a 2 CAs ae 8 8

° S S S ° o
b, width in In.
0.08
| IPaqo SSeS

0.07

0.06
ee a
! ee WwW
oe \
| [ES] |
I ot 7 3 Y
0.05 L. —-—-----—---'---- L -------
|
0.045 l \
0.040 Se
|
0.055 90° ae wea ie |
ss SS
0.030 |\ Se eres
to}

_6WL
S=“pt2 \ =)F]
0.025 \
l 2 fib | Index lines in dot and dash length
In.
in
L,
| S= max. fiber stress \ show thata spring 0.8in. ke)oO
| W= weight in lb. \ on 03 in Wicleend ore in
0.020 = po o hick will be stresse
| i femagyiin im, i | lb. per Setin- by aload of 5
thickness
In.
in
t, | b= width in in. \ Ib.or 2,270 grams
t= thickness inin: 03
0.017

0.015
02

0.012

Turning scale
0.010 O4

0.009

0.008

0.007

0.006

0.005

(o) oS 12) (e} je) [o) o [o) fo} w

fe) So [o) 73 jo) (os) ve) N =
oy 2 Q / W) q =
ro = z
? \ VA Load in grams

300

S, stress in 1,000 Ib. per sq.-in.

 BEAMS AND STRUCTURES 93

TENSILE STRENGTH OF ROUND WIRES

0.10 200

0.09

300

0.08

400

20
Q07-
500
30

0.06 aSfo)
600

Si)fo}

i
0.05
700
1

(In.)
Wire
of
Diameter
(os)fo)
800
(Lb)
Breaking
Load
0.04
Se)io)

100 900

0,03 1000

4100
150
0.02
200
The dotted line shows thata wire 0072" diameter made
of material having an ultimate strength of 180,000 /b.
per sg.in. breaks at 73516. 1300
Note that the corresponding scales Aand A, or Band
0.01 B, must be used 200

\400

By
94 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

RECTANGULAR MOMENTS OF INERTIA AND SECTION MODULI

r Rectangular
Shape of section !
A = area Moment Section
of inertia modulus

. bhi bh?
Solid rectangle] stele
a eT5

bh? — byhi® bh? — bihi®

Hollow rectangle ree 7 Ghia

Solid circle Ve4rD* = 0.0491D* | lgorD3 = 0.0982D?

Hollow circle : JDP = oa AD? — ad?

A = area of large section ree See ell
a = area of small section 16 8D

: 9 bh3 bh2
Solidlid triangle
triangl wes
3G om

| =
an
:
ngle with th equal legs
Angl Ah?
109
Ah
was
=
- b--+4

A= Angle wit!
ngle with unequal llelegs Ale
On Ah
ap
LL: |
bbe
a ;
< Symmetrical cross Ah? Ah
19 . 9.5
)__y

eet
= Tee section Aht Ah
t 11.1 8
k-b
a
* I-beam als alln
ey 6.66 3.2
kb-

tr
a Channel A h2 Ah

ath 7.34 3.67

kb
 CHAPTER IV
LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS
Typical methods of temporarily retaining, locking, or fastening one movable
machine part with reference to another, including detents, snap rings, wire locks, and
taper pins. Designs of indexing mechanisms, machine clamping methods and
23 examples of door and cover fastenings, all taken from actual designs, are included.
A chart for computing bolt stress is given at the end of the chapter.
Pace Pace

Mocking: WMevices.c.: o\e ce Go ye te oes 96 Clamping Shoes and Plugs............... 109

Retaining and Locking Detents........... 100 Lock Bolts and Indexing Mechanisms..... . 111
Wire Locks and Snap Rings.............. 103 WMleelamne Clewenjos, coco cocodoccocuouescoe 115
Taper-Pin Applications.................. 104 Door and Cover Fastenings.............. 116
Hinges and Pivots....................... 105 Bolt Diameter, Load, and Stress.......... 119

95
96 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

LOCKING DEVICES |
, Hex. nut locked
’ in place atend
/ Setscrew holds of shaft by head-
1 In position one less setscrew =>
/ member screw-
ed into another

Pipe plug retains TAI ) / Setscrew has split |

member on endo. cuppoint which - Dog- pointed set-

ay
split shat: spreads on being screw locks shaft
/ pressed against radially and long-
bal] itudinally
el ATM
(UL
~Grooved shaft
—Stee/ ball

, Split nut wedged Combination of wedge and

| apart by small lock screw ae a xf
) eerie
\setscrew to jam threads
Wd Yj a)
WU: fbSEY mn split

Cone-pointed screws contacting

conical holes provide means
for locking and adjustment ‘flexible tubing or oil tubes cat
. 7
aa Pa eh
Vie FS \
HF OSE
/ =
Lock ” ee
washer Gs
tes
Fie. 27. Fre. 28. Fig. 29.

Oy , Threaded collar slotted

Knurled nut 7 30 deg.apart. Three screw-
locks screw “holes 10 deg.apart give
/
56 locking positions.
A —— Close BLS, se-
1 \ cured with fine thread
Flattened rod clamped on 771U
by sleeve with half round
slot milled at lower end
Fria. 30. Fia. 31. Fie. 32.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS 97

Tapered nut split Special faced nut requires

ae locking 3 revolution for locking
\

iin
KK}

—— i \
== Threaded rod positioned
‘Y by two opposite nuts
Fia. 33. Fig. 34.

~-7 Lead or soft

brass washer
forms lock,
also seals
against off
leakage

Fic. 37.

Key machined
from flat stock,
4
¢ Spring -
abc)
3 iV
Spun-over
Any hole retains
spring lock

a ee
SS - plunger

Loose pin
Fre. 40.

, Lower face of nut milled

/ with six grooves
Two-piece ring fitting
Pins with against shat? shoulder
is retained in external
ends recess --7

Cal; +7
'
re,

Six locking positions 'Hurmp on washer \

/n one revolution (washer spring-loaded) Cone-pointed screw actuates

PITS
Fia. 43. Fig. 44,

Retoiner for
anchor pir
/

Threaded collar has milled Flat spring, Plunger,

/
/

ee och FA
7}
d
FY
98 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Flat spring, (es nut

mim =) 7 Teer rri==

SOS
<KHV =37) wt, Ht \
I
Aump Locating |
plunger, ~-'
spring- loaded!
Fia. 49. Fia. 51.

<V or half round

a INR
CZ LU)
_——}

Headlless screw re fainers ‘Formed wire with pin end

Fie. 52. Fie. 53.

Flat spring with rounded

head retains pin ----- ,
1
1
Clamped projections
Taper pin---= |

‘Hollow head! fillister screw

engages groove in wedge
Fia. 58.

Fie. 59. Fie. 60. Fia. 61. Fia. 62. Fig. 63.—Soft flexible wire that
Fires. 59-62.—Round bars may be held singly or in multiple with one- or withstands twisting offers an efh-
two-piece formed plugs and clamped either with screw or nut and washer. cient retention of either slotted
Clamping plugs may be reamed in place for accurate contact with round or drilled screws. This shows a
pieces. method used extensively in auto-
mobile rear-axle design.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS 99

va
YG W

WN
LK
En
LLL
W

\\ SI iS, Spring-backed
oe
/ Plug

ZZ

Shatt locked against ‘Serrated head

endwise motion on screw
Fria. 68.
100 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

RETAINING AND LOCKING DETENTS

“Knurled

aoaee
WRK
CLL LALLAZh
<eY
Ta i2Z a
-—Disengaged
Fie. 75.—In
this design, the
position
A plunger is re-
she, 69.—Driving tained by stak-
plunger, shown in en- go. ed ing or spinning
gagement at A, is pulled (POSURE over the hole
out and given a 90-deg. Fie. 72.—The plunger is pinned to the knurled at A.
turn, pin X slipping into handle, which is pulled out and twisted, the screw
the shallow groove as A dropping into the locked position at X in the
shown at B, both members bayonet slot.
being thus disengaged.

NZ
1 ZEAL
eee
|
Will,
ail
RI
ESE

WWW
is
Fic. 76.—The end of the
plunger B bearing against
the hand lever A is coneaved
Fic. 73.—In this design, the and prevented from turning
pin A engaging in the slot prevents by the dog-point setscrew
the plunger from turning. This engaging the splined slot.
detent is used as a temporary Friction is the only thing
Fic. 70.—The pin in the gear lock which is engaged for that holds the adjustable
collar attached to the loosening a drawback rod through hand lever A in position.
plunger rides on the end the gear.
of the handle when in the
disengaged position and
drops into the hole Y to RSS WINGS SSS
allow engagement.
Y

eenurled \\
MGSHU
Ns
WAHHH
Dott eeee

SS
ELS
i Fic. 77.—A spring-backed steel
ball makes an inexpensive but effi-
Fic. 74.—An adjustable gear-case cient detent, the grooves in the rod
Fia. 71.—A long and a cover lock. If the door is pushed having a long, easy riding angle.
short slotted pin driven shut, it is automatically latched, For economy, rejected or under-
into the casting give two whereas pulling out the knurled knob sized balls can be purchased from
plunger positions. A disengages the latch. manufacturers.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS 101

%
g

a ‘
A

SSSS
G Ws Vj >>|
Fic. 78.—Another form, in
which the grooves are cut all
A B
around the rod, which is then
free to turn to any position. Fic. 82.—Instead of a Fic. 83.—At A is shown the usual 120-deg.
ball, a hollow plunger is conical spot made with a drill. At Bisshowna
used which accommo- 90-deg. spot which gives a more positive seat,
dates the spring. The one which will not permit the plunger to disen-
end is hemispherical. gage as readily and which is preferable when
ON considerable vibration is encountered.

aa
RQQQQass
OS
(a

fal
————————

YW
iFic. 84-—The plunger is
LLL

Fie. 85.—Instead of a hole,

turned down slightly smaller a slot is milled across the rod.
than the inside diameter of the Since the plunger is conical, it
spring which gets its other bear- is obvious that only line con-
ing against the threaded plug, tact is obtained.
the hole in the plug guiding the
Fic. 79 Fre. 80 stem of the plunger.
Fies. 79 and 80.—A double-locking
device for gear-shift yoke rods is
shown in Fig. 79. At A, the neutral
position is shown with ball X free in
the hole. At B, the lower rod is
shifted; ball X is forced upward, the eet |
HE=i
upper rod being retained in a neutral

“iy ZiWeSSWS
[ea
aes S77

isi
position. The lower rod must also A
be in neutral position before the upper
rod can be moved. A similar design
S
SS
>Wdba Cll
is shown in Fig. 80, wherein a rod with
hemispherical ends is used in place of
ball X. WM
We Ng
AG
N iF= NSYY).
LLL208000080
LL —
WK
00069068
©
= NN
Se)
GS qe
KEE
Fie. 81.—Without using a spring of any
kind, three gear-shifting reds are locked by a
YUMA MIH!@@l0.
large steel ball. At A, the neutral position Fic. 86.—The spring tension may be increased
is shown. At B, the lower rod has been or decreased as desired by the long hollow threaded
shifted, forcing the ball upward, thereby plug, which is then locked in position by means of
locking the other two rods. The dashed the check nut. In this design, the rod is flattened
circle shows the position of the ball when and the locating holes, which are truncated cones
the right-hand rod has been shifted. in shape, are machined into the flat surface.
102 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

yyIwiindWU\S
INOW
—
N’
\ 7
SS SK
ANS

V
A_N\A
LS
ADZID
SS
VIZ

Af
V
VV
SE
MOA
LZZZ_ZL_LZ_L_LZE_EEE
AIA
AAAI

MSG
NG
4h
SS
SSG ‘2
Yy
Fie. 87.—The round plunger is flat milled to a Fic. 88—When the Fic. 89.—The plunger is milled
90-deg. included angle and prevented from turning plunger diameter and the square with round corners and
by pin A engaging milled slots in the threaded plug. wall thickness are sufh- the hole is partly broached; this
In the end view shown at B, it can be seen that, if ciently large, a keyway does away with the, necessity of
the spring tension is to be adjusted, at least a half can be milled into the akey. The point is flat milled.
turn must be given so that the flattened point will plunger for engaging a
coincide with the slot in the rod. pin, which prevents it
from rotating.

Fie. 90.—Sometimes the plunger can Fic. 91.—Here is shown a square-headed Fie. 92.—Probably
be milled with a flat which bears against plunger with its body turned round to one of the simplest yet
a pin, as shown in the end view to the accommodate the spring in an eccentric hole, most highly _ efficient
right; thus the plunger is prevented from thereby giving a support to the pin A, which forms of detent is
turning in the hole. This design is par- acts as a key. - merely a flat spring
ticularly suitable for solid-type plungers. bent to a 90-deg. in-
cluded angle and seat-
ing in V’s milled in the
rod.

Zs NESE UY TEEN

Fie. 93.—With a long spring and a fairly Fic. 94.—This design is similar to Fig. 88. When confined toa
short plunger, a common flat-head wire nail small diameter, a smaller spring is placed within the larger. By
can be used to support the spring against buck- using a 946 in. outside diameter outer spring, 25 per cent spring
ling. The spring also fits closely into the tension can be gained by the addition of the inner spring. The
plunger hole to gain support, and the plunger larger one has a sliding fit in the plunger and screw plug holes.
is flanged at its upper end to prevent its slipping Two guide pins, the heads fittings closely into the larger spring, keep
through the hole. the inner spring central and free from buckling.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS

WIRE LOCKS AND SNAP RINGS

Removal.

Y
tool
-~ Close wound spring,
& Wire lock success/ve coils cu:
off fo sti/
2B
a This ameter
should be 7 in.
straller thar = = ap should have
diameter D Lf
1B in. for each Vie
Shown jn Fig. 96
wire lock olameter
ts smaller thar
diameter D,Fig 96

--- Spring lock

Of6
3 -ip, wire

Fic. 98.

Za SS

Cae

7 When nut position fh and also

aes changed, new hole wire screen /n
must be drilledin place
shatf BA
777

Fie. 101. Fie. 102.

WN
Wire lock
- Close -wound spring
mh
'
from which internal
lock rings can be cut
Uiriec
]
N
Should. be |
iBindarger ' yy
= pin, for each alif-
than diam.
D, Fig. 96 ference between
wire lock dar.
eu)KS
\ aad diam. D,
Bye Fig. 96 Fe # seal

Fia. 104. Fia. 105.

Rectangular.
snap ring \

Z]
Groove mach yy
mead in outer ra
race
-Wire lock
holds sheet-
metal stamp= a rectangular
ing In place ie spring stock
iene aed
Fic. 106. Fria. 108.
 104 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

TAPER-PIN APPLICATIONS

Fic. 109. Fic. 110. Fig. 111. Fia. 112.

Fic. 109.—The conventional way of applying a taper pin, which depends upon friction to hold the pin in place.
In gear boxes and other sealed mechanisms where it would be injurious for a pin to work loose, positive locking means
must be provided.
Fig. 110.—The large end of the pin comes just below the surface of the external member it is holding and is
staked as shown in the plan view. These little swellings, or burrs, straighten out or shear off if it is necessary to remove
the pin, but usually will score the surface of the pin. It should be noted that cast iron does not stake readily as it
is brittle and will not flow.
Fig. 111.—A small cotter pin retains but does not prevent loosening of the taper pin. :
Fia. 112.—With this design, the taper pin is pulled tight with the hex nut which bears against a flat on the
external member, although this flat is not necessary. Some engineers prefer to use a lock washer under the nut, in
which case both the nut and the external member should not be hardened. Thus the lock washer can get a grip.

Vi DLLLLI™
SSS

Fie. 113. Fie. 114.

Fic. 113.—In this design, the screw stud is expanded and locked by the use of a taper pin. The stud is slitted
as shown in the end view. The taper pin rests in the bottom of the hole, and the stud is screwed in until it can be
turned no farther.
Fie. 114.—This shows a twofold purpose. The sawed-off taper pin acts as a holding device and asa key guide to
the slidable inner member.

=e

Fie. 115. Fie. 116. Fia. 117. Fie. 118.

Fre. 115.—Here the pin is flattened off and used as a wedge. This method calls for accurate work, but, if the
hole is reamed too large or wears too much, the next larger taper pin may be used.
Fras. 116, 117, and 118.—When a taper pin is to be used in a blind hole, one of the three methods shown here can
be used. To facilitate loosening the pin, a square may be milled at the large end as in Fig. 116. It is well to cyanide
this squared end. Figure 117 shows a special form with a square head, the flat of which is equal to the large diameter.
This type should be hardened all over and ground on the body. In Fig. 118, the pin is threaded and jacked out by a
hex nut against a washer. The top end should be cyanided so it will not be pounded over during assembly. A fine
thread should be used so as not to weaken the pin by too small a root diameter. For appearances, the washer and
nut are left on, but this does not render it foolproof. This form is used as a dowel pin where the held member must
be located accurately.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS 105

HINGES AND PIVOTS FOR COVERS AND FLEXIBLE JOINTS

ZEA [SZ Kh
SE —— J L - -s 1}
——
CZ ZEST US CIS
Fie. 119.—Com- Fre. 120.—With Fie. 121.—A Fic. 122.—A
mon cover hinge the end _ peened, plain pin with two double tapered
with pin tight in the pin can be cotters can be used hole in cover lugs
the cover and loose made a loose fit in in place of a with pin fitting
in the hinge lugs. all lugs. peened rivet. tightly in outer
lugs.

ZW.
————— Wi
eS
Ht nn.
]tts
HW RW BS
Fic. 123.—Sheet-metal cover Fie. 124.—A tapered pin makes Fig. 125.—Combination straight
bent around the hinge pin. hinge adjustable. and taper-pin hinge.

itnuu
| Medan
MOM WA

Fic.126.—Hardened and ground washers to Fie. 127.—Pivot bearing with

prevent wear. A, hinge lugs milled to prevent shouldered center pin and adjust-
washers from turning. B, washers retained by a able cone-pointed screw with lock.
pin.

ESSSSSSJ aN KLEIN RSS)

227222727724 SSSSSSSSSOUZZ222777ZICINSESSSSSSS]
1

Fia. 130.—Pivot bear-

ing with hardened con-
ical-pointed pins.

Ss UN

Fie. 131.— Fie. 132.—Lever Fie. 133.—Light Fie. 184.—For

Sheet-iron -> arm pivoted on cast-iron cover pivot- heavier covers,
cover swinging shouldered stud ing on stud. the stud is
on headed pin and retained by shouldered and
which is peened washer. the casting coun-
over at the terbored.
opposite end.
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Fig. 135. Fig. 136. Fig. 137.—Sheet-iron cover with Hie; 138 Kie. 139——
Fic. 135.—Shouldered bushing hinge ears fastened with shouldered Poor design be- The hinge stud
centered in counterbored hole. hex head stud or fillister head screws. cause screw should serew in
Fig. 136.—Bushing centered and tends to turn. tightly, and
held by stud screw. head should
have ample
clearance.

Fic. 140.—A Fia. 141.—A Fig. 142.—An Fie. 143.— Fie. 144.—
poor design where- conventional ma- improved design An incorrect With a headless
in all the thrust is chine door hinge. with lug drilled design because hinge ‘pin, the
taken on the lower and reamed from it requires re- cover can be
case lug and the opposite ends. moval of the lifted off..
span of the cover small pin for
lug is reduced. disassembling.

WA.
Fie. 146.—Another
method of holding the
steel lug.

Fic. 145.—Separable lugs are used Fic. 147.—Wrong method of Fie. 148.—With in-
when the casting is too large for small fastening steel lug, requiring cut verted pin, the cover lug
lugs to cast satisfactorily. and try. End view shows can be smaller. Studs are
results. positioned before the final
pinning.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS 107

cs Li
ci
ia SSIS

Fic. 149.—Common — Fie. 150.—Cover lugs cast Fie. 151—When swing-

steel hinge applied to a integrally, and pivot pins fas- ing member A is to be
machine-tool cover. tened in loose piece for greater removable, the bearing is
span. cut as in the left view.

Fig. 152.—Swinging rod _ re- Fia. 153.—

tained by pinned collar A. Both Pivot bearmg as gle or pawl joint.
lugs are integral with the casting. used on an adjust- Angle A should be
able vise jaw. 30 to 45 deg. to
retain the member.

De
ZAM s WA aa P N\ GF

Ss

ZEEE.
Fie. 155.—Radial and axial play are taken Fie. 156.—Needle-bear-
up by the hardened and ground bushings ing pivot for either rota-
tapered to an included angle of 2215 deg., tion or oscillation, with
sufficient to prevent sticking. three hardened and ground
washers for separating the
rollers.

Fie. 157.—Three ball joints used in a gear-shift Fie. 158.—Socket joint Fic. 159.—Self-ad-
mechanism. Hole A is in shifting rod; B is the pivoting with hemispherical rod justing socket joint.
center, which is retained by the inserted locating plug ends held in place by screw The sheet-metal
at C. bushings. spring cover is held
in place by two serews.
108 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Hs

fey

ili
Si

WSN

<I ¢ CZ
Fie. 160.—Sheet- Fie. 161.—The flattened Fic. 162.—Combina- Fie. 163.—Universal
metal ball-socket sphere is held by the center tion pivot joint and joint, the smaller pin
housing with cover stud. Felt seals are used to end-thrust bearing, the being retained by wire
fastened by spot retain the grease. ball being retained by snap ring.
welding. the washer spun over
the fixed screw.

pacts

KG =
Fie. 164.—Rocker-arm bearing Fig. 165—Arm joint of a Fie. 166.—Arm joint designed
as used on an airplane. pantograph machine, with cen- for accuracy. Upper ball bear-
ter stud clamped without end ing takes all thrust caused by
play, stud head and bushing weight, and the spindle is pinned
end forming the ball race. to the stationary meraber. The
bearing has a light press fit.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS 109

CLAMPING SHOES AND PLUGS

=
Fig. 167.—Plug may mar the Fia. 168.—The 60-deg. point Fic. 169.—A flat filed or milled
shaft» to the extent that dis- does not always line up with the on the shaft is an improvement.
assembling might be impossible. bottom of the thread. But the cup point of the screw bites
The smooth surfaces of the hole are into the flat, and, once a ring is
scored. made into the flat, it is hard to get
clear of it when the held member
must be moved to either side.

Fic. 170.—A further im- Fie. 171.—A variation Fic. 172.—Here the Fie. 173.—This is simi-
provement is a brass plug of the preceding construc- side in contact with the lar to the construction
making a loose fit with the tion is obtained by shaft makes a full fit, shown in Fig. 172, a tap
inside diameter of the making the plug a press achieved by inserting a being used instead of a
threaded hole. fit in the screw. reamer into the hub bore reamer.
and constantly feeding
the clamping screw while
the reamer is turning.

CECH s es:
vererereres
tok
hy
NNN OY
r |!
tne
) ULE ees

Fic. 174.—When Fig. 175.—This construction facilitates Fic. 176.—This shows

longer clamping surface is the removal of the plug but can be used another method of removing
desired, a slot similar to a only when the diameter of the clamping a plug, by first removing the
keyway is cut into the screw is large enough. Freedom of the clamping screw and then
retaining member. internal fillister head screw permits the inserting a small screw to fit
plug to assume its natural position against the tapped hole.
the shaft.

Fie. 177. Fie. 178. Fic. 179.

Fics. 177-179.—In these modifications of the clamping plug, the shoe is assembled after the clamping screw is
screwed through the hole. In Figs. 177 and 179, the shoe is retained by spinning or riveting, whereas in Fig. 178 a
pin through the hub of the shoe engages the circular half-round groove near the end of the screw. In each case, the
shoe bears against the shoulder of the screw.
110 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

=F]

7
Fic. 180.—Here the Fie. 181.—A lock Fre. 182.—This is another adaptation of the methods
plug is in the form of a washer under the hollow used in Figs. 177-179. A ball end is pinned fast in the
rod, which allows the headless screw locks both retaining screw, which acts like a swivel for the clamp-
use of a short set- the screw and plug in ing shoe, the latter being held in place by a small fillister
screw. This saves place. head screw in an oversize hole. The swiveling permits
tapping a long hole the shoe to accommodate itself to rough or uneven
and using a_ long surfaces.
screw.

Fia. 183.—Here the shoe clamps Fic. 184.—The round-pointed Fre. 185.—In this modified con-
the ring about the shaft. It is screw allows the plug to swivel 6 to struction, the dog-point setscrew
made in key form, 7.e., a slot is 8deg. The pin is for locating work retains the key after, the screw is
eut in the external member to in a level position, a number of loosened, the dog point fitting in
accommodate the shoe. The them being used for this purpose. the oversize holeinthe key. This,
V in the shoe should be 90 deg. The flat is milled 6 to 8 deg. from of course, requires a key somewhat
the vertical, the feature being that wider than the diameter of the dog
the plug prevents lowering when point of the screw.
weight is applied.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS itil

LOCK BOLTS AND INDEXING MECHANISMS

ea Conical lock bo/ft
» topand bottom of
Ao CONIC! end milled of fF
SSS to allow for wear
=

“keye eo to prevent rotation

hole of bolt
Fia. 186. Fic. 187.

Operating spring pushes against pin

7
x7

Screw- backed
brass shoe / ~--Sides of slots
clamps bolt / ground, bottom
relieved, open
end chamfered
Sipoliest acts as
guide for cone-
ended bolt and as
retainer for operating spring
Fic. 188. Fria. 189.

Conico/- ended STot

Jock bolt,
; / Bayonet slot
Fin ~ / keeps boltout
of engagement
LILIA |,

Pin keeps bal aut,oie ‘Slot

engage/men (-Opp/rn
into Jor a erbee HE eel 90 deg. “lock bolt
Fic. 190. Fie. 191.

iLock bolt

Disengaging pin--5 <--Flat ground piece acts asa

Locking pieces yi, X lock bolt by engaging slot

Pivot —>{ -
tl
u
7 Zz clearance allows spring
/ to push bolt firmly into
/ Jock-bolt plate slof

LSof Spring keeps bolt

engaged
‘Cam actuates gear segment
Fie. 192. Fra. 193.
112 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

ff Flot retaining plate

Y / flattened pin
Qn OI

_cLock bolt with

‘, Fin for hand \ rack machined
actuation 7
= Rectan efuller-
eek
FNWAAAAAT WAZY IIA o/f milled! ou
centrally to accom- ~~ -Pinion manually
actuated by
YUM: ee ie actuating wrench or
handle
Fic. 194.—In this design the rectangular lock bolt is . Fig. 195—A rack is machined in the lock bolt.
milled out centrally to accommodate actuating spring. Pinion meshing with rack is manually actuated with
A pin is provided for hand actuation when desired. wrench or handle.

Fic. 197.—More accurate form of

lock bolt, which is claimed by many
Fre. 196.—When indexing starts, the lock to be the correct method for this
bolt is released and rides on the periphery type of design. The inclined sur-
of the plate. At point A, it starts to slide face gets the wear as it seats the
down the inclined slot. At B is shown the the bolt, whereas the straight or
shearing or wearing action that takes place. radial side positions the bolt accu-
In case the plate has overrun or indexed past its rately. Positions A, B, C, and D
position as at C, the spring behind the lock bolt correspond to those in Fig. 196, and
is required to turn the plate, together with indicate that the corners X and Y
the whole rotating mass attached to it, back- should be rounded. At H is shown
ward, resulting in wear on the side opposite how the groove is ground. Other
to that shown at B. At D, complete engage- notations are the same as given in
ment is shown. Rounded corners as at X Fig. 196.
and Y should be provided. There should be
plenty of clearance as at HZ to allow for wear
because of the small angle of the slot. At H is
shown an improved form of gear. It assures
clearance and provides for grinding of the,
angular surfaces if necessary. If the lock-bolt A

spring is not strong enough to seat the bolt by Milled ~ -- Pin prevents
rotating the plate, vibration will usually com- rotation
plete the seating, causing chatter at the cutting
tool or spindle and wear on the bolt and slot.
In this type of bolt, the angular sides are alike,
hence the direction may be opposite from that
shown.

(Tapered CLs permit accurate

if
Bolt vi)setting (2) bolt in both side
directions

Fie. 199.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS 113
Spring -backed bo/t
\

y Locking ring (a)

F7ZZERCZE, ZEEE
--Locking ring (b)
i Hand-operated
/ release cam Each locking ring
has series of five
projections or bolts
which engage one -
another, Each bolt
aus and space mach-
Nz} Sir ‘Engaging lug held ined accurately
NZ SYA 17 Coe HOF to oer 36 deg.
GE to. cam by sefscrew of circle
CZEZA which engages key-
way in bolt
Fic. 200. Fic. 201.

Japer pin

b> t
Side walls of grooves Ss Yi Section X-X
in lock- bolt plates are hardened,
lull QS>> Herclened and

‘Lever that actuates lock bolt

Fig. 202.

Roller,

Lever arm
XS
OLLIE

VILL

Fic. 203.—Plates A and C are fastened Fic. 204.—Bolt integral with lever arm has ears directly
together, the former accommodating the bolt B, above the pivot shaft fitting on either side of the plate. As the
whereas plate C is positioned by bolt D. plate reciprocates, it pulls the bolt along with it. Cam contacts
Rotated in direction of arrow, bolt Bslidesinto roller, the cam being long enough at X to accommodate the
slot in plate A, one side being milled to 20 deg. required travel of plate and bolt. The welded ring fits in groove
When indexing begins and bolt Dis pulled away, in hub of plate and is connected to tension spring, the other end
45-deg. slot in plate A pushes out the bolt B, of which engages a pin in lever.
both bolts then riding on periphery of respective
plates, and bolt D sliding down the easy incline F
to a predetermined depth.
114 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Hand-operated Pr ojection integral

ade
7 COM | with cam Ones peer
/
' slot in bolt

Bolt
disengaged

: Bolt
. engaged

Tension s,Wine disengaged Yo G0? 7 TS Cx

keeps bolt in Wau? -\ Pivot center
engagement Re location
Fic. 205. Fic. 206.

Swinging lock bolt Lug Release Cam

Centering jugs} plate

Plan
Fic. 207.—By using a lock-bolt plate larger than the work, the indexing error is diminished. The swinging lock
bolt is released automatically by the spring plunger, which has a predetermined movement, when the hand-operated
lever is moved to the left, as shown by the arrow marked Release, and the cam contacts the rounded top surface of the
lock bolt. The ratchet is keyed with the lock-bolt plate to the spindle. As the lock bolt is released and the lever is
rotated 30 deg. counterclockwise, the pawl engages the next tooth in the ratchet wheel at X. The lever is then pulled
in the direction of the arrow marked Index, the cam moving the lock bolt downward into the next opening in the
lock-bolt plate. The plan view of the bolt shows the two centering lugs between which the lock bolt is additionally
supported.
Lock- bolt plate
keyed fo spindle
/Spring-backed lock bolt, s aa Groove J
k La Ne wee Slot K
Indexing
handle

Pin

K Groove F
VN Seo Lock-bo/t operaf-
Ss Lock bo/t
\ba Third prong
Lock- bo/t plate” “ Prong CMe eT MEPS
Fra. 208. Fra. 209.
Fia. 208.—The handle is mounted on the plate and is independent of the lock-bolt plate. As the handle is pulled to
the left, the prong pushes against the pin driven into the spring-backed lock bolt, thereby disengaging the bolt. At
the same time, the second prong contacts the plate at Z. Both plates then move simultaneously, releasing the lock
bolt, which rides on the periphery of the lock-bolt plate, and the bolt falls into the next slot. The handle is then pushed
back again, clockwise, contacting the plate at R, upon which a third prong pushes against the pin-seating lock bolt
in a locked position.
Fic. 209.—The plate is indexed through a half revolution in one direction and then back again in the opposite direc-
tion. Thelock-bolt plateis keyed to the spindle. The lock-bolt operating plate is free to rotate on thespindle. When
the indexing handle is pushed counterclockwise, as shown at the right, groove F in the plate forces the lock bolt out of
engagement. The pin driven into the plate engages the slot in the plate, thereby lining up groove J with slot K. Upon
further movement in a counterclockwise direction, the roller on the bolt may slide into groove J and the bolt may enter
slot K. The dashed line in both views show the positions when indexing in the opposite directions.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS 115

MACHINE CLAMPS

Fie. 210.— Fie. 211.—Clamping Fie. 212.—Spindle clamping bolt. Fig. 213.—Clamping slid-
Clamping with bolt by spring dovetail. ing table with plate and
and bushing. bolt.

Fie. 214—Clamp- Fie. ,215.—Sleeve Fic. 216.—Example of wedge Fie. 217.—Clamping

ing a spindle with a split at ends for clamping. with
a split bracket.
split bracket. clamping.

“4

Fie. 218.—Clamping with an eccentric. Fic. 219.—Clamping a swiveling column.

116 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

DOOR AND COVER FASTENINGS

Finger grooves

Knob

~~Cast-iron cam has a spiral Lever-type lock. When placed

rise of about in. ?of the in en Bealposition, ie weight
circum ference of /g in. our- of lever tends fo lock bo/t
side diameter of carr. Direction more securely. japered
of spiral should be such that bracket furnishes
with door hinged on left, binding action
knob is turned “5left for open-
ing door, and when hinged
on the right, knob is turned
right to open door

Surtable for heayy doors

such as on motors, chain, or
belt housings
Fia. 220. Fie. 222.

Tapered.
/ug

A Straight
Adjustable cam, with threaded hole, OD Alternate” boss ~
the geleey being obtained by tapering handle, a
one tace. Nut locks the car in place Stee/casting
Fie. 221. Fie. 223.

Spring
SPOS Pressed Stee/ flanged cap with
flat leat spring fastener. A 90-den.
Elongated twist loosens Cover. Suitable for
for adjustment closing inspection or adjustment
openings
Pig. 224.—Snap-type fas- Fic. 225.—Snap-type fastener using Fie. 226.
tener using a flat formed round wire spring.
spring.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS 117

Alternate con-
struction re- CaN
@ ||~
Cie
guide plunger. CUDaIBIIxIX HRN
fi KN \opaninas lapse Hom
/
Vigeete) ENE
GEBaP!
it
I PNY
rN y
y —
oe
AIO
" Rl ee Ee
1 FN N N VERY
S BGC. G_,CEQ
Screw type cover fastening
Fie. 227.—Spring-backed plunger type of Fig. 228.—Spring-backed Fic. 229.
automatic door lock, for light duty. plunger engaging a cast lug
on case, suitable for light duty.

To add wear resistance,

latch and screw cyan-
tdled!
Cover located by,
dowel! pins
may be d
lifted off
when latch
1s opened

vA two coll spring

may be substituted
for the shoulder
Fic. 231.—Simple cleaning-hole cover. Fic. 232.—Shouldered stud
fastening.

til the corners

A-A clear
Stud bent J0deg, with knob for
locking a chip cleaning hole cover
Fig. 233. Fie. 234.— Fic. 235.—Tee-bolt type of
Simple swing fastening.
bolt and open-
end slot.
118 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

%
NG
Wo q

5 :
Extended finger grip
: Fine
mnger

Weight of ex-
tending lug A
IEFtT’
running tull
width of cover
keeps [7 in place
Flush top

WN IN Y)
Fic. 236.—Stove-plate-type cover Fic. 237.—A simple cover Fre. 238.—Pivoted oil-
held by gravity. held by gravity and requiring hole cover.
no machine work.

| g
Z@ el |
7| HB
VI |

|
NZ
Weight of knob
keeps hook in place
Fria. 239.—Vertical cover Fia. 240. Fie. 241.—Plain gravity latch.
swung on a screw.

Cover Is s/ipped
over stud and
drops on body
of the studs,
being held by
gravity
NZ,
Fic. 242—Positive type of gravity lock.
 LATCHES, LOCKS, AND FASTENINGS 119
BOLT DIAMETER, LOAD, AND STRESS—U.S. STANDARD 60-DEG. V THREAD
(0)

+000

Dy
0p

397000

Colo

<520,
°0

Noi

ay 90

Q
¢ 0
&
~N

‘ aS
Equation C \
He) [5
_ 1S_ HOS vc x 005
TVA é
&
é eee
=
é <<
ae I

aC) = Go, :
ant tai o Z 90°
Bin
ON
Olu
=
a
& a

| ea

ae RS |
Roy S Number
U,S.Standard
of
(T)
Threads
Inch
per
ES 200
(D)
Diameter
Outside
Thread
of
Inches
in &

Sé
y |

720,

S
oS
S
iy
8
ro)
S
ro)
8Soe
83 8.85
@ese
S
oy
= N Ny ~o i <Y SS eP EE S& Fa) 20,000
Total Tension Load on Bolt in Pounds (L)
 CHAPTER V

SPRINGS
PagE Paar
Design of Helical Springs Table of Wire Gages and Diameters, with
Spring Wire Specifications.............. 122 Their Squares, Cubes, and Fourth Powers 138
DesionuStnessesnee ne ecneceen ante 128 Inspection and Testing of Springs....... 139
Tonsomeall IMM@CININ, so50cc0c00cd0vccncv0c 130 Graphical Solution of Helical Spring
Allowable Stresses Based on Endurance
ormulaswer emer acme cee a ec eeroks 140
Helical Spring Charts for Specified Ratio
SJEUINATIES peer etere toate te cars eee 131
of Loads and Lengths.................. 141
INaturalilirequencyseeeaneeeae ae eee alae
Designs of Tension Spring Ends........... 144
Formulas for Helical Springs........... 133 Flat Cantilever Springs, Graphical Design
Permissible Manufacturing Tolerances... 134 Obie cetreted eh onues tenemia eats, debi croe eae ae 145
Form for Design Calculations........... 136 Semielliptic Laminated Springs, Graphical
Standard Drawings for Springs ID esl otOlm arctan cere heme eee 148

121
122 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Design of Helical Springs

Condensation of the standard specifications and design procedure adopted by the Atlas Imperial Diesel Engine
Company as set forth by W. M. Griffith, product engineer of that company, in March and April 1937, Product
Engineering.

CLASSES OF SPRING SERVICE

Class I. Rapid, continuous deflection over a uniform stress range from zero to a
maximum or from an intermediate stress to maximum—as in engine valve springs.
Class IJ. Rapid deflections over a variable stress range that may be from zero to
intermediate, intermediate to maximum, or zero to maximum—but with only
intermittent operation—as in springs for engine governors.
Class III. Statically loaded at maximum stress or infrequent deflections with
stress range from zero to intermediate, intermediate to maximum, or zero to
maximum—but with only infrequent operation—as springs for relief valves.
PURCHASE SPECIFICATIONS FOR SPRING WIRE
The minimum physical properties given in these specifications are 95 per cent of
the average values determined by tests. Thus the minimum physical properties here
specified are well within commercial limits.
SWEDISH STEEL SPRING WIRE SPECIFICATIONS
Generally used for Class I extension or compression springs and Class II and
Class III extension springs, in wire diameters from 0.1055 in. up to 0.262 in. This
material can be used for springs of larger or smaller wire diameter, but generally
music wire is used for the smaller wire diameters and carbon steel for the larger wires.
1. Steel Manufacture
This steel is to be of Swedish manufacture according to approved practice by the
acid open-hearth or electric-furnace process.
2. Chemical Composition
Carbonte are one ee ras iat tsoe O.CO=0570 lv ONOWWSs ococacocesvogcen0cc0c 0.025 max.
Manganeses.¢.¢cn.e00 renee se aces Ok45=0565) (Sulphures meen ne one aan 0.025 max.
SiliGonee eae hanes oe 0.15-0.25

3. Physical Properties
Minimum tensile Minimum torsional
, : : strength, lb. per sq. in. | strength, lb. per sq. in.
Range of wire diameter, in. Elasti Elasti
Ultimate |
limit
Ultimate ed
limit
OOS eine! WMCP... ccascoccacoccoccnssuccces 212,000 154 ,000 184 ,000 112,000
ORI205=05135 0Reena ein ree were) e202 000) 146 ,000 175 ,000 106 ,000
OMASS =(RNG 2Oe ater ity ea ic Meeae aes MEER ope yrs 187 ,000 136 ,000 163 ,000 99 ,000
O:2070=0.26 25 aaa ee ee ee eee Lior 000 126 ,000 151,000 92,000
OQSIQE OSA STR aee sac se alee eee eal LO4000 119,000 142 ,000 86 ,000
OBO2QS=OA BIB. soccccccsssoecccosevacscsscco| LES, 000 112,000 135 ,000 82,000
O4GW5=015625) o aiaheten: oho aoe eae .| 146,000 106 ,000 127 ,000 77,000
Reduction of area, 48 per cent minimum. Elongation in 10 in., 5 per cent minimum.
 SPRINGS 123

Twist Test: Samples taken from any part of the bundle of wire must withstand
twisting seven revolutions forward and seven reverse, at a twisting speed not to exceed
25 r.p.m., for the number of times as given in the following table, and the ultimate
break must be clean and square.

Length of wire between grips, 10 in.:

Diameter of wire, in. .| 0.1055 | 0.1205 | 0.1250 | 0.1350 | 0.1483 | 0.1563 | 0.1620 | 0.1770
Minimum twisting
Gyclestyre tess poecas 23 20 20 18 17 16 15 14

Length of wire between grips, 15 in.:

Diameter of wire, in. .| 0.1875 | 0.1920 | 0.2070 | 0.2188 | 0.2253 | 0.2437 | 0.2500 | 0.2625
Minimum twisting
BEC CLES Hc Ao tctares
tA 20 19 18 17 16 15 15 14

Length of wire between grips, 20 in.:

Diameter of wire, in........... 0.2813 0. 2830 0.3065 0.3125 0.3310 0.3438 0.3625
Minimum twisting cycles...... 18 17 16 16 15 14 14

Length of wire between grips, 30 in.:

Diameter of wire, in.|0.3750|0.3938 0. 4063/0 .4305|0. 4375/0. 4615/0. 4688/0. 4900/0. 500/0. 5313/0. 5625.
Minimum twisting
GyicleshacsereatesGs 20 | 18 17 17 16 16 15 15 14 13

4. Surface Conditions
Upon etching with a hot solution of hydrochloric acid sufficiently to disclose
surface defects, no hairline cracks, seams, pits, gouges, die marks, or other imperfec-
tions shall be revealed. Decarburization must be held to a minimum.

5. Limits of Variations in Diameter

Wire diameter 0.162 in. and less—plus or minus 0.0015 in.
Wire diameter 0.1770 in. and over—plus or minus 0.002 in.

6. Inspection, Rejections, and Replacements

All springs will be rigidly inspected at the plant as received. If more than a
total of 10 per cent of the springs on any one purchase order are made of steel that
fails to comply with the preceding specifications, or with the specifications on the
detail drawing, the entire lot will be rejected. All springs rejected at the plant will
be held at the seller’s risk for a reasonable length of time, subject to his instructions,
and shall be replaced by the seller without further cost to the purchaser.
124 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CARBON-STEEL SPRING WIRE SPECIFICATIONS

Generally used for springs of wire diameter greater than 0.262 in. and also for
square or rectangular wire ranging from 132 X }2 in. up to 14 X }2 in., advancing
by 42 in., and for sizes larger than 12 X }4 in., advancing by ¢ in.

1. Steel Manufacture
This steel is to be made according to approved practice by the electric-furnace or
open-hearth process.
2. Chemical Composition
WaT DONE Ra eee ere eels eanarer OF60=O.40" iSulp hums oe aes crane eevee 0.025 max.
Mianmcanesemer ac nyaon sales OQAG-O.05 IAnosalnonWS.cacososagesoocvcbcc0ce 0.025 max.

3. Physical Properties

Minimum tensile Minimum torsional

strength, lb. per sq. in. | strength, lb. per sq. in.
Range of wire diameter, in.

Ultimate | Elastic limit} Ultimate | Elastic limit

ONOHS ancl winGler, oocccenccovcecdsauncooocec 202,000 132,000 165,000 108 ,000

ORL2ZO SONS SO vercvarge esate oaccta cetacean eRe 191,000 125 ,000 157 ,000 103 ,000
OWASSO SO ZO Pasi pr tysmitie cree nih cicwseie eee 178 ,000 117 ,000 145 ,000 95 ,000
OF2070=032625: seein ee hocre bee deen 165,000 108 ,000 136 ,000 89 ,000
OFASTS= OSS 4S 8 ote ates ey Sect swasen Sicha eatae ae 156 ,000 102,000 127 ,000 84,000
OSGISVG co ocak meee eaorececomr cnc osde 147 ,000 97 ,000 121 ,000 79,000
OAGI5=O1S G2 ates cee eye Oe oc eres 139 ,000 91,000 114,000 74,000

Reduction of area 48 per cent minimum. Elongation in 10 in., 5 per cent minimum.

4. Surface Conditions

Upon etching with a hot solution of hydrochloric acid sufficiently to disclose sur-
face defects, no seams, hairline or otherwise, pits, gouges, die marks, or other imper-
fections shall be revealed. Decarburization must be held to a minimum.

5. Limits of Variation in Diameter

Wire diameter 0.1762 in. and less—plus or minus 0.0015 in.

Wire diameter 0.177 in. and over—plus or minus 0.002 in.

6. Inspection, Rejections, and Replacements

All springs will be rigidly inspected at the plants as received. If more than a
total of 10 per cent of the springs on any one purchase order are made of steel that
fails to comply with the above specifications, or with the specifications on the detail
drawing, the entire lot will be rejected. All springs rejected at the plants will be held
at the seller’s risk for a reasonable length of time, subject to his instructions, and shall
be replaced by the seller without further cost to the purchaser.
 SPRINGS 125

CHROME-VANADIUM-STEEL SPRING WIRE, S.A.E. 6150 SPECIFICATIONS

Generally used for same range of sizes of spring wire as covered by carbon-steel
spring wire, and where the higher physicals of the chrome-vanadium-steel wire make
its use specially desirable or necessary.
1. Steel Manufacture
This steel is to be made according to approved practice by the electric-furnace or
open-hearth process.
2. Chemical Composition
(CENA ON in isa Anand cco ele ue Georenes Baten O.45-0.88 Sulla, .ccoscanaaccdcvcgcvensane 0.5 max.
Nam gan ese eaeren eco eeee ae alae 0.50-0.90 Phosphorus....................... 0.04 max.
Ghromumly yee ses aces che: ORS OSI OM Silicone as eae eeeaan 0.15-0.30
WOMACK. co5c0000ce000cnccccccse Wilk iovin,

3. Physical Properties

Minimum tensile Minimum torsional

strength, lb. per sq. in. | strength, lb. per sq. in.
Range of wire diameter, in.

Ultimate iSlasiae Ultimate Ses Me

limit limit

ORO S55randiund erases aera ane 212,000 195 ,000 158 ,000 116 ,000
OSIZO5=OMIB50 ee ou: oe ee ee ales Ag ahs se cone 202 ,000 184 ,000 149 ,000 111,000
ORASS=OMOQ0 Ele vee nae socks aah, 187000 171,000 139 ,000 103 ,000
OZOFOSOl262 beta eh cat ene.) hes see ae 174 ,000 160,000 130 ,000 95 ,000
QRZ SIS RO NSAG Sie an as AION Mervin ciatm Satna 163 ,000 150,000 122 ,000 89 ,000
OR G25- OA Siberia e maw rt ae Re ces 3 eae 155 ,000 143 ,000 116 ,000 84,500
OVA GID SOUS ODOR Uns pte en beech eee 146 ,000 134 ,000 109 ,000 80,000

Reduction of area, 48 per cent minimum. Elongation in 8 in., 314 per cent minimum. Rockwell C, 42-46.

4. Surface Conditions
Upon etching with a hot solution of hydrochloric acid sufficiently to disclose
surface defects, no seams, hairline or otherwise, pits, gouges, die marks, or other
imperfections shall be revealed. Decarburization must be held to a minimum.
5. Limits of Variation in Diameter
Wire diameter 0.1620 in. and less—plus or minus 0.0015
Wire diameter 0.177 in. and over—plus or minus 0.002
6. Inspection, Rejections, and Replacements
All springs will be rigidly inspected at the plants as received. If more than a
total of 10 per cent of the springs on any one purchase order are made of steel that
fails to comply with the above specifications, or with the specifications on the detail
drawing, the entire lot will be rejected. All springs rejected shall be replaced by the
seller without further cost to the purchaser.
126 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

MUSIC-WIRE SPRING STEEL SPECIFICATIONS

Generally used for Class I compression springs in wire sizes up to and including
0.105 in. wire diameter. Springs made of this wire should not be finished.

1. Steel Manufacture
This steel is to be of Swedish manufacture according to approved practice by
the acid open-hearth or electric-furnace process.

2. Chemical Composition
Carbone yey) Aasincccnac
eee eet OG0=1.00 Sullolnwe,..55csccscc0ccccsc000aces 0.25 max.
Manganese) i.c db4een cae poo On A5-0)G0) IPOS OOS, oocooopaccanccocacasce 0.25 max.
Sil/coOneipa ewe cotta on eee . 0.10-0.20

3. Physical Properties
Minimum tensile Minimum torsional
; ; : strength, lb. per sq. in. | strength, Ib. per sq. in.
Range of wire diameter, in. : -
3 Elastic : Elastic
Ultimate Rees Ultimate ee
limit limit
O}00Svandtunders espe eee eee ree cosnO00 216,000 297 ,000 163 ,000
OLOOG =O DY Re ee Boe re!cnsee eeicc Ble ne eee 360,000 214,000 295 ,000 162,000
OOIS=01020Ra eae nee arene o4o5000 207 ,000 285 ,000 156 ,000
02220103 Ome eka racecar eeetle eae es 334 ,000 201,000 275,000 150,000
Ml03220!040 ea soe a eee as24 000 195 ,000 266 ,000 145 ,000
O1O42= OO bills 2 etki oo ene BR rae ee 313 ,000 188 ,000 256 ,000 141 ,000
OlO55=O10638 len he oe He eed ee ade | SBO8R000 181,000 248 ,000 136 ,000
OMOGTEOTOT Sexe ok eR ds ees nok need 292,000 175 ,000 238 ,000 130,000
OL082=0:090% 82a eee ee cea 283 ,000 170 ,000 232,000 126 ,000
OOOR=OSIOR, accnccancococonsccccaecaasccccdll 40a, OWO 164 ,000 225 ,000 123 ,000
Reduction in area, 46 per cent minimum. Elongation in 8 in., 2 per cent minimum.

4. Surface Conditions
Upon etching with a hot solution of hydrochloric acid sufficiently to disclose
surface defects, no seams, hairline or otherwise, pits, gouges, die marks, or other
imperfections shall be revealed. Decarburization must be held to a minimum.
5. Limits of Variation in Diameter
Wire diameter 0.025 in. and under—plus or minus 0.00025 in.
Wire diameter 0.027 to 0.063 in.—plus or minus 0.0005 in.
Wire diameter 0.067 in. and over —plus or minus 0.001 in.
6. Inspection, Rejections, and Replacements
All springs will be rigidly inspected at the plants as received. If more than a
total of 10 per cent of the springs on any one purchase order are made of steel that
fails to comply with the above specifications, or with the specifications on the detail
drawing, the entire lot will be rejected. All springs rejected shall be replaced by
the seller without further cost to the purchaser.
 SPRINGS 127

PHOSPHOR BRONZE SPRING WIRE—S.A.E. 81

Used only for small springs, especially where resistance to moisture or other
corrosion is essential. Can be used in Class I, Class II, or Class III service. Diam-
eters are specified in Brown and Sharpe gage numbers. Square or rectangular mate-
rial may be used from a minimum size of 132 X }2 in. to a maximum of !% X }!4 in.,
advancing by }%2 in.
1. Chemical Composition
Bini eee aaa A suai thi. (eae AlO0=6800) mlrom max. 2 sue kceech we chee ol ee 0.10
IBHOSpHOMSe ee oon ok eeeees os OFOS-O840l sWeady max ccc. see se ee oes oe 0.10
ZANT CITA Waa a at useneteae 0.20 Copperieiaarry- nia neroes seus antec remainder

2. Tensile Strength
Minimum
RanGE or WIRE TENSILE STRENGTH,
DiaMetsER, IN. Ls. per 8a. IN.
Up to 0.0625 130,000
0.0625-0. 1250 120,000
0. 1250-0. 2500 110,000
_ 0.2500-0.3750 100,000

3. Bend Test
The wire should be capable of being bent through an angle of 180 deg. flat back
on itself without fracture on the outside of the bent portion.
4. Appearance
The wire shall be uniform in quality and temper, cylindrical in shape, and smooth
and free from injurious defects.
5. Dimensional Tolerances
The wire shall not vary from the specified diameter by more than the following:
Sizes over 0.050 in., by plus or minus 1 per cent
Sizes 0.050 to 0.025 in., by plus or minus 0.0005 in.
Sizes under 0.025 in., by plus or minus 0.00025 in.
BRASS SPRING WIRE, S.A.E. 80
This material may be used for the same types and classes of springs for which
phosphor bronze is suitable. It is available in two grades, as given below, Grade A
for use where the requirements are especially severe and Grade B for use under
ordinary conditions. Grade B will be furnished unless otherwise specified.
1. Chemical Composition
Constituents Grade A | Grade B
(Gray
a)XS e ted Petia: & SiR Ac RE ely a 70.00-74.00 64.00-68 .00
Wearclorn axa ye fe as eelacres Seder ita deere lS ait 0.10 0.10
TOrayoralaxa MMNNVITINP ate ey ae ElccdislopeS ceacted cee 0.06 0.07
ZAINCStee one ener! Met ARI ck FL. Remainder | Remainder
128 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

2. Physical Properties
This wire shall have a tensile strength of at least 100,000 Ib. per sq. in. but should
be capable of being bent through an angle of 180 deg. around a wire of the same
diameter without breaking.

3. Appearance
The wire shall be uniform in quality and temper, cylindrical in shape, and smooth
and free from injurious defects.

4. Dimensional Tolerances
The wire shall not vary from the specified diameter by more than the following:
Sizes over 0.050 in., by plus or minus | per cent
Sizes 0.050 to 0.025 in., by plus or minus 0.0005 in.
Sizes under 0.025 in. by plus or minus 0.00025 in.

DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Class I springs, 7.e., springs subjected to rapid continuous deflections over a uni-
form stress range from zero to maximum or from an intermediate stress to maximum,
as in engine valve springs, must be designed on the basis of the endurance limit of
the material. Class II and Class III springs, respectively, springs that operate only
intermittently or springs that are statically loaded are designed on the basis of the
static strength of the material.
Because the static strength of wire of a given material increases with decreased
wire diameter, as shown in Figs. 2438 to 247, a larger permissible stress can be used for
the smaller wires. The following table gives the maximum permissible working
stresses for springs for Class II and Class III service.

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE STRESSES, POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH

For Class II and Class III Service

Compression springs Extension springs Torsion springs

Tyme of aicall 0.1055— | 0.2812— | 0.1055-— | 0.2812- 0. 1055- 0.2812—

: 0.2625 0.5625 0.2625 0.5625 0.2625 0.5625
wire wire wire wire wire wire
diameter | diameter | diameter | diameter | diameter | diameter

Class II:
Swedisheesssee eee OGRO000 55,250 52,800 44 ,200 79,200 66 ,300
Carbone eee | Loondo0 53 ,500 51,000 42 ,800 76,500 64,200
Vanadium.............] 76,000 64,250 60,800 51,400 91,200 77,100
Class IIT:
SWIECIEIN, socobocoscocoall Wd (00) 65 ,000 62 ,000 52,000 93 ,000 78 ,000
CAND ssnccancacncose| CH ,000 63 ,000 60 ,000 50,400 90 ,000 75,600
Vanadium.............| 89,500 75,500 71,600 60 ,400 107 ,400 90 ,600
 SPRINGS 129

250 250
Chemical analysis Chemical analysis
Carbon 0.65-0.70
Carbon 0.65-0.70 Manganese 045- 0.65
Manganese Sulphur 0.025 max.
Silicon 200 . Phosphorous 0.025 max.
200 Phosphorous
~_Sullpnet 0.025 max.

150 150

100 100

For:SOp O/,
Nop;
Le hint
y
frorp 20000Mbper
sq in,
50 inper 50
Inch
Square
Pounds
of
Stress
Thousands

Inch
Stress
Pounds
Square
of
Thousands
inper

0 Ql 02 03 © ©04 05 06 0 Ql 02 0.3 04 0.5 06

Diam. of Wire in Inches Diam.of Wire in Inches
Fic. 243.—Swedish steel wire. Relation of wire Fic. 244.—Carbon-steel wire, S.A.E. 1065. Relation
diameter to physical properties. of wire diameter to physical properties.

350
300
Chemical Analysis
— Chemical Analysis Carbon 0.90-1.05
oOo
WwS So
Manganese 25-050
£ Carbon 047- 054 \ Sulphur 0.055 max,
oe Manganese 50-080 Phosphorus 0.04 max.
5 250 Chromium — 080- 1.00 ‘\
o Vanadium Q15 -min.
” Sulphur 0.03 max.
& Phosphorus 0.03 max. Ultimate tensile.
a Silicon 010-015 250 Se th
35 200
{
a Ultimate torsional
S Wat linete pop.
Of,
200 trength
ast
€ ee
SRL LP
C65 fp Stee
3 150 a
_ f /;

= ~~ Jensile elastic
as 150 litt
2
2 Inch
Square
Pounds
of
Thousands
Stress
in
per
a Torsional elastic
100
lirmt:
100
Torsional endurance}
limit from 2000016.
1b) per sq.in.
50
0 Ql 02 QS | O04 05 Ob 0 0. 0.2 03 04
Diam. of Wire in Inches Diam. of Wire in Inches
Fie. 245.—Chrome-vanadium-steel wire, 8.A.E. 6150. Fic. 246.—Music wire, 8.A.E.
Relation of wire diameter to physical properties. 1095. Relation of wire diameter
to physical properties.
130 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Chemical Analysis
Tin 4.00-6.00
Phosphorus
Zinc (max.)
Iron( ™ ) )
Lead( » ) 0.10
Copper Remainder

Inch
Square
Pounds
of
Thousands
in
Stress
per

0
0 Ol 0.2 03 04 05 06
Diam. of Wire in Inches
Fic. 247.—Phosphor bronze wire, S.A.E. 81. Relation of wire diameter to physical properties.

WAHL CORRECTION FACTOR

As the spring index, 7.e., the ratio of coil diameter to wire diameter, decreases,
the maximum stress developed becomes increasingly greater than that as calculated
by the conventional formulas. To compensate for this in the design calculations,
the Wahl correction factor must be applied. The accompanying chart (Fig. 248)
20

\9

> 18

S17 _ (D-d)xP 0
; 0.3927xd> |\4c-4
L6 ss (D-d)xP
0.3927xd$
uy
D= Outside diam.-in.
HSS d= Wire diam.-in.
Min. allowable b= Radial width of rectangular wire
va/ue of D/d. P= Load-lb.
G Ss7 Stress |b. per sq. in.
Fact
Correction
Wahl
poi)
Optimum , 7
va/ue of D/d |
10
PeS2 SN Sy pA nie fo i) Mf
gg) i Kb ib ie
D/b or D/d
Fic. 248.—Wahl correction factor for different values of spring index.

gives this correction factor. The optimum value for the spring index is 9, the mini-
mum value for practical purposes is 5. Below this figure, the stresses increase rapidly.

TORSIONAL MODULI
The torsional modulus of elasticity for Swedish steel, carbon steel, or vanadium
steel can be taken as 11,500,000. For phosphor bronze and brass, a value of 6,000,000
can betaken. At high temperature, the value of G drops, as shown in Fig. 254 for steel.
 SPRINGS 131

Q/055 diam. wire

Stresses calculated by
the formula Stresses calculated by
the formula
e (D-d) PY
Stress = 0392705 (D-d) PY
Stress = 0.392702
D= Coil diameter
in
Stress
Maximum
Thousands
Lb.
of
In.
Sq,
per d= Wire diameter D= Coil diameter
Y= Wahl factor of
In.
Thousands
Sq.
Stress
Lb.
Maximum
in
per d= Wire diameter
Y= Wahl factor
o DD ® 2 oD @ © od bey 0 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Lower Sfress in Thousands of Lb per Sq,In. Lower Stress in Thousands of Lb. per Sq.ln.
Fic. 249—Allowable torsional stress range for Fig. 250.—Allowable torsional stress range for
Swedish steel wire. ordinary carbon-steel wire.

Stresses calculated by ~ |
Stresses calculated by
the formula
the formula
(D-d) PY
(0-d) PY Stress= 0392742
Stress = 0392705
D= Coil diameter
D= Coil diameter Fal d= Wire diameter
d= Wire diameter Y= Wahl factor
of
In.
Lb.
Sq.
Thousands
in
Stress
Maximum
per Y= Wahl factor In.
of
Thousands
Sq,
inper
Stress
Lb.
Maximum
0
0 0 2 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 QO . 2 40 60 80 100 ~=—‘:120 140 160
Lower Stressin Thousands of Lb.per Sq.In. Lower Stress in Thousands of Lb. per Sq. In.
Fie. 251.—Allowable torsional stress range for Fie. 252.—Allowable torsional stress range for music
chrome-vanadium-steel wire. wire.

SPRING FORMULAS
In using the formulas given on pages 133 and 134 to design Class II and Class III
springs, a trial value of D/d is assumed and the corresponding Wahl factor is obtained
from the curve in Fig. 248. The material is selected and the allowable stress is taken
from the table on page 128. The larger value is used if the estimated wire size is
less than 0.2625 in. diameter. For larger wires the smaller value is used. With
the outside diameter of the spring specified and the load W known, the wire diam-
eter d can be calculated. The spring index must then be checked to see if it is
on the safe side and approximates the index selected for the calculations. Likewise,
the diameter of the wire must be checked against the permissible working stress
selected.
132 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

In calculating Class I springs, the procedure is similar except that the permissible
working stress must be based on the endurance value of the material. A tentative
allowable stress is assumed, and the wire diameter is calculated by following the same
procedure as outlined above for Class I and Class II springs. The calculated wire
diameter is then checked against the endurance charts as given in Figs. 249 to 253 for
the various materials.
As an example of the use of the endurance charts, assume a valve spring had been
calculated to be made of Swedish steel wire 0.177 in. diameter and the wire calculated
to be stressed to 62,000 lb. per sq. in. when the valve is closed and 81,000 lb. per sq. in.

Stresses calculated by
the formula
(D-d) PY
Stress= 93997 q5

d= Wire diameter —
D= Coil diameter In.
Million
Sq.
Lb.
per
Y= Wahl factor —
Sq.!n.
Lb.
of
Thousands
in
Stress
Maximum
per
D)
0 10 20 30 40 50 = AO
Lower Stress in Thousands of Lb. per Sq. In. este Dera sears in Deane ne
Fic. 253.—Allowable torsional stress range for Fic. 254.—Value of torsional modulus of elasticity of
phosphor-bronze wire. steel at various temperatures.

when the valve is open. A check must then be made to see if this stress range is per-
missible. With reference to Fig. 249, from 62.0 on the lower-stress scale, representing
62,000 Ib. per sq. in. stress, go up vertically on the chart to the curve representing the
next larger wire diameter, namely, 0.1920. The maximum stress allowable as read
from the scale on the left of the chart is 83.0, or 83,000 lb. per sq. in. Since this is
greater than 81,000, the given stress range is therefore safe.
NATURAL FREQUENCY .
Springs must be designed so that their natural frequency of vibration will not be
close to their frequency of deflection in operation, in order to avoid resonance and
resulting high stresses. If their natural frequency is sufficiently high to escape
resonance with any harmonic below the twentieth order, resonance will be avoided.
This will be assured if
250d VG/(D — d)?N
equals or exceeds 20
Deflection cycles per minute
The order of harmonic as calculated by this equation should be as much above
20 as possible. The order of harmonic, for a given spring material, decreases with
the difference between the coil diameter and the diameter of the wire and is inversely
 SPRINGS

TABLES FOR CALCULATING HELICAL SPRINGS

COMPRESSION SPRING FORMULAS
Spring index 2 One2 5 (minimum)

Round Square Rectangular

ai ei.
[earl f-FL—
eit.
0.3927Sds 0.444Sd3 Wa Sbt v/ b7t2
W = Gy =z = DS aw 3.185(D — b)Y

N= MWL — (2.25d)
oe 1.10d
(maximum)
_uwi—{[a GH
at) | (maximum)
MWL — [:Ga |
(maximum)
0.53dz (52 a+1) 0.53¢ (G2 55)
F=
8P(D — d)3 _ 5.58P(D — d)3 11.16P(D — b)3
Gd aS Gds Gbt(b2 + #2)
Fy = FN Fy = FN Fy =FN
FL = Fy + MWL FL = Fy + MWL Fu = Fy + MWL

— (2.2
D
FL = [a GS init, = [+( D
Pitch = ly Seae
(2) Pitch = Pitch = Deb
N N
Load per inch of deflection = P/E, Load per inch of deflection = P/F Load per inch of deflection = P/F

Solid length = (N + 2.25)d Solid length 3= |0.484 (pat

D 1) y] Solid length = |
0.481(D Pd 1) ¥ |
+[@(p2a +['G@a
MWL = (1.10dN) + (2.25d) 0.534 (5D at) ¥|
mwz = | MWL = [0.531G D= p+1)|

& +[4@2at1)] aleG=s

EXTENSION SPRING FORMULAS

Fy =FXN Pitch = HL/N Load per inch deflection = P/Fy

Round Square Rectangular

iit
SRLS se FL ie

akg
rat, vom
aket

0.3927, Sd 0.444,Sa3
W = D= Sbt v/b?2 + #
(D — a)Y
W=
av m 3085(Dr=)
FL :
aa (maximum) N
FL N
FL
0.48d (
D 0.48¢ ee D Be 1)
peat!)
_ 8P(D — a) F= 5.58P(D — d)8
F= 11.16P(D — b):
Gd* Gd Gbi(b? + B)
134 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

TABLES FOR CALCULATING HELICAL SPRINGS

TORSION SPRING FORMULAS
Pitch = FL/N

Round Square rectangular

, _ 0.098Sd? 0.166 Stb?

Rae R
_ 20PIR? 12PLR?
— 1BGE ~~ Edt
FL
(maximum) maximum
a 0.481
e (5D—;
d
+1)
E = modulus of elasticity WL = minimum working length, in in.
F = deflection of 1 turn, in in. N = number of effective turns
Fy = total deflection, in in. P= load, in lb.
FL = free length, in in. Rk I length of arm, in in.
G = torsional modulus of elasticity S stress, in lb. per sq. in.
1 = length of rod (effective spring length un- W Il carrying capacity in lb.
Y
coiled), in in. Wahl factor

PERMISSIBLE MANUFACTURING TOLERANCES

Outside Variation, Variation, Variation,

diameter, in., plus or Length, in. in., plus or plus or
in. minus minus minus

Smaller Less than

than lg 1
4+ coils or less
1 to2

2 to3 Plus or
4-8 coils minus
3 to 5 10 per cent

5 to8
8-15 coils
8 to 12

12 to 18
15-25 coils
18 to 24
2-3
24 to 30
Over 3 Over 25 coils 2 coils
Over 30
 SPRINGS 135

proportional to the number of active turns. In a compression spring, the number of

active turns will be the total number of turns less 2)4 turns, assuming 14 dead turns
at each end of the spring.
DEFLECTION
Calculate the deflection per turn and total deflection by the formulas given in
the tables on pages 133 and 134. For compression springs, the number of active or
effective turns N will be the total number of turns less 2!4 turns.
GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS
Compression Springs.—Ends must be ground square. Minimum and maximum
inside and outside diameters will be determined by the space restrictions imposed by
the application. Both ends of the compression spring should be guided on either the
outside or inside or both. All compression springs should be wound right hand
except where they operate inside one another, in which case they should be wound
oppositely. Minimum working length of the spring under compression should allow a
minimum clearance between effective turns equal to 10 per cent of the wire diameter.
Additional compression beyond this minimum working should not be permitted.
Extension Springs.—They may be close wound with or without initial tension,
or they may be open wound. They should always be wound without initial tension
when load capacity is an important factor. All extension springs should be wound
right hand unless required otherwise. Maximum working length determines the
position of the spring beyond which additional extension should not be permitted.
FINISHES
Steel springs to resist moisture or atmospheric corrosion should be cadmium
plated. For appearance, they may be enameled, lacquered, or japanned. Springs
made of nonferrous metals are usually not finished in any manner.
STANDARD DESIGN PROCEDURE
By using a form such as given on page 136, the procedure in designing springs
can be standardized. The data relating to the actual dimensions and characteristics
of the spring are obtained from the inspection or test department.
STANDARD DRAWINGS
Examples of standard drawings on sheets 8!2 X 11 in. for the three types of heli-
cal springs, compression, tension, and torsion, are shown on page 137. Drawing need
not be to scale. Wire sizes should be specified in inches, not gage numbers. Use
decimals for specifying wire diameters and fractions of inches for rectangular materials.
Also dimension the thickness of rectangular wire so as to indicate how the wire is to be
wound. Indicate finish, if any. In dimensioning the drawing, indicate the permissi-
ble manufacturing tolerances as given in table above, but tolerances as large as per-
missible should always be specified. Load tolerances should be indicated as plus or
minus, the mean value to correspond with the specific rate.
_ The notations and dimensions as given in the drawings shown here should be
given.
136 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

FORM FOR SPRING DESIGN CALCULATIONS

: > 2 J
Drg-No. _5-2494 Class / = Rate _60 Max. 0.D. 232 Min. LD. 14
/
Pitch 2550. Fr._94 mw.3325_ Material _MS-/2_ Size _02437diarn_

Length of arm Length of rod Max. def.

CALCULATIONS

_ &@F-OFT__ Max. 0.D.+ Min.I.D S

Ne Gags OD Ode —— 7 = 20/5

Fy FL-MWL = 2925 = GxdtxF N = /[ 509000 x 0.003527x 2. 925 =/75

8x(D-d)>xN 8x 82x 10,35

PP 5. 2015x175. is
Rate= = 2925 °? SS TEGO =
25-0. =3.07
Pitch = ae 0.550 Solid length = (/0.35+2.25)x024357

ACTUAL VALUES

fl, AN Me Meee] 2 el Soliiel engin SL) See Gl ee

Average of _/O_ Springs Totelturn /3_ Manufactured by _W2G/BSON

SSSSRESUSUUSEEEEE
coo HH Hy

Ialefat a cH
sugcueeeee
I
I
CH
ae
2
CH

E Hg
Go
ao
io}
rt HH 2
eee)
H Ea oo
un

es

Solid
lineDotted
line
PEEP
aaae
Ooo
n
me)
a)

:
Fer
ae
OP
4 2 & Wl Om ob
Length, Inches z
(S
3
Original by Date Checked by Date Tested by Date a
GRE. BOSS AND. ZRF AO) GAW. 3-25-56
APPROVED BY DATE ISSUED SUPERSEDING SUPERSEDED BY REVISION DATES
April {7, 1936
 SPRINGS 137

STANDARD DRAWINGS FOR SPRINGS

; ee 0420 pitch
1

VE
wi lS 14i dead dead!cojlsa,
cojls af
SiS each end
' & Grind ends square
s with CL.
ae

Minimum working length J

17 is
eran eras 352M aX. 335 min=- ~~~
Free length
Rate - 390 Ib per inch Pee ied
Tolerance +5 % . /
- Springs must be straight and compressible
Material_MS=12 % TaD ey iine IanGHP AOR: coils
Size - 0.250 diam. touching or taking a permanent
set
Hand =Right
Finish = Black Japan

—
1D ta A r
QoS oS i NW ll Close wound with-

Baw
Ss “s \\\\\|WW iil out initial tension

bh Free joe
length
L ___ Maximum pfworking length
onnnn ee
Rate= |601b perimen Length between ends
Tolerance -* 57 Springs must be straight and capable of extension
Material=M S-13 to maximum working length without taking a
Size - 0.135 diam. permanent set Ends must be neatly made and
Hand= Right without mutilation of wire
Finish= Black Japan

Maximum deflect
fon 180 degrees
Free length

Rate Springs must be straight and capable of

Tol withstanaiing maximum deflection without
olerance taking a permanent set Ends must be
Material=S.A.E.8! neatly made and without mutilation of wire
Size = 0.125 diam.
Hand =Right
Finish-None
Examples of standard spring drawings. At the top 1s a compression spring; in
the middle is shown an extension spring; at the bottom is a torsion spring.
138 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Wire Gages, Diameters, and Their Squares, Cubes, and Fourth Powers
STEEL WIRE SIZES MONEL, BRONZE, AND BRASS WIRE
(Washburn & Moen gage) (Brown & Sharpe gage)
No. Decimal a? a3 a4 No. Decimal a? as da
Ke 0.5625 0.3164 0.17798 0.10011 6—0 0.5800 0.3364 0.19511 0.11316
1740 0.5313 0.2822 0.14993 0.07965 5—O0 0.5165 0.2668 0.13779 0.07117
12 0.5000 0.2500 0.12500 0.06250 4—0 0.4600 0.2116 0.09734 0.04477
7—0 0.4900 0.2401 0.11765 0.05765 3—0 0.4096 0.16777 0.06872 0.02815
1545 0.4688 0.2197 0.10300 0.04828 2—0 0.3648 0.13305 0.04855 0.01771

6—0 0.4615 0.2130 0.09829 0.04536 0 0.3249 0.10556 0.03430 0.01114

Ae 0.4375 0.19141 0.08374 0.03664 1 0.2893 0.08369 0.02421 0.00701
5—0 0.4305 0.18533 0.07978 0.03435 2 0.2576 0.06636 0.01709 0.00440
1345 0.4063 0.16504 0.06705 0.02724 3 0.2294 0.05262 0.01207 0.00277
4—0 0.3938 0.15508 0.06107 0.02405 4 0.2043 0.04174 0.00853 0.00174

38 0.3750 0.14063 0.05273 0.01978 5 0.1819 0.03309 0.00602 0.00109

3—0 0.3625 0.18141 0.04763 0.01727 6 0.1620 0.02624 0.00425 0.00069
11g0 0.3438 0.11816 0.04062 0.01396 a 0.1443 0.02082 0.00301 0.00043
2—0 0.3310 0.10956 0.03626 0.01200 8 0.1285 0.01651 0.00212 0.00027
546 0.3125 0.09766 0.03052 0.00954 9 0.1144 0.01309 0.00150 0.00017

0 0.3065 0.09394 0.02879 0.00883 10 0.1019 0.01038 0.00106 0.00011

1 0.2830 0.08009 0.02267 0.00641 11 0.0907 0.00823 0.00075 0.00007
280 0.2813 0.07910 0.02225 0.00626 12 0.0808 0.00653 0.00053 0.00004
2 0.2625 0.06891 0.01809 0.00475 13 0.0720 0.00518 0.00037 0.00003
Wy 0.2500 0.06250 0.01563 0.00391 14 0.0641 0.00411 0.00026 -0.00002

3 0.2437 0.05939 0.01447 0.00352 15 0.0571 0.00326 0.00019 0.00001

4 0.2253 0.05076 0.01144 0.00258 16 0.0508 0.00258 0.00013 0.000007
Tg0 0.2188 0.04785 0.01047 0.00229 17 0.0453 0.00205 0.00009 0.000004
5 0.2070 0.04285 0.00887 0.00184 18 0.0403 0.00162 0.00006 0.000002
6 0.1920 0.03686 0.00708 0.00136 19 0.0359 0.00129 0.00005 0.000002

316 0.1875 0.03516 0.00659 0.00124 20 0.0320 0.00102 0.00003 0.000001

7 0.1770 0.03133 0.00554 0.00098 21 0.0285 0.00081 0.00002 0.000001
8 0.1620 0.02624 0.00425 0.00069 22 0.0253 0.00064 0.00002 0 .0000004
Seo 0.1563 0.02441 0.00382 0.00059 23 0.0226 0.00051 0.00001 0.0000003
9 0.1483 0.02199 0.00326 0.00048 24 0.0201 0.00040 0.000008 0. 0000002

10 0.1350 0.01823 0.00246 0.00033 25 0.0179 0.00032 0.000006 0. 0000001

1g 0.1250 0.01563 0.00195 0.00024 26 0.0159 0.00025 0.000004 0.00000006
1 0.1205 0.01452 0.00175 0.00021 27 0.0142 0.00020 0.000003 0.00000004
2 0.1055 0.01113 0.00117 0.00012 28 0.0126 0.00016 0.000002 0.00000003
30 0.0938 0.00879 0.00082 0.00008 29 0.0113 0.00013 0.000001 0.00000002

M6 0.0625 0.00391 0.00024 0.00002 30 0.0100 0.00010 0.000001 0.00000001

1go 0.0313 0.00098 0.00003 0.000001

MUSIC WIRE SIZES

(Roebling gage)
No. Decimal da? ds d‘ No. Decimal 2 ds ds
2 0.011 0.00012 0.000001 0.00000001 19 0.042 0.00176 0.000074 0.00000311
3 0.012 0.00014 0.000002 0.00000002 20 0.044 0.00194 0.000085 0.00000375
4 0.013 0.00017 0.000002 0.00000003 21 0.046 0.00212 0.000097 0.00000448
5 0.014 0.00020 0.000003 0.00000003 22 0.048 0.00230 0.000111 0.00000531
6 0.016 0.00026 0.000004 0.00000007 23 0.051 0.00260 0.000133 0.00000676

7 0.018 0.00032 0.000006 0.00000011 24 0.055 0.00303 0.000166 0.00000915

8 0.020 0.00040 0.000008 0.00000016 25 0.059 0.00348 0.000205 0.00001212
9 0.022 0.00048 0.000011 0.00000023 26 0.063 0.00397 0.000250 0.00001575
10 0.024 0.00058 0.000014 0.00000033 27 0.067 0.00449 0.000301 0.00002015
11 0.026 0.00068 0.000018 0.00000046 28 0.071 0.00504 0.000358 0.00002541

12 0.028 0.00078 0.000022 0.00000062 29 0.074 0.00548 0.000405 0.00002999

13 0.030 0.00090 0.000027 0.00000081 30 0.078 0.00608 0.000475 0.00003701
14 0.032 0.00102 0.000033 0.00000105 31 0.082 0.00672 0.000551 0.0000452
15 0.034 0.00116 0.000039 0.00000134 32 0.086 0.00740 0.000636 0.0000547
16 0.036 0.00130 0.000047 0.00000168 33 0.090 0.00810 0.000729 0.0000656

17 0.038 0. 00144 0.000055 0.00000209 34 0.095 0.00903 0.000857 0.0000814

18 0.040 0.00160 0.000064 0.00000256 35 0.100 0.01000 0.001000 0.0001000
 SPRINGS 139

The spring end construction of tension and torsion springs should be given in
detail by showing all necessary views. See page 144 for typical spring ends.
INSPECTION
All springs received shall be carefully inspected, tested, and marked, where
required, for identification.
Inspection shall cover all specification requirements noted on the spring drawings
and on the material specification sheets. Particular care should be exercised in
inspecting the material to make certain all defects noted on the material specification
sheets are absent. In case of doubt, one or two springs from the shipment in question
should be etched in a 30 per cent solution of boiling hydrochloric acid for a sufficient
length of time to reduce the diameter 0.002 to 0.003 in. After etching, all material
or manufacturing defects are readily discernible.
A sufficient number of springs from each shipment shall be tested to determine if
the spring rate is within the limits specified on the drawing. The amount of set, if
any, when compressed to the minimum working length must also be determined.
All springs failing to meet the requirements referred to above shall be rejected.
If more than 10 per cent of the springs on any one order are rejected, the entire ship-
ment shall be rejected.
Springs constructed of music wire, Monel metal, phosphor bronze, or brass shall
not be marked in any way for identification. Springs made of steel shall have one or
two coils at one end painted a color corresponding to that indicated as follows: Swed-
ish steel, blue; carbon steel, orange; chrome vanadium steel, red. The paint used
shall be quick-drying, oilproof, heat-resisting lacquer.
140 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF HELICAL SPRING FORMULAS

F=Inches Deflection per Turn at Stress Indicated
030 027 0.24 0.21 018 Ql5 QI2 O10 009 0,06 0.03 fe)

0.25 0.20 On 010 = 0.05 af 70,000

75,000 &
0.20 60,000

0079in. deflection per turnat

018 201 Ib. load and\ 60 000/b. per.
sg. in stress \

O16

014

> 02
te
5
o
E 10
&
GE abo omemee so cea Se Sei

e
= 008

Q06 uJ

004
<|
S
S|
SS
S| >

3 & ¢=ratio of mean sprin

0.02 S| diameter D to wire diameterd
Sl
Ny peti
Load) P at stress indicated
0=£60000 ———+— +} F 60,000
65,000 5 10 12 15 20 30 40 50 4760 70 80 90" 100
70,000 ‘F
| Z > 75,00
80,000 6 5 1012 15 90 | 30 40 507 60 70 80 (907 100 110 120 Fann
ea
100,000 4 5 lO 12 Ib 40) 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
125000 Pounds Tension or Compression Load on the Spring at Maximum Unit Stresses Indicated

This chart, developed by Carl P. Nachod, of Nachod & United States Signal Co.,
can be used for the solution of the formulas for round-wire helical springs given on the
preceding pages. The chart is based on G being 11,500,000. The Wahl factor is
incorporated in the equation on which this chart is based.
To use the chart: Given a load P of 20.1 Ib. and an allowable stress of 60,000 lb.
per sq. in.; go vertically upward from the point representing 20.1 lb. on the lower
60,000 scale to the intersection with the load ray, extending upward to the right, corre-
sponding to the spring index (D/d) selected, in this example r = 8. A horizontal line
through the intersection point to the scale for wire diameters gives d = 0.09 in.
Extend this horizontal line to the-right to the ‘‘deflection” ray r = 8 of the group of
rays extending upward to the left. From this point, trace vertically upward to the
F scale corresponding to the value of S selected, and this gives the deflection Ff as
0.079 in. per turn at 60,000 lb. per sq. in. stress.
 SPRINGS 14]

HELICAL SPRINGS OF GIVEN LOAD RATIO AND LENGTH RATIO

Graphical computation charts, developed by Frederick Franz, for springs for
specified maximum load and length and specified minimum load and length based on
G = 11,500,000 S = 50,000
Step 1. To determine spring index.
Compression Springs.—Divide specified initial load P,,;,, on spring by maximum
load Prax. when compressed, to obtain load ratio. Similarly, calculate length ratio
of compressed length L,,;,, to initial length Z,,,,.. The intersection of the vertical
line representing load ratio and the horizontal line representing length ratio gives
value of D/d, the ratio of outside diameter of coil to the diameter of the wire.
Tension Springs.—Divide initial tension on spring by final tension, to obtain
load ratio. Divide initial length of spring by maximum length, to obtain length ratio.
The intersection of the vertical line representing load ratio with the horizontal line
representing length ratio gives D/d, the ratio of outside diameter of coil to the diameter
of the wire.
KO)
aa
a
a)
E
—

Log

0
Oo oO! 02 03 04 05 06 07 O8 O09 10 @ @ @2 @3 @ @ @ Oy O08 CY 10

Length of a compression spring must be calculated as the length of active spring,

i.e., total length less length taken by inactive coils, namely, 114 dead turns at each end.
For compression springs, a minimum clearance of 0.1d (wire diameter) must be allowed.
For example, if the space available for a compression spring is 6 in. and a rough esti-
mate indicates a wire diameter of /4 in., and 1!4 dead turns on each end, the maxi-
mum length of spring will be 6 in. less the length equivalent of 2! turns which is %¢ in.
Thus, Lax. would be 53g in. If the minimum to which this spring is to be compressed
is to be 5 in., the minimum active length will likewise be 5 in. less *s in., or 4% in.
approximately.
Step 2. To determine maximum safe load, wire diameter, and mean coil diam-
eter for helical round wire tension or compression springs; based on 50,000 lb. per
sq. in. allowable stress.
142 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

When the value of D/d, ratio of outside diameter of spring to diameter of wire,
has been determined, the chart below gives the maximum safe load, wire diameter,
and mean coil diameter for values of D/d, the spring index.
MAXIMUM LOAD, WIRE DIAMETER, MEAN COIL DIAMETER, AND SPRING INDEX
in
-D W
Valles adv els o naool= PYES

warre
Age e
LE

Diam.,
Wire
In.

IKK
TNA
I N
NYY
|

0
0.2 0.3 04 O05 06 07080910 2 3 4 5 6 78910 15 20
D-d=Mean Coil Diam, In.

For example, for a spring index of 6, find the wire diameter required if the spring
is to be loaded to 100 lb. maximum. Follow the diagonal for D/d = 6 (upper hori-
zontal scale) down until it insects with the diagonal Pounds Load on Spring repre-
senting 100-lb. load. By dropping down vertically from this intersection point, the
bottom horizontal scale shows D — d= 0.9. On going horizontally from this
intersection point to seale on left, d = 0.175 (approx. ). Ord ean easily be calculated
from knowing that D—d=0.9 and D/d=6, from which D = 6d, hence
6d — d = 0.9 ord = 0.180 (exact). This chart is based on 50,000 lb. per sq. in. fiber
 SPRINGS 1423

stress. For any other fiber stress, divide the selected fiber stress by 50,000, take the
square root of this ratio, and divide the diameter d obtained from the chart by this
factor.
Step 3. To determine deflection per coil or per turn.
The chart is based on 50,000 lb. per sq. in. fiber stress and 11,500,000 for G, the
modulus of elasticity in shear. For other values of maximum stress and modulus of

CHART TO DETERMINE DEFLECTION PER COIL

05 Maximum deflection per coil=

} deflection factor x :
Based on $= 50,000 Ib. per sq. in.
G= 11,500,000 &
04 o
6 ites

=8 03
iS
5
eS AS
=ie) qe
a
= 02
vu
a

0
897 Pil R2BBHR BBY BH @ 7A
Ratios of Outside Coil Diameter to Wire Diameter, a

elasticity, the deflection factor will be directly proportional to the stress and inversely
proportional to the modulus of elasticity.
Determine the deflection factor for given ratio D/d, correct for fiber stress and
elastic modulus, multiply by d, the diameter of the wire.
144 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

DESIGNS OF TENSION SPRING ENDS

Dimensions X and Y should always be specified and are in the proportions shown.
See page 137 for standard spring drawings.

NTT)
SSTHMMMMHMNHHIMI@>)

OTT -=
ATES
HIND O
TTI)

LIMMMGN
lll Hi HKD Oo
Regular loop
 SPRINGS 145

CANTILEVER SPRINGS—I
Maximum Fiber Stress, Length, Deflection, and Thickness

3 3 :
i= 5
4 = E= elastic modulus
BS = 15500,000 max. for brass
5 5k = 16,500,000 max.for phos. bronze
6 6 a = max. fiber stress
8 5 = _ 3EDh
- 5 2
10 10
° 2L
\ XX z5
\20 20 3
MS
& x0 N ge
Sc 0.001
c 30 mae
= 2)
40 N40 ”
50 50. f pe 0.002
60 60 Ne rf

BSBam RB
70

100 SY
6
a iL ou
Fans
Q004
5 \ 336 0.005 &
=I= NE2 34 0006 2o
x iS 0007 =
200-900 = 232 0008 £
“S30
= \
oo =w)
28 2)
5 26
fo} a
2
Example oe *Q02 =
Bronze spring stressed to 31,000 Ib. 2B Ss
per sq.in.,or a brass spring stressed ° 2i 003\ &
to 30,000 Ib per sq.in.,
and 0.0155in.. ozs ;
thick, and 2 in.long will deflect 0.34in. S 18 0.04 Ox
& 16 005 N
SA 0.06 \
a 007 \ Values of hand Scut Byone
ale 08 \ edge (AC) of right angled
10 0.10 AN triangle, with values of Dand
NN L cut by other edge (A-B)
N satisfy equation tor maximum
XY fiber stress
Ne 3EDh
> S= 2L 2
7
7
7
77
a

Ss ocoOCO°o (=) om Oo +YH N =

fs) com CONntnN YO =E 2 @oCqo© °o
=S SSS CYS SGgoo ese © oS

deflection (0) in Inches

7
4
7
7
4a,
7
7
7
7
va
7
7
7
Wa
7

>
my Ss
N
19
—
iS)
=
146 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CANTILEVER SPRINGS—II
Maximum Fiber Stress for Given Loads
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.0!
=p

0.02

1.00 0.80
0.70
0.600.500.40 0.30 0.20 0.100.08 0.060.050.04 0,03
0,07 0.02 0.0!
0.10 rs
fo)

Spring Width (w) in Inches Values of Land h cut by one = 20

straight-edge (A-B) with values
of w and P cut by a perpendicu-
lar straight-edge (AC) satisfy the
} i Pera) Wa Lee (h)in
Inches
Thickness
Spring
030 fiber stress equation aera

060 Corresponding values of <P

070 L and S are cut by any straight-
0.80 edge (EF)

Length(L)
Inches
in
Spring

- N nm wt INwoOroco fo} ie}

= a ro 100 {0}
200 800000
400500600700
Fiber Stress
Ratio lead @) in Thousands of Lb. per Sq.In. per Lb. Load

Load (P) in Lb.

eco 90 Oo 983 88g
ooo tm 4 oS Go G6

100 0
200 30 2 D-ol

S
Max. Fiber Stress (S)in Thousands of Lb.per Sa.In.
 SPRINGS 147

CANTILEVER SPRINGS—III
Load-deflection Ratio for Given Spring Dimensions
(Required thickness for given maximum deflection and fiber stress can be determined
by use of Charts I and II, pages 145 and 146)
05 05 0.003
@ 06 06 0.004
5S 08 08 vw 0.005 ;
EG
Zul 10 a© &5 0006
= c £ 0.008
= on = ool 4 : - w
= 20 20 E 28 Spring Width (w) in Inches
5 a 3 26 38
= 30 30 8 € 002 24 Le
£ 40 40 = 2 22 GD
25”

a 50 5.0 =D eos A s2 w
—> €0
V2) )
6.0 £ 004
fc
ise 2
S 80 80 & 0.05 16 aS

S \00 100 008 er GE

iL 0.08 12 Y i
0.10 io ol
h

Deflections based on minimum of values of E, Pp

modulus of elasticity, D
For brass Emin.= !3,000,000
For phos. bronze =|4, 000,000

Values of f and L cut by one straight-

edge (A-B), with values of wand
ecut by perpendicular edge (AC)
satisfy the load-deflection equation:
P_ wh3E
D 4L3
Corresponding values of P,Dand
5 are cut by straight edge (EF)
N

Load-Deflection Ratio (5) in Lb. per Sq. In.

Deflection (D) in Inches

D eee TTT Brass (E pnin= 13x 10° p.s.i)

= AN mowrt oD ies) ono

Phos. bronze (Emjn,= 14x 10°p.s.i)
6 86 S$oeee § SS SSS
o ooo ooo

a
S< : 4 RS Ge.
SGScoOSG
= 2 Teles
oS~
esedeas
&= . iy ao
So S&S Sas
So
52 5
© 8

=
Oo
NoS »©YTHGSE
Oo OOo
OOSf&)
©
6S
So
eo@segcg
fo} oOo
goo©&
©
S
So
OOS
| 2 2

= A mtne oOo aS Aes

= ve wpe
Load (P) in Grams
148 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SEMIELLIPTIC LAMINATED SPRINGS

Leaf Thickness
050 045 O40 035 030 025 0.20 O15 0.10 0.05 _ 0
——

1,200 600 }
2,000 2,400 2,800
Rate-Lb. Load per In. Deflection
 SPRINGS 149

SEMIELLIPTIC LAMINATED SPRINGS

The chart on the facing page will facilitate the design of a semielliptic spring having
graduated leaves of rectangular cross section. The chart is a graphical solution of
the following formulas:
2I X 32H
R= >
WT?
aioe oD
where R = rate of deflection, in lb. load per in. JL = full length of spring, in in.
deflection W = width of leaves, in in.
E = modulus of elasticity, 28,000,000 Ib: 7 = thickness of leaves, in in.
per sq. in. I = moment of inertia
K = constant for semielliptic springs =
0.9

The accompanying example shows how to use the chart. By starting with the
desired rate of deflection, R = 1,200 lb. per in. deflection, read straight up to the
length of spring, L = 55in. Cross horizontally to the line representing the number of
leaves, 6 leaves, then vertically to the line in the upper section of the chart correspond-
ing to the width of the sprmg, W = 5in. From this point, trace horizontally to the
parabolic curve. The figure, 0.4375 in., directly above this last intersection, desig-
nates the thickness of each leaf in the spring. The spring has 1,200 lb. per in. rate of
deflection, is 55 in. from eye to eye, has six leaves 5 in. wide, and each leaf is 0.4375 in.
thick.
To find the safe load on the spring after the other values have been established
from the chart,
4ADET SL?
= : or D = —,
2 AET
where S = unit fiber stress, in lb. per sq. in. T = thickness of leaves, in in.
D = total amount of deflection, in in. L = full length of spring, in in.
E = modulus of elasticity

The allowable working fiber stress will vary with the material used. Usually
one-third of the elastic limit may be considered a safe working stress. For example,
if the elastic limit is 180,000 lb. per sq. in., the safe unit stress will be 60,000 lb. per
sq.in. By substituting this latter value for S in the formula, the amount of deflection
D can then be solved. D multiplied by R (rate of deflection in pounds per inch) will
give the full load capacity of the spring. In practice, the spring may be stressed to
two-thirds of the elastic limit, but only under an occasional emergency load on the
spring.
 t;
. j ¥nats
Rp 4 4
i
Cs)
eh,
i
i
i f 3 : j
‘ 5 a eit c iN F f
= As F
i i . i

, 5h is : : F 2 i
y " oe be } ¢ "
i ti t oar eete %
oe t r e A

=~ " . 2 e \ i

i: ‘ 2 .
2 . ra .

ig #1) heat :
; y [ - j

1 ' .
: i y ® + i,
f i Sen - 3 1
a my 5 nt

& : i \
i E
A) . < i

res \ \

f imt i ‘; i

j ‘ :
i . ‘

: , i 5 =
i
{ ‘4 ‘eu i
i 4 .
ine thi ] — i ~
; ft f ¥ a
iy et i
. New 4 x a i)

A , ,
ee
Te ; vi RG

: 4 }
I i
A {
i i
Py = !
‘ M \ i

f 7

\ as
au? y
( 7
; ; ay

; v if, . }

a ; i

aii"
Te F ,
‘ ;

se r . * x ie

;
;
f ; ie
i Y P F
, it
heir
7

‘ G
Bie

‘ i 7 \

i LOT
a 'e ‘ " t
 CHAPTER VI

POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS

AND MECHANISMS
Charts and nomograms for determining shaft and bearing sizes, horsepower
transmitted by flat and V-belts, and typical examples of safety gear design, gear
shifting mechanisms, bearing seals, gibs and guides, and cams. The final pages
cover typical constructions of mechanical linkages.
Pace PaGcE
HlexibleiCouplingsee nen ane naeoeln one 152 Chart for Calculating Needle Bearings..... 178
Shaft Diameters for Torsion and Bending. . 161 Thrust Bearing Friction Moments......... 179
Shaft Diameters for Torsional Deflection. . 162 Bronze Bearing Alloys................... 180
Shaft Diameters for Lateral Deflection..... 163 Shanta sealseat turer wae e tees eho eee 182
Shaft Diameters—A.S.M.E. code.......... 164 Roller-bearing Seals..................... 184
Two-bearing Shafts of Uniform Strength. . 166 Sleeve-bearing Seals..................... 186
Stress in Rotating Disk.................. 167 SafetiyeG careers Aes ty air oe ae a ec ane 188
Velocity Chart for Gears and Pulleys...... 168 Shiites Miechanismssye sss. sone ene: 190
Flat-belt Length and Pulley Diameter..... 169 Gillos ayn! GwnGleS. ooc525s000ccc0cceccouce 195
Flat-belt Speed-horsepower Charts....... 171 Camb esigns ne prte aki ot wants ee ee 198
Belt Horsepower Charts................. 172 Variable-speed Devices.................. 199
Flat-belt Horsepower Charts............. 173 Transport Mechanisms.................. 201
Flat and V-belt Horsepower Charts....... 174 Automatic Feed Hoppers................. 203
Webelitwbenoths/c. q0nk actos setae 175 Glue-applying Mechanisms............... 205
Short-center Belt Drives................. 176

151
152 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS

—lulh
“Rubber hose
Fic. 255.—For applications where torque is low and slip-
/
aZI7/\
mm
‘Shot?
ZI
7 B=)TTR
| B=
UU “Rubber hose
‘Washer
“BH Shaft?
TTTTT

Fic. 256.—Positive drive is assured by

!

page unimportant. It is easily assembled and disconnected bolting hose to shafts. This has the same
without disturbing either machine element. It is adaptable to advantages as the type in Fig. 255, except
changes in longitudinal distance between machines. This there is no ove load protection other than
coupling absorbs shocks, is not damaged by overloads, does not the rupture of the hose.
set up end thrusts, requires no lubrication, and compensates for ®
both angular and offset misalignment.

Fic. 257—This type has excellent shock-absorbing

qualities, but torsional vibrations are possible. It will allow
end play in shafts, but sets up end thrust in so doing. Other
advantages are the same as for the types shown in Figs. 255 and
256. This type compensates for misalignment in any direcuon.

(Setscrews, Stranded Coupling

EN , cable
Zs
ees /

‘Shaft ‘Coupling Shaft”

Fic. 258.—Coupling for low torques and unidirectional
rotation. Inertia of rotating parts is low. This type is easily
assembled and disconnected without disturbing either shaft.
The cable can be encased and the length extended to allow for
right-angle bends such as are used on dental drills and speedom-
eter drives. The ends of the cable are soldered or bound with
wire to prevent unraveling.

PySSaSS

(CLLLLLL LLL TLE

Cover-*
Fie. 259.—A type of Falk coupling that operates on the same principle as design shown in Fig. 260, but has a
single flat spring in place of a series of coiled springs. A high degree of flexibility is obtained by use of tapered slots in
hubs. Smooth operation is maintained by enclosing the working parts and packing with grease.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 153

Coiled.
iY

~--Flanges-~~

Fic. 260. Fic. 261. Fic. 262.

Fic. 260.—Two flanges and a series of coiled springs give a high degree of flexibility. This type is used only
where the shafts have no free end play. It needs no lubrication, absorbs shocks, and provides protection against
overloads, but will set up torsional vibrations. Springs can be of round or square wire with varying sizes and pitches
to allow for any degree of flexibility.
Fie. 261.—Similar to Fig. 260, except that rubber tubing, reinforced by bolts, is used instead of coiled springs.
Construction is sturdier but more limited in flexibility. This type has no overload protection other than shearing
of the bolts. It has good antivibration properties if thick rubber tubing is used. It can absorb minor shocks. The
connection can be quickly disassembled.
Fic. 262.—A series of pins engage rubber bushings cemented into flange. This type will allow minor end play
in shafts and provides a positive drive with good flexibility in all directions.

i l Rubber bushing £
Ld, &ronze RUD een

WL
oy
——

5 \\ =;
=4 on

eenrrrrs.
“Stud!
WES
SN ZZ

Fic. 263.—A Foote Gear Works flexible coupling which Fic. 264.—A design made Lea
the Ajax Flexible
has shear pins in a separate set of bushings to provide overload Coupling Company. Studs are firmly anchored
protection. The principle is similar to that shown in Fig. 264. with nuts and lock washers and bear in self-
Replaceable shear pins are made of softer material than the lubricating bronze bushings spaced alternately in
shear-pin bushings. both flanges. Thick rubber bushings cemented in
flanges are forced over bronze bushings.
154 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Nest of _--f>
SISLLDLLA 1 - Spring
| retaining
ring
Bushing
Section Through Keeper pin }
Center
Fic. 265.—Another Foote Gear Works Fic. 266.—In this Smith & Serrell coupling, flexibility is
coupling. Flexibility is obtained by obtained by laminated pins built up of tempered spring steel
solid conically shaped pins of metal or leaves. Spring leaves secured to holder by keeper pin.
fiber. This coupling provides positive Phosphor bronze bearing strips are welded to outer spring
drive of sturdy construction with flexi- leaves and bear in rectangular holes of hardened-steel bush-
bility in all directions. ings fastened in flange. Pins are free to slide endwise in one
flange but are locked in the other flange by a spring retaining
ring.

- Rubber, leather or fiber disk

Fic. 267.—In this Brown Engineering Company Fie. 268.—Flexibility is provided by resilience of a
coupling, flexibility is increased by addition of buffer rubber, leather, or fiber disk in the W. A. Jones
slots in the laminated leather. These slots also aid Foundry & Machine Company coupling. Degree of
in the absorption of shock loads and torsional vibra- flexibility is limited to clearance between pins and
tion. Under parallel misalignment or shock loads, holes in the disk plus the resilience of the disk. This
buffer slots will close over their entire width, but under type has good shock-absorbing properties, allows for
angular misalignment, buffer slots will close only on end play, and needs no lubrication.
one side.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 155

Laminated meta/ asks,

Flexible aisks \

=acoimes Cy
PSSSSSSSSSY

elise
il
= ;
aS a.
Soe
WY
|

ia
NY
|
SSSSSSS
a
ahlig !
WY)
Center disk-—
Fic. 269—A coupling made by Aldrich Fic. 270.—Laminated metal disks are used in this coupling
~Pump Company, similar to Fig. 268, except made by Thomas Flexible Coupling Company. The disks are
that bolts are used instead of pins. This bolted to each flange and connected to each other by means of
coupling permits only sight endwise movement pins supported by a steel center disk. The spring action of the
of the shaft and allows machines to be tem- center ring allows torsional flexibility, and the two side rings
porarily disconnected without disturbing the compensate for angular and offset misalignment. This type
flanges. Driving and driven members are of coupling provides a positive drive in either direction without
flanged for protection against projecting bolts. setting up backlash. No lubrication is required.

Section A-A
Fic. 273.—The principle of the T. B. Wood &
Section A-A Sons Company coupling is the same as Fig. 272,
but the driving lugs are cast integrally with the
Fic. 271.—A design made by Palmer-Bee Company for
metal flanges. The laminated leather disk is
heavy torques. Each flange carries two studs, upon which are
punched out to accommodate the metal driving
mounted square metal blocks. The blocks slide in the slots
of the center metal disk.
lugs of each flange. This coupling has flexi-
bility in all directions and does not require
lubrication.

Rivet members
vt
Cas?-iron_
Uy, hub d|
LAN
E
go
——:z) SS

Leather --|N
olisk 7 2
Fie. 272.—In this Charles Bond Company coupling, a Fic. 274.—Another design made by Charles Bond
leather disk floats between two identical flanges. Drive Company. The flanges have square recesses into
is through four laminated leather lugs cemented and which a built-up leather cube fits. Endwise move-
riveted to the leather disk. This type compensates for ment is prevented by through bolts used where low
misalignment in all directions, and sets up no end torque loads are to be transmitted.
thrusts. The flanges are made of castiron. Driving
lug slots are cored.
156 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
Flange~. A

N
N

WH YI WN
Section AA A~
Fie. 275.—Similar to Fig. 274, being quiet in Fic. 276.—Pins mounted in flanges are connected by
operation and used for low torques. This is also leather, canvas, or rubber bands. Coupling is used for
a design of Charles Bond Company. ‘The floating temporary connections where large torques are transmitted,
member is made of laminated leather and is shaped such as the driving of dynamometers by test engines. This
likea cross. The ends of the intermediate member type allows for a large amount of flexibility in all directions,
engage the two cored slots of each flange. The absorbs shocks, but requires frequent inspection. Machines
coupling will withstand a limited amount of end can be quickly disconnected, especially when belt fasteners
play. are used on the bands. The driven member lags behind the
driver when under load.

frrrrrrrrz LO
Cable links
Fic. 277.—This Bruce-Macbeth Engine Company coupling Fic. 278.—This Webster Manufacturing
is similar to that of Fig. 276, except that six endless wire cable Company coupling uses a single*endless leather
links are used, made of plow-steel wire rope. The Jinks engage belt instead of a series of bands, as in Fig. 276.
small metal spools mounted on eccentric bushings. By turning The belt is looped over alternate pins in both
these bushings, the links are adjusted to the proper tension. flanges. This type has good shock-resisting
The load is transmitted from one flange to the other by direct properties because of belt stretch and the
pull on the cable links. tendency of the pins to settle back into the loops
of the belt.

Wit:
N

--Endless ropes ~~ _

Leather link
Fic. 279.—This coupling made by the Weller Fic. 280.—This Bruce-Macbeth design uses leather
Manufacturing Company is similar to the design in links instead of endless wire cables, as shown in Fig. 277.
Fig. 278, but instead of a leather belt uses hemp rope, The load is transmitted from one flange to the other by
made endless by splicing. The action under load direct pull of the links, which at the same time allows for
is the same as in the endless-belt type. the proper flexibility.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 157

Flootin
3 disk Y

A> Bearing wees

ef
Strips

Section X-X
Fic. 281. Fic. 282. Fic. 284. Fic. 285.
Fic. 281.—The Oldham form of coupling made by Fic. 284.—A metal block as a floating center is used in
W. A. Jones Foundry and Machine Company is of the this American Flexible Coupling Company design.
two-jaw type with a metal disk. Is used for trans- Quiet operation is secured by facing the block with
mitting heavy loads at low speed. removable fiber strips and packing the center with
Fic. 282.—The Charles Bond Company star grease. The coupling sets up no end thrusts, is easy to
coupling is similar to the cross type shown in Fig. 275. assemble, and does not depend on flexible material for the
The star-shaped floating member is made of laminated driving action. It can be built in small sizes by using
leather. It has three jaws in each flange. Torque hardwood block without facings for the floating member.
capacity is thus increased over the two-jaw or cross Fie. 285.—This Westinghouse Nuttall Company
type. The coupling takes limited end play. coupling is an all-metal type having excellent torsional
flexibility. The eight compression springs compensate
for angular and offset misalignment. This type allows
for some free endwise float of the shafts. It will transmit
high torques in either direction. No lubrication is
needed.

, Rubberizea
1 fabric alisks!

Fie. 283.—A combination rubber and canvas disk Fic. 286.—Similar to Fig. 283, but will withstand offset
is bolted to two metal spiders. Extensively used for misalignment by addition of the extra disks. The center
low torques where compensation for only slight spider is free to float. By use of two rubber-canvas
angular misalignment is required. It is quiet in disks, as shown, the coupling will withstand a consider-
operation and needs no lubrication or other attention. able angular misalignment.
Offset misalignment shortens disk life.
158 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Steel strips--~ F-piece sleeve

1

\
!
!
t
(
( Compres-
= UE. 1
sion Sleeve Flexible keys ‘
Section A-~A
Fic. 287.—In this Smith & Serrell coupling, a
flexible cross made of laminated-steel strips floats
between two spiders. The laminated spokes, retained
by four segmental shoes, engage lugs integral with the
flanges. This coupling is intended for light loads
only.

Fic. 290. Fic. 291.

pring retaining in Fic. 290.—In this coupling of Falls Clutch &
}
Machinery Company, two hubs with triangular heads
and a three-piece sleeve are used. The sleeve is
bolted together when assembling. ‘Three pieces of
compression lining provide the necessary flexibility.
Misalignment is compensated for in all directions by
compression of the linings..,
Fie. 291.—This Medart Company flexible coupling
uses square keys or pins of fiber, Textolite, or other
flexible material which engage V slots. Clearance is
provided in the V slots for flexibility. The pins are
held in place by a retaining collar. Coupling can
float endwise.

Fic. 288.—This coupling, made by Brown Engineering

Company, is useful for improvising connections between
apparatus in laboratories and similar temporary installa-
tions. It compensates for misalignment in all directions.
Tt will absorb varying degrees of torsional shocks by
changing the size of the springs. Springs are retained
by threaded pins engaging the coils. Overload protec-
tion is possible by the slippage or breakage of replaceable
springs.

Ts
Nissen
: g

H! O/ level wher!
' not in motion
'0// reservoir holes
Fic. 289.—In another design by Brown Engineering Fie. 292.—In the design of the W. H. Nicholson &
Company, a.series of laminated spokes transmit power Company flexible coupling, a series of floating steel keys
between the two flanges without setting up end slide in dovetail slots cut into each flange. The degree of
thrusts. This type allows free end play. Other misalignment compensated for depends on the clearance
advantages are the absorption of torsional shocks, no between the keys and slots. Wear is reduced, and
exposed moving parts, and good balance at all speeds. cushioning is provided by operating keys in oil bath.
Wearing parts are replaceable and working parts are Keys act noiselessly, centrifugal force keeping them
protected from dust. against the slot surfaces.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 159

y
4
lining !
1

a ~~ Spring
NEPDATDY
retaming

as
Goes
La

~Proyectin
to.a Ve) a
sleeve
Fic. 293. Fic. 294.
Frc. 293.—In another design made by Falls Clutch &
Machinery Company, a triangular center floating mem-
ber made of steel is placed inside two flanges. As in
Fig. 290, three pieces of compression lining are used.
Coupling flanges are triangularly recessed.
Fic. 294.—In this Clark Controller Company design, a
splined hub mounted on each shaft is connected by a
sleeve having internal projections. Power is tran mitted
through strips of packing fitted between the projecting
teeth in the hubs and sleeve. Packing is retained at
each end by keeper ring and snap ring. Compensates
for misalignment in all directions without the use of
flexing materials.

Z zlo ad7
cushions (pss
(
i

as
IS

Fic. 295.—In one design of Lovejoy Tool Works Fic. 296.—The positive drive design of Diamond
flexible coupling, individual free-floating load cushions Chain & Manufacturing Company consists of two
are hung between the flange jaws on removable studs. sprockets connected by a length of roller chain.
These replaceable cushions are made of brake-lining Clearance between sprockets and chain side plates
material, leather or rubber-duck fabric, depending on the allows freedom to compensate for misalignment in all
loads sustained and the resilience required. No lubrica- directions.
tion is needed.
160 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

cr CORO Lor,
NEN packing FUMES
iN
sss Wa
vay

——_————
xA
iis
\
~ Tos
ow
ee
ESee
Ze
i CLIT YY YS ESS
Ae : =6 N=
Oi/ veh un TE Oi le veswher
coupling & CAINS ~coupling /s
ost Z ANS rotnine
Fic. 297.—The Poole Engineering & Machine Com- Fic. 298. Fic. 299.
pany uses a two-piece floating sleeve with the internal Fic. 298.—A silent chain is used as the flexible member
gear teeth cut at each end, meshing with gear teeth on in the Morse Chain Company coupling, the load being
hubs. Toothed hubs are mounted at the end of each distributed over a number of teeth. A series of retaining
shaft. The hub teeth have spherically formed links, running in the center of one sprocket, keep the
crowns. The teeth are in mesh around their entire chain in place. Flange covers enclose the chain when
circumference. Compensates for misalignment in all necessary.
directions without the use of flexing materials. Bear- Fic. 299.—Convex jaw surfaces that exert a rolling
ing surfaces are lubricated in a bath of oil. Dust is pressure when loaded are used in another Lovejoy Tool
excluded by packing ring at either end. Works coupling design. The convex surfaces are so
proportioned that the compression is uniform over the
entire area of each spider arm. The floating spider is
made of a resilient material which gives flexibility in all
directions.

|
Grease or |
ground
H cor.
————>=s

Sp
eaan

ili

Rollers’

N ~ Spring“
ring
Fic. 300.—This T. L. Smith Companytype of Fre. 301.—In this Meriam Company design, the inter-
coupling has a flexible metal ring engaging projections nal and external hub is connected by a series of spring
integral with the outer and inner hubs. A packing steel rollers fitted into semicircular recesses in each hub.
ring protects the interior from dirt, yet compensates The rollers are made of strip steel, wound spirally and
for angular misalignment. The coupling can drive in ground on the periphery. Quiet operation is secured by
either direction. packing the interior of the coupling with grease or ground
cork.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 161

SHAFT DIAMETERS FOR TORSION AND BENDING

B A

3 500,000 ese
p-v= VWMIe& 12
400,000
Example: Given f= 6000 Ib. per sq. in-
600
Bending moment M= 100,000 in.-lb.
300,000
Torsional moment T = 50,000 in-|b.
{ Determine equivalent bending moment
Join 100 on horizontal A scale to 50 on
vertical Ascale. This length scaled off 550
on vertical A scale is the equivalent
bending moment= |I|,000 in.-|b. 200,000
2 Join II|,000 on B scale to 6,000 on f
scale and extend line to read 4.6"
diam. on left scale 150,000

a=
Inch-Pounds
Ze,

eee 400
E SS)No)fo)fo)[e)

ala
ale
Le}
a
=© 60,000
i) OIN = 350
© 50,000
i)
(oa)

E 40,000
nO 2 300
ala ie}
2
Inches
in
Diameter
Shaft
of ze 30,000
D SI io

Lb.
Sq.In.
.
per

200
Stress
Shearing
Unit
Allowable
f=

150
Note: For ordinary power transmission Pounds
Inch-
Thousands
Moment,
Bending
Moment
Equivalent
and
Torsional
shatting use 6000 /b. per sg. in. for
the allowable working stress
100

Bending Moment,in Thousands Inch- Pounds

500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 10 O

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 POWER TRANSMISSION
ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 163
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164 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SHAFT DIAMETERS BASED ON THE A.S.M.E. CODE

Bending Moment, in 1,000 In.-Lb.

Moment(in
Torsional
In.-Lb.)
1,000 at
Horsepower
R.p.m.
|00

BEESGEEAoo
HEBER SERSZSEREE ss
| es | a |
Fa [a
8 10 12 \4 16 18 20 22 «24
Stationary Shaft-Gradually Applied Loads
Bending Moment,in |,0 BincLb.
Scales (for rotating shafts): horsepower at 100 r.p.m., the following formula can
A. Gradually applied loads. be used:
B. Suddenly applied loads, minor shocks. hp. transmitted
Hp. at 100 r.p.m. = x 100
C. Suddenly applied loads, heavy shocks. r.p.m. of shaft
D. Severe operating conditions, high reliability. For this problem, the horsepower at 100 r.p.m. is
Use of the Charts. Example.—Consider a shaft trans- 12.5. Trace across from 12.5 to 10,000 in.-lb., bending
mitting a steady load of 25 hp. at 200 r.p.m. and sub- moment line for the scale for steady loads. The shafting
jected to a bending moment of 10,000 in-Ib. If the size is found to be 27, in. If there were no keyways, a
shaft is made of ordinary cold-drawn shafting used for working stress of 8,000 Ib. per sq. in. could be used. The
power transmission work and has a keyway at the point factor for this stress would be 2%» X 0.909 = 2.19.
where the bending moment is maximum, a working stress Therefore a 234,-in. shaft could be used if there were no
of 6,000 lb. per sq. in. should be used. To find the keyway present.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 165
SHAFT DIAMETERS BASED ON THE A.S.M.E. CODE (Continued)
Bending Moment, in 1,000 In.-Lb.
oO Ww
nt © = a q 40

20

N uo

wo

ula

bh o

:Suo

at
Horsepower
100
R.p.m.
(in
In.-Lb.)
Moment
Torsional
1,000
3

55

60

65

70

nos 1800 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 IO 115 120 125 130 135 140
Stationary Shaft-Graduall Ave eLoads
Bending Moment, in |,000In.-Lb
Scales (for rotating shafts): S; Factor S; Factor
A. Gradually applied loads
1,000 1.817 9,000 0/874
B. Suddenly applied loads, minor shocks
2,000 1.587 10,000 0.843
C. Suddenly applied loads, heavy shocks
3,000 1.260 11,000 0.817
D. Severe operating conditions—high reliability
4,000 1.145 12,000 0.794
Other Values of Ss—In making the chart on this and
5,000 1.063 13,000 0.773
the preceding page, the value of S; was taken as 6,000 Ib.
6,000 1.000 14,000 0.754
persq.in. For any other value of S,, multiply the shaft
7,000 0.950 15,000 0.737
diameter by a factor from the following table.
8,000 0.909 16,000 0.721
166 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

TWO-BEARING SHAFTS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

Values of A
6 B On 0.2 03 04.05 06 07 08 09 1.0

ca | LY A
IE
[
| 4 f

5
[ :
: :
Spo oeSeeooSebeoocese fests

4
|
[ H
i | if
Cc { If 4 |
be |
3 ae _]

r it
a 1H
| Calculated from D= 5 AC i
BV @y4 +} a 1! 5 Lata B et
; |_|

BEEESH08 All dimensions in inches Bao

Li CH + +

|_| tLe th —j— jt al

oy Hi
ial |
|
(0) | 2 4 5 6

ee Bye + fee
In designing a shaft with two bearings, the diameter at the point between the bearings where
the load or resultant of loads is applied is calculated from considerations of deflection or stress. From
the chart the minimum diameter at any other point a distance A from the center line of the bearing
can be found. In the case of a shaft extension, the diameter at the bearing is calculated and the
chart gives the minimum diameter at any other point a distance A from the load. These ‘minimum
diameters” are shown plotted on the shaft, the points forming a curve. It will be apparent that
the section of the shaft at the inside neck of the bearing or at the load must be sufficient to take care
of shear and twisting moment. Example: Shown by dotted line: A = 414 in.: B = 15in.: C = 41%
in.: D = 3.26 in. from the chart.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 167

STRESS IN A ROTATING DISK

Maximum tangential stress in a thin rotating oY

disk is given by the relation

S= TlwN2x 10° [@+m) R24 (1-m)r2]

Randr are radii in in.
N= angular velocity in 1,000 r.p.m.
m= Poissons ratio for the material
Ge w= density in |b. per cu.in. 45
S= maximum tangential stress in 100,000 |b. per sq. in.

(If Rexceeds lO use light face scales for R,r andN)

40
012 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R R
105) 20 215 30 35 40 45 50
, Outside Radius, R
s \ 35
0 =
| IN Dotted lines show that for R=5, r=l and m=0.35,
\ N tS 0.4, a disk rotating 30, 000 rp.m. will be
\ < ubjecttoa maximum tangential stress of
SS 214, 00 Ib. per sq. in. 30: \
[e>) Angular
R.p.m.
4000
in
Velocity
\ S N
es ae
| NN eer

é: < N eer
oe | \ SS Se 25
L | WN ae

; Qo
aR.

8 eae NSS
3 } eee xe 20

ie)
a 2 oa
Wee NN
= pee a | BN 15
> ®D ae | Density w in Lb. per Cu. In SY
® ay 0.15 02 Od. 04 05 060710
te ~
ie 0.2 TES munenaaaaas Sip
ie aa
:©
RENN
as tINQ
SASSER ‘.
OS
s.
Sea
> Copper
Dc ounWee xe SS ~~ Steel
E 2. AT ra. Tee F
5 6 ea ARAWRRRTRMANNTRANY ie
2, A “
4a2 \\“ ATENANN
Wi)
e\
TREE
4
Ss Os 4 5 6 7
10 15 20 25 30 35
| Inside Radius, r
168 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

VELOCITY CHART FOR GEARS AND PULLEYS

Diameter of Gear or Pulley, Inches
6 pet) 2 91S AVON Allee 2a |S

ifea a

ADE
A
40
1,50

600 fs 464

1700

" .
800

190 . ag
2,00 1 1 LS

Hof pone NAY A e

ia ceceecall\\\\\VAN “Kh
SOMCOU neL
2,40 ath A :
Oe see
Bele
(Soo be | SS
ape al ee
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 169

FLAT-BELT LENGTHS AND PULLEY DIAMETERS

The chart on the following page is used for the by Eq. (32), the chart values are close enough for
calculation of belt lengths for open belt drives, all ordinary belt length calculations.
step cone pulley sizes for open belts, and pulley
diameters on V-belt drives. Calculation of Step Cone Pulley Drives
The length of a belt can be calculated with Example.—A four-step cone pulley drive is
sufficient accuracy for all engineering problems required with speed ratios n of 2, 3, 4, and 5.
from the formula Assume that one speed ratio, namely, n = 4, and
L = 20 +2d(n + 1) ee (32)
2 28 2
that the diameter of the small pulley d = 5 in. is
the same as in the preceding example. Center
where L= belt length distance is C = 50 in., and the belt length is
C = distance between pulley centers
ZL = 140.375 in. The value of L/C = 2.81 will
d = small pulley diameter
n = speed ratio
be the same in each instance.
D = large pulley diameter For the speed ratio n = 2, read vertically from
D = nd L/C = 2.81 to where this line intersects the ray
Any type of graphical solution of the equation of the speed ratio 2. Follow horizontally to
is not simple in this form, because there are four d/C, and read 0.17. When d/C = 0.17, then
variables in it and they cannot be shown in a d = 0.17 X 50 in. = 8.5 in.
simple chart. If the Eq. (32) is divided by C, it D = 2 X 8.5 in. = 17in.
will take the form as follows: For the speed ratio n = 3, d/C = 0.126 is
A= 24S
mt V+ Em—1)? G3)
2
obtained from the chart in a similar manner.
Therefore:
For further simplification, let L/C = x and d = 0.126 X 50 = 6.3 in.
d/C = y. The equation will then become D =3 X 6.3 in. = 18.9 in.

z= 2+5y(n+1)+y%(n—1)? (34) For the speed ratio n = 4, as in the preceding

example, d/C = 0.10 andd = 5in. Then
Equation (34) contains only three variables, of D=4&
5in. = 20 in.
which n, the speed ratio, is usually known. The
equation can be plotted on ordinary coordinate For the speed ratio n = 5, d/C = 0.083 on
paper as in the accompanying chart. The fol- the chart so that
lowing examples show how to use it. d = 0.083 X 50 = 4.15 in.
D = 5 X 4.15 in. = 20.75 in.
Belt Length for Open Drive
In this instance, the steps of the driven pulley
Example—Assume the small pulley diameter will be 4.15, 5, 6.3, and 8.5 in. diameter, mating
d = 5 in., the speed ratio n = 4, and the dis- with steps on the driving pulley of 20.75, 20,
tance between pulley centers C = 50 in. Then 18.9, and 17 in. diameter, respectively.
d/C = % = 0.10. From d/C = 0.10 on the
chart, trace horizontally to the speed ratio Pulley Diameters for V-belt Drive
n = 4 and follow vertically downward to read
Example.—lIf the pitch length L of an endless
L/C = 2.81. Therefore
V-belt is 120 in., the speed ratio n = 4, and the
L=C X 2.81 distance between centers C = 40 in., find the
L = 50 X 2.81 = 140.5 in. pitch diameters of the pulleys.
Substituting the numerical values given in this If L/C = 3, then d/C = 0.1216 is read at the
example in the Hq. (32), the solution will be intersection of the lines L/C and speed ratio
5?(4 —oe 1)? nm =A4. Therefore
bs 100 + es
5 5(4 + 1) + Sai
4x50
d = 0.1216 X 40 = 4.864 in.
= 140.375 in. D = 4.864 X 4 = 19.456 in.
Although there is 1 in. difference in the belt A V-belt manufacturer’s catalogue is then con-
length LZ as obtained from the chart figures and sulted to ascertain pulley outside diameters.
 LAA
ALAA ALA
MEE LL ALY
i)7AAA

mn,
Ws in nt
Hy,at ITN
Mt
. Wy
Wn, Ul
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS I7/AL

FLAT-BELT SPEED-HORSEPOWER CHARTS

20
The transmission capacity of a be/t or chain drive is calculated
trom the relationship
0 Horsepower _Net turning force in a) x speed in ff per rr.
Fr /b. per mmr. per hp.
8
_ (T-T2) V_(,=
Ty)AN
£ g 33,000 33,000
= B (7\-T2)= The tension on the tight sidle minus the tension
Sas Ze on the loose side of a chain or belt. /t I's the
ch 3) effective pull.
om 3 Zo. V=The belt or chain pels in ft per min. ands
+ Sy equal to the product oft times D, the diameter
ory ~~ 2 _ of the pulley in feet, tirmes N, Its r p.m.
2 BN Ss. For agiven flat belt the values of (T,-T)
a BNA “ez. Per inch of width is usually known. For
5 > 2 _Vtype belts it is given per belt In chain
| °. y Se FANS ISSION, Tp IS USUally zero, hence
b | NT 3 (Ty-12) ss the allowable working load
> 08 NS per chain as in roller chains, or per
cae a 3, inch nominal wrath, asin silent
o 06
05 RANE= COTES es cea
Dotted line indicates that for
5 @ O D=20,N=600 and T,-T)=60,
= o4 S NS hp.= 5.7 per in. width of belt
03 2! x
|
Q2 =
|
|
100
80 a
60
50 B a5
Om x
40 >
S: <Q.
oe: SS CAE Ra
9 38
£ DO
ONG:
S
. >
Ss
ef
=2 20 NSDd SNE
SF
& O 2. e
he SS Q Sy, |I
2zB BN ENT
10 SS “6,
8 8 » a) is % i
s © > ONG
5
OSA:
S2)OQ: 2,
e
3 roe 2 Qe .
DENIS
2}
2 | N@&

S68
Se

on
oS

o&
a>

r
SRS
@oeoe

kere
©

=>
€5 3 2 Be B SoU
Og

=
© So ©SeO2O © SISOS S
ee]
emo ® ©

oe Belt Speed in Feet per Minute

172 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

BELT HORSEPOWER CHARTS

Determining Belt Tension Resulting from Centrifugal Force

QU 6 A
Zee y
ZENA

INN BSA

INSUC
ease are{eal Alera
WoO A
) OE
Ss ZO
vA eyAAA
haa,
2

iN NE
ight
Width
Belt
of
Ft.
In.
Lb.
in
per
if
WwW aINN@N
INE
INSN Dea
aN =
IN
S,
SI

PAIRING
Tf A
Z| 7

al 02. 03
A
04 06 08 LO
|
2
“<
a
AL v0
8 AS BTM 20. 30 40 5060 80100
~6 in Lb. per In. Width

The flat-belt horsepower chart on the preceding page enables the designer to
obtain the linear velocity of the belt in a given drive. In the illustrative example
given with that chart, the linear velocity of the belt was shown to be 3,160 ft. per min.
By assuming a belt whose unit weight is 0.15 lb. per ft. per in. width, the additional
belt tension set up by centrifugal force can be obtained from the chart on this page.
From the point in the vertical scale designating 0.15 in. per ft. per in. width, trace
horizontally to the right to the point representing a velocity of 3,160 ft. per min., as
indicated by the diagonals. Then drop down vertically to the horizontal scale,
which gives the value of WV?/G as 13 lb. per in. width of belt.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 173

FLAT-BELT HORSEPOWER CHARTS

Determining Are of Contact for Open Belts
Angle « in Degrees
L000 | 2 3 5 7 10 20 30 40 45
“G9 NSS EE a
RS RE ie The vertical scale 1s the center distance between shafts expressed in
inches, The diagonals represent the difference between the two pulley
diameters in inches or: if
Diameter of small pulleys (speed ratio -/)
Example:- Assume a center distance of 60in.anda 20 in.diameter for the
Samoa pulley and Join. diameter for the larger pulley, To tind the arc of.
contact trace to the right along the horizontal line corresponding to 60
on the vertical scale, to the diagonal marked /6, (76-20), as shown by the
500 dashed line. Then drop down vertically to the bottom horizontal scale,
which shows the arc of contact to be Yo5deg. One half of the angle be-
tween the belts is given by the horizontal scale at the top, and i17 this ex-
400 ample 1s equal to 77deg., or /5 deg. for the angle between the two belts

Distance
Center
Inches
in

LH

|Yi
Z7canli
Y SAIN
CL
IN
170 160 150 40 130 120 IO {00 90
Arc of Contact, @, in Degrees, For Open Belts
= ~IHe HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

FLAT- AND V-BELT HORSEPOWER CHARTS

6/sin
B11

fH
OWRUD
1008060 40 30 20 OG OS 4 8
eH Pore sing
ike)
The general equation for the effective pull of a belt is
uo
130
= Liar 5 fi, =
SO — jl
Sin 6 is the half angle of the V groove for V-type belt.
For a flat belt, the angle is equal to 90 deg. and sin £ is
equal to 1.
The working value of 7’; can be determined from the
breaking strength of the material and the factor of safety

SL
|
me)

to be used. ‘The value of e%”8 can be obtained from the

Q accompanying chart if », the coefficient of friction, and
S the angle @ of the are of contacts are known. The rela-

WL
tion between 7, the tight side tension, and 7's, the slack
side tension, can be found from the accompanying chart.
Example.—A flat belt operating on a 20-in. diameter
pulley is making 600 r.p.m., the arc of contact is 165 deg.
Assume 7’; equal to 120 lb. per in. of width, the belt
weighs 0.150 Ib. per ft. per in. of width and has a coeffi-

A
Contact
Degrees
in
of
Angle cient of friction equal to 0.25. Find the horsepower the
belt can transmit. i
From the speed-horsepower chart on page 171, it is
found that v, the velocity of the belt, equals 3,160 ft. per
min. The quantity wv?/gmay be calculated or determined

mE
from a chart on page 172.
To find e#9, enter this chart at the horizontal line which
represents the value of angle of are of contact equal to
165 deg. Trace right to the diagonal representing a
value of » equal to 0.25, and then upward to the diagonal
labeled 90 deg., which represents a flat belt, then right
to the curve and then down to the scale where we read
e#® equal to 2.1.
By substituting this value of e sin 6 or, as in this
example, e#9 in the preceding equation, the value of
T, — T2may be calculated. With this quantity known,
and the use of the chart on page 171, the horsepower per
MGT GH 4 gs 2 10 08 06 04 03 02 inch of width of belt may readily be obtained.
HO
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 175

CHART FOR FINDING V-BELT LENGTHS

Diameter of Small Sheave 60 Given pitch diameter of the
: 59 small sheave, center distance,
Size of Min. diams. Permis- 58 and speed ratio: to find length
ropes,in. recommended sible 57 of V belt, place straightedge
Ti 1, i Ah z! 56 on the given points of small
600 2eSs2) 22 55 sheave diameter (right) and
5L 54 center distance (left), and
4 53 note intersection with ratio
all 52 line (middle). Interpolate
be-
2 5| tween diagonal belt length
aa 12 50 lines to obtain desired length.
540 49 Example: Dotted line drawn
20 48 between points representing
47 small sheave diameter of 15.65
46 in. and center distance 46 in.
45 intersects ratio lime 2.6 at
480 A4 diagonal line for 180 in. belt
43 length.
a The V-belt drive consists of
i a driving and driven sheave,
grooved for a multiplicity of
420 a belts of trapezoidal cross sec-
37 tion. Power is transmitted
36 53 by the wedging contact be-
¥ 35 > tween the belts and grooves.
a 34 § At maximum load, repeated
E 360 33 & tests show an efficiency of 99
4 30 = per cent and a co-efficient of
+ 3| S friction of 1.5. V-belt drives
wo 330 30 & operate, therefore, with com-
a 29 4 paratively small tension on
iS 28 _ the slack side, without slip-
Distances
Center wp 200 27-4 & page and with little creep.
y 26 E In figuring loads, it is usually
5 970 25 5 safe to take 1.5 times the
= 24 Q torque to get the total belt
ie 23—j4 « pull. Manufacturer’s ratings
© 940 22 must be consulted for selection
> QI © of number and size of belts for
Bo 20 given load conditions.
210 19 ' A V-belt drive will usually
18 * be well proportioned when
180 17 the center distance equals or
173 WN == is slightly greater than the
158 RN == 5 large sheave diameter. On
Wa“ SS 14 small ratios, the sheaves may
peels: be — Pn 13 be operated so closely to-
ISS CSN 12 gether that the sheaves almost
120 S& iW touch each other. Maximum
Bae mS 10 center distance on 14-in. belts
SS 9 is 17 in., except on high ratios,
$8 Ss 8 where 25 in. is permissible.
ip SS a In the accompanying chart,
60 -—— 6 the sheave diameters are the
51 -— 2 pitch diameters, measured at
ae -—— 4 the mid-point of the trape-
3 zoidal section of the belt when
a fi resting in the groove.
= 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 90 (0)
176 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SHORT-CENTER BELT DRIVES

Calculations for the Arc of Contact and Length of Belts Having an Idler Pulley

When an idler pulley is used to increase the When A is above the center line, angle A will be
are of belt contact on the driving pulley, it minus, and, if A is below the center line, angle A
becomes necessary to calculate that increase to will be plus. The scale A in the chart can be
obtain the belt length. In the figure below, used for either plus or minus values but the sign
center lines are drawn connecting pulley centers. preceding the angle A must be kept in mind.
Solving for the belt wrap @ on pulley d, When values of A are less than 1, values of angle
A must be interpolated. For example, when A
is between + 0.5 in., angle A is less than +2 deg.
and is read on the scales “A” and ‘‘angle A in

Gee) deg.”’ by interpolating.

For the example shown on the chart on the
next page, the are of belt contact on pulley d
will be
aa (4b) = = 180 deg. —a+(¢+A)—A
8 = 180 deg. — 14.5 deg. + 33 deg. — (—4.5 deg.)
ote
= 203 deg.

A = sin ae Equation for the length L of belt is

L=E+0+F+G+H#J
= sinc eg — Sit ae D (180 deg. + a + )
where H = 5) 37.3
The angle of belt contact on the driving pulley
d will then be 8 d (180 deg. — a + 4)
~ 9 57.3
0 180 deg. —a +(¢+A)+A
F
180 deg. —a+¢
G =Ccosa
in which the angle of approach a is H = D tan (90 deg. — y + A)
.
sina
_Dsd
= PYl or @=
Ded
8 7C_
J =dtan (90 deg. — ¢ + y)

In the foregoing equations, values for the

The angles ¢ and A can be found on the chart. various symbols are calculated as follows:
; D+d
[Ressesssecsesssssssssesen Qssssseessaseses = = sin! —————————
c-B o= ~---- -------h« SoS oo B-- mean Y 2./A
+ (C — BY?
ooo fess ==-==- =>

—| y | Xp
= sin7! Dee
i 20
ee Ose Da =, Al
\ ¢ = sin Syne: tan B

D./2 cosy — A )
> II cot9 5 t
(C — B) — D2/2 sin y
»/2 cos ¢ — =|
YS \B SjDyDam o
= in-! SaaS

SO)
a
a
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS WIA

SHORT-CENTER BELT DRIVES

A in Inches
A SSeS SS SS
ci 5 10 15 20

\
\
X
20\ (ORCe nom Sune 3 2 we O75
\ 7
\ Procedure:- Ta
Connect {on A-scale with |2 on B-scale Z
\ follow the ray on C-scale to Y-scale and connect a
| to value of A on X-scale giving A=4.5 deg. a
\ Connect point on Y-scale with (d+ Do) Wa
\ on Z-scale giving (¢+A)=33deg. 74

‘ ZO
\
\ 30 20 10 2
| Angle A “in Degrees
\ 7
7 Example:-d=5in.,
P
Do=8 in. )
De
\ we A=(1In.) or less than fin.,
| ea B= 12 in.,C=50in.,and
\ vA D= 30in.
4 | 10 Za 20 30 40
VW CIE Ee ESE SS Es I SI SI Bobb nnn nnnonnenaago

Uo a a | | | ee | | er [ae ee [es
}
0.4 10 | 20 AOREE 30 40

\ ‘s
Y \ Angle(¢td) in Degrees
\
' 50 40 30. 20 (0 5
OF Wot 20 = 30 35
04 B in Inches
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHART FOR CALCULATING NEEDLE BEARINGS

400054[0e° 2@ ge
eg SS eions Woleke We loadienibearina n
mo © SO© oo oad on bearing in |b.
ey Se RO Sa Qo = WB ss S N= number of rollers
3500 n, ) Revolutions [Pper Minute \\ L = effective: roller length 9g in in.
\ d = roller diameter in in.
3,000 Safe load from needle bearings \ n= rp.m.
6,000 Nid
we \\
2,500 vo \
0.05 Oly 02 0.25 03
2,200
2,000 t.
16
5
32
IN 5 & Zh
8 \ 32 16 324
d, Diam. of Roller, \neines
1,700 \
\
500 \
\
‘\
1300
200 \\
Pivot Scale 1a

000 90
900 /
me Index lines show aneedle bearing with 25 rollers 80
800 Pe a*2 at 2,240 r.p.m.will safely carry a load of
Sy 897 |b. 70
700 SQ Load figures are based on contacting surfaces
Eel hardenedto Rockwell C-5! and accurate alignment
60
600

50
on 500
Lb.
Bearing,
Load
W,

ME, See 40 &

4. 90° a SS B
400
| fas =e w
~

350 / SS ze)
s =
me)
5 we 30 0
S Load Factor for Harder Surfaces ~ £E
300 SS 3
5
dz SS Z
3 25
250 = -
5
: i
= 20
200 oe
a 08 i
= © M DB Sy BB DH SF B BR al 50
E) Rockwell C Hardness Number
170 =
4 The curve shows that the bearing load W of 15
150 / 897lb.ata bearing hardness of C-51, may be
/ increased to 1,500 |b. at hardness of C60
aif 3
130 1-Length of Cylinder in In. 12
Say Wie Sea Dimension 1 shown is the effective
i 3 SY 1 3 length of the cylindrical portion
8 4 8/ 8 excluding rounded or projecting ends
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 179

THRUST BEARING FRICTION MOMENT DETERMINATIONS

750 1500 Chart for obtaining friction
moment Mz for solid shaft
with end face Square with the
axis and taking a thrust load
700 0.5
|400 Pas given by the equation
2PFfR
Mr= 3
650 1300 f= Coefficient of friction
R= Radius of shaft

600 1.5

550 2

4 500 2
de n
oO o
(S ite
= a
= 450 i Sat
ae s = iS
é eget & &
e
o 400
~~
Oo ~o( 354rata
oS — a5 S

2 "S O24
+ + co

re ue ‘o
4 350 fo) 4 na

: : 2 e
ime)
o 300 = oo 45
> o
fo)
O

250 iS} a

200

150

100

50

For the rapid calculation of frictional resisting moments, a chart such as shown
by the illustration on this page for a solid shaft with end face square with the axis
may be constructed. In using this chart, it is merely necessary to connect the given
values of P and f as found on their respective scales by a straight line. Where this
line, shown dotted in the chart, crosses the diagonal, join this point with the given
value of R as found on the scale, and extend to the left-hand scale where will be found
the desired friction moment. If the friction moment and the speed of the shaft are
known, the power lost in friction can be calculated.
180 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BRONZE BEARING ALLOYS

Average chemical composition Physical properties

Johnson : Yield | Elon-| Bri- Coeffi- Resist-

b Tensile, |Propor- : : : Izod
ronze Coe The en econ point, |gation,} nell | Wear | cient noteh |22¢°
alloy no.| ~°P" | Tin | Lead | Zine |Nickel] y .., |lb. per} per | hard- | rate* jof fric- to
per sq. in. | limit s : tough-
+5.000/ +2,000| % #2: cent | ness | (dry) | tiont neat pound-
ei Sei +3,000 jin 2 in.| no. (dry) ing§

19 70.0 | 11.0 | 19.0 ae ... | 27,500) 7,800} 20,700; 8+ 4) 62 | 0.24) 0.16] 3.4] 54
25 75.0 | 5.0 | 19.0 ea 1.0 | 22,500) 6,900) 16,750)11 + 4; 44 | 0.86) 0.14) 5.2] 22

27 80.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 aio ... | 30,000) 9,700) 19,000)10+ 5| 58 | 0.382 | 0.19) 4.4] 63
29 78.0 | 7.0 | 15.0 mek ... | 24,000) 7,600} 16,400) 9+ 4) 52 | 0.35 |)0.16] 5.6] 40

51 87.0 | 10.0 10) 1) 2.0) 36,500) 12,500} 18,500)/15+ 5] 67 | 0.63 | 0.25) 8.3] 81
53 88.0 | 10.0 2.0 36,000) 13,000} 19,000)18 + 4) 69 | 0.62 | 0.26] 8.5] 86

55 86.0 | 12.0] .... 2.0 39,200} 13,600} 21,000})10 + 5| 74 | 0.53 | 0.29 | 3.9 | 109
66 85.0} 5.0} 9.0 1.0 26,000) 7,800} 14,500)12 + 5) 48 | 0.50] 0.19) 8.4] 20

71 85.0} 5.0] 5.0} 5.0 29,000! 8,200) 16,500/}20 + 7; 49 | 0.64 | 0.18 | 12.1] 20
72 83.0} 7.0} 7.0) 3.0 29,000) 8,600) 14,600)17 + 5} 56 | 0.41 | 0.19} 8.6] 38

* In grams per 10,000 revolutions—Amsler wear test machine—without lubrication.

+ As determined on Amsler wear test machine.
+ Foot-pounds of work required to break specimen 0.400 X 0.400 in.
§ Number of blows of hammer weighing 7.5 lb. falling 2 in. required to deform specimen 5 per cent. Specimen diameter 0.394 in., length
0.788 in.

Note: Other alloys may be found, whose chemical and physical characteristics differ but little, and consequently
their performance does not materially enhance their bearing value. Any operating condition can be met by the above
10 preferred bearing alloys. On page 181 is given a chart which indicates the field of application for bronzes of various
percentages of copper, tin, and lead.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 181

BEARING BRONZES GROUPED ACCORDING TO FIELDS OF USE

Percent
Tin

a
10 15 20 2a 30
Percent Lead

In this chart, the lead content and tin content of the alloy is as designated by the coordinates.
The percentage of copper content will be 100 minus the total of percentage of tin plus percentage of
lead. The numbers in the field of the chart are the Johnson bronze alloy numbers.
On the preceding page, will be found a table giving both the chemical compositions and physical
properties of the alloys whose numbers appear in the field of this chart.
Refer to the article, Bronze Bearing Alloys—Properties and Applications, Product Engineering,
page 202, June, 1934, wherein is set forth the reasons for the various bearing requirements and the
effect of each of the various constituents in copper-tin-lead alloys. The characteristics of the
10 alloys included in the preceding chart and specific examples of their typical applications are also
given.
Fields of Application of the Five Groups of Bronze Bearing Alloys.—A. This is the most useful
range of copper-tin-lead alloys. All alloys in this group have good wear rates and resistance to
pounding. Alloy 19 has the highest wear rate and has comparatively good resistance to pounding,
but is somewhat brittle. Alloy 27 has a good wear rate and a correspondingly good resistance to
pounding, it being moderately tough.
B. Alloys in this group are suitable for bearing installations only where adequate lubrication
can be guaranteed at all times. They have valuable characteristics where exceptionally heavy
impact loads are encountered as in the bearings of crushing machinery.
C. In this group are the alloys best suited for low loads and moderately high speeds. These
alloys are often used as bearing backs.
D. Alloys in this group are suitable for high speeds and low loads, but should not be used where
there is excessive pounding.
E. Alloys in this group, containing less than 3 per cent tin, are unsuited for general bearing
service owing to their high wear rate and low resistance to pounding.
182 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SHAFT SEALS

Fic. 302.—For grease lubrica- Fic. 303.—Sometimes this type is Fic. 304.—Usually only one
tion, the half-round groove is used used without sealing rings. groove with a cork or felt ring is
frequently, the effectiveness of the depended upon to perfect the seal.
seal increasing with the number of The tapered walls tend to press the
grooves, of which there should be sealing ring against the shaft.
at least two.

«\
: IS 0/0'to
0.020"
AG 0

Fie. 305.—This design makes it Fic. 306.—One method of applying Fic. 307.—A simple design of
easy to replace the cork or felt a simple leather seal. labyrinth seal. Centrifugal force
ring. Insome instances, the depth prevents the entrance of foreign
of the counterbore is doubled and particles while grease or oil lubri-
two rings are used. cant on the shaft is thrown out-
ward, thus filling the labyrinth
opening.

Fria. 308. Fie. 309. Fic. 310.—Addition of a slinger

Fras. 308 and 309.—Labyrinth and groove seals can be combined for greater helps materially to prevent liquids
effectiveness. finding their way through the seal.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 183

AD

LIX
Standard lap end piston rings. Gore
Nysame as for standard piston bores
land grooves 0.003 "to Q006 wider
7 FINGS—
- ———— - —_-——__ -

Fic. 311.—For slow speeds, two Fie. 312.—The common labyrinth Fic. 318.—Left, Chicago Rawhide
cork rings mounted as shown can shaft seal. Company seal. Right, Gits Brothers
be used. The set collar is some- Manufacturing Company seal. They
times counterbored and two small can be used for sealing in either direc-
springs placed in the counterbore tion, the spring maintaining pressure
with a covering washer that bears between the leather and the shaft.
against the sealing ring.

Fic. 314.—Cooke-type seal that em- Fie. 315.—Another application of the

bodies the patented principle of main- Cooke seal. Metal bellows permit rela-
taining contact between the stationary tive movement.
and moving surfaces.

S
43
3
y

WN
SAWS
Fie. 316.—An effective ball or roller- Fre. 317.—Illustrates the principle of the
bearing seal. water seal.
184 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

ROLLER-BEARING SEALS
Ny Slinger SSMS OSHS SaaS NS

2 / Oil holes ensure

¢ Shinger closure
saturation of for excluding
water

‘Metal-seal ring Oil grooves j

Fig. 318. Fia. 319.

Felt must make y Wire snap ring

4] good contact holds Bee in
\ with shatt place

_ Permanent metal
seal bears against
inner ring of roller
bearing
Fria. 320. Fic. 321.

_-7Slingers ~~~

NZ Oil holes-drilled
“ for saturation
of felt

Sil
v Sisal
Felt a; tationary metal "Metal seals drilled to
ring seals ensure saturation of felt
Fie. 322. Fia. 323.

Labyrinth slingers, must be

(accurately machined .
N

Annular oil grooves’ Metal sealing ring’

Fic. 324. Fie. 325.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 185
Metal / Slinger
Y/ \. sealing
NS

= ZL)
Kea
pSPIING
washer

-lLeather
aa

fae 4 Felt s =
Metal sealing ring i : Double feltseal . ;
Fie. 326. Fie. 327. Fig. 328.

Removable
closure ~_ pA

pasne
ieee

Fic. 329. Fic. 330. Tie. SS,

-Removable
retainer

N
N WY,
-Leather

N
N i : Metal sealing rings : ‘etal sealing ring
Fic. 332. Fic. 333. Fie. 334.

/Metal sealing rings (Metal sealing rings

vA

NE Oy EY

4 Metal sealing rings»

Fie. 336. Fie. 337.
186 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SLEEVE-BEARING SEALS

arerearearerire <ascen Nif Br]

ERE [ipssiater aks

OOD

Fic. 338. Fic. 339. Fia. 340.

Fic. 338.—For retaining lubricant, the seal is assembled with the flanged leather projecting toward the bearing.
The leather packing is clamped near the outer edge of the flange by the inner of two telescoping metal cups, a tight
joint at the face being thereby assured. A garter-type spring compresses the leather about the shaft. Should
misalignment occur, the seal is maintained by virtue of the flexibility of the leather and garter spring. To drain
off the surplus oil passing the end of the bearing, a small hole is drilled in the casting connecting the reservoir.
of double seal unit for retaining lubricant in bearing recess and for guarding against
Fic. 339.—Installation
entrance of foreign material. The seal is of the same general construction as shown in Fig. 338 except that two
flanged leathers are mounted opposed to each other.
Frc. 340.—Used for the same general purposes as the arrangement shown in Fig. 339. The seal has but one
garter spring for the oil-retention leather flange. The leather washer for dust exclusion shown at right has a beveled
lip which contacts the shaft.

Corkor}
leather

Cork or

_ Flat expansion
spring

POO)

a
1a

Figs. F538 to F435 incl.

bilreturn Courtesy of Universal
hole O//- Seal Company
341—Sometimes felt is Fic. 342.—Where there is con- Fra. 343.—Working on the same
Fic.
used on the dust-exclusion side of siderable difference in the diam- wedging principle as that shown in
the seal in place of leather shown eters, the face of the shoulder thus Fig. 342, except that the packing
in Figs. 339 and 340. Both sealing formed can be utilized as the seal- is beveled on the inner surface and
materials are retained by spinning ing surface. A soft ring of cork or is retained by a sheet metal flange.
the outer casing over the leather leather is beveled at the outer The cork or leather sealing mate-
surface as shown. A flat spiral rial is compressed against the two
clamping cup.
spring, coiled to a greater diameter bearing surfaces by a garter spring
than the hole in the sealing mate- as shown. Seals shown here and
rial, expands the packing outward in Fig. 342 are limited to approxi-
against the beveled ring and wedges mately 145 in. end play.
it against the face of the shaft
shoulder.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 18
~
(

RK
WS
Y
a __ sp 0-E he,

V
Pork SWI
WX

Courtesy Gits Bros.

eee 7
Motor Bearing Courtesy of the Chicago
Manufacturing Co. Company, Inc. Kawhide Manufacturing ©.
Fic. 344.—Another type of seal Fic. 345.—When grease is used as a Fic. 346.—Leather flange seal
wherein a bronze ring bears against lubricant, it is sometimes desirable to with garter spring mounted in a
the shoulder of the shaft. The sealing assemble a single seal to keep dirt flanged end plate. Spring ten-
material is in the form of a dia- from reaching the bearing rather than sion is such as to give small
phragm of heat-resisting fabric which retain the grease in the bearmg. The area of contact between leather
retains oil in the bearing and excludes illustration shows an_ installation and shaft, thereby minimizing
dirt. In the flanged member that is wherein a right-hand spiral groove is friction. A bronze thrust
screwed to the housing is a series of cut in the bearing bore to lead the washer is between the bearing
compression springs which hold the lubricant outward. Surplus grease is and the bearing housing.
ring against the shaft shoulder. forced past the seal, thereby keeping
These springs not only take up wear the bearing clean.
but provide for end play of the shaft.
To avoid torsional strain on the dia-
phragm, guide pins are used between
the outer flange and spring bearing
washer.
ISSSSSSS 1 BSS EN
| |

SEN
Na

Fic. 347.—The labyrinth seal shown does not rely on nonmetallic

materials but on the small clearances with the assembly. A steel washer con-
tacting a bronze thrust washer is clamped against the shaft shoulder after the
formed dust seal cup is pressed into the counterbored hole.

Courtesy of the
Garlock Manutactur-
ing Company
Fic. 348.—When oil seals are to be Fie. 349.—Another mounting of small worm-drive shaft for
installed after a mechanism has been as- domestic washing machine and domestic stoker. The composition
sembled or to preclude the necessity of sealing material is held against the shaft by a V-formed spreader spring
disassembling heavy shafts and bearings having serrated edges which nest into the sealing ring. The angle of
when making seal renewals, split seals the V in the spring is greater than the groove in the seal so that the
can be used in such installations. The fingers of the spring exert a light pressure on the sealing lip. An oil
spreader spring and packing ring are return hole is drilled outside the bearing to relieve built-up pressure
spht, whereas the retaining cup ismade , against the seal.
in two halves. The packing is scarf-cut
to form an oiltight joint when assembled.
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SAFETY GEARS
z
f FN
a Vie a cer
a 7,

1 | ZETIA. | RNG é
I {ISS | SENZWS
SU
a S NJ
N
NX K\
\\
\ N s'nf NUKGIN
' 1
NNBSZAN\lG
NEN G= N

OSs _ ain? NNY

WW Gg
1 | K WSO H WN i

hoe!
Wee = I
=. sain
Nia) | ge | f
a ONS SIs | toll
tals RIS) i 4 NIRS
es ! 1 Ss
Pas — ee : pee
bo is)
I N = 1g
EE MW (i ae
| =

C4 oa a \
|| ZB YS |
1S yn +000"
a) ,| Y
| 25 teeth #pitch
Raa ia a aa for roller chain
64 f ee
» ) Springs , 2Springs
oa outside diameter a outside diameter
0.109"diam. wire 0.040" diam. wire
Load = 1100 Ib. per in.travel per turn Load = 26 |b.per in. travel per turn, for noise maker only
Test=load 35 to 40 |b.on 20in. radius lever Test=load 25to 28 |b.ona 57in. radius lever
Fic. 350. Fie. 351.

1 4 me
‘See a
ae
,

|
S| | '

RIS | Rhy ai
Netty | SIRS Deals
iN
| z
“ale
eis
ae
RIL
Re
1 os! pains i NS
a
eas
SIS SHS
ise
i
qj | 10 springs
SS Ge 2 op. ;
1 als
NS 3)" 6 Speesprings
gs “S| ig Outside diam.
SIN N \=)\ 64 outside diam. x | @.080"diam.wire
Ik BQE
SON "di i * ' Load= 259 |b. per
|
bg CLIN )s ee
Gyjlhee = 1,100 lb. per S D4
neg in arewel
e par urma
DA LLL jL LA in.travel
% pertea : No} | Test= 2 load 562 lb.
eS === Test=leadl60i065 | | 0n [Bin. radius
347-8P —\b.on 20in. radius Lt lever
lever ee
Fia. 352. Fic. 353.
POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 189

HS 1 Ny IN N “A
i aes! WEN
ror tege \\=\
is
iSN
av |
S: | FEYKAN
= \
' Qo ae Y
q' | gS 3 ~~? teeth =H
S 3 peat cutter2 wide |Six
Soe
OL f| 1 @y 16 Na
BR & LS
eo! 7 Sas SS
RESt
Nigie
| FE
i1 we
SS
be E/-— my
- a
am; ‘PB

F 2 1 '

3" 9 springs 3" 2 springs

39 Outside diameter 64 outside diameter
0.092"diam.wire 0.109 diam. wire
Load=8I4 |b. per in. travel per turn Load |,100 Ib. per in. travel per turn
Test=load 50 +060 Ib.on 20in. rad. lever Test=load 65 to 75 |b.on 60in. rad. lever
Fie. 354. Fia. 355.

== ae — ee
- KEW TI TSS -_
nee
a = if
1 1 => f 1

S= | = ees 7
RS | 1 tall
aaist Ss
RO | oe
1a SNS
Qs mr Buy
ise Si
pe 1kgs

is’
Y¥

————)
oe

ao 20 springs
64 outside diameter
0.109" diam. wire
Load |,100 |b. per in. travel per turn
Test= load 65 to 70 Ib. on 60 in. radius lever
Fic. 356.
190 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SHIFTING MECHANISMS FOR GEARS AND CLUTCHES

, Shift collar
with trunnions
Rectangular
‘bronze Shoe

N
Ne
aoa
Cutch shifting spoo/
Zz
Xs SSS ASAAAAQQANSSX

SSS GYAN
Cilia
F

WSS yy
GO
Wy for end play
odjustment assembly
Fia. 357. Fia. 358. Fia. 359.

Screw adljusts clearance

between Clutch alisks

Me (KEA
ofa SSCS SSS SOROS =a
SSS SSO O NSSSS
Say
LI (Shifting lever attached fo this shatt
mh
QR -Drivin _- Gear segment ~_
U ( ah ask 2
Z E hd (Shitting forte,
le
Woe:
See
+

Thrust bearing
: \ Positioning nut Wee teeth i7 hub engage
Over running '
clutch drives alisk gear segment
Fic. 360. Fic. 361.

iene cutaway for clearance

/ Shifting Fork

\Gear Turned grooves

Le
Shifting position rods
rod,
\

NEN
iS
Fork -~
‘Yor position “Spring plunger Zw Ay
— -plece
Screw fesfans!
fork to shift rod *'°™ fronnion =J clutch yoke
Fic. 362. Fic. 363.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 191

Eccentrically turned __-Adyusting

shifting collar, ! nut
!
CRY

OOM
YLLLLA
AS
Tyo
sso
wares
BW!
iS yy,
¥SEIN

Ml
7 Shifting
W’]AYWwvwvwvwwwwvw@ “ center ZZZZZZAS

tS
Per
PS

! aa

‘Steel shoe(rectangular) Clutch? * Shoe “Clutch

attached to fork by ‘Driving member
insertéd pins
Fic. 364. Fic. 365.

- rr SUPFACE
an aeiee bar
\has milled teeth Shaft movable , Clutch releasing
longitudinally \ / fork engages
flange

Keon AI a7,
ESS WEV A
GIA =
~~ Flange free
Teer
Nei n fo rotate on
- AWNSW)
aU
QE] NS ssl
GI \yys Meas = 2NQW ASS ‘ bushing
G r — Stationar. / \
Wt Y shatt Z ‘Spacing N Mounting}
eee bushing > Screw
Fic. 366 Fic. 367.

- Rack

Pinion

_-a Shifting fork

/' screwed and
/ | Qoweled to
\ |sliding rack
I
1

\ \
p ‘Shifting bar of
| flat stock

)
Clutch groove /
‘<Pinion ~
Fic. 368. Fic. 369.
192 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

BAGG - Sliding bor SAiftin shoe clamped

SQ Clutch shitting lever
1
to Sage:
/

/Bushing force titted into yoke

“ rack serves as seat for lever ard
provides means for locking

je ae ~~Light- duty
Positioning gears
grooves
Fie. 374.

Spring -backed ball drops into Paw/ aisen- jLocking paw! : F

4 /
hemispherical slots to lock clutch gaging lever Screwed fo main casting
J
Fia. 370. , Gear housing tree
[fo turnin bearings

_-7Fin retains shifting shoe;

<q Qllows Slight rotation of
shoe when gears are en- entire geor
case
Zz
NNANAANANARAAAT

j 4 - Counter
\ = peace!
Ball-ended pin 7 \p; ole
engages Beianant eet one
Fie. 371.

. |Cutch member
Bearing ete
rousing rease.
/ fitting | Lever which -- -
1 actuates locking
plunger

AM
“Hitt |
A ha
“Locks bearin
Shift fork’sens }
fork / to clutch Perio Ure
‘Holds bearing housing
Fie. 372.

Solid yoke <_

lA
Flange holds~x,
peel
WON

yoke in place

Accomo---7|
dates yoke
trunnions

*-- Shifting ¢
lever _
\

\Ait lever keyed

to rod
Fia. 373. Fic. 376.
POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 193

Custer,
+ ®
ie
'iP
1 We
|1
I
t=.
DOIKWADBSSZ
&

Fic. 377. Fre. 378.

SHEE) plete with counter-

SsunK spots which engage Spring -
RR GHP Fork ‘ backed locking alin. a
/gages cam = Ky Fork
: o
\ T shatt

N
STLSLLs

= W U77Z22N

rans
i 4
Dog clutch iS
wu X-X Wy
“Pins limit amount
Floating bevel gears of travel of gears
Fic. 379. Fie. 380.

_fork swiveled to lever Spring-backed Levers shaped t

\ D pinned fo shaft E iaati Plunger / keep thisBiaiaare
\ / Custer \ j ataminimum
p i ay

Knurled
handle

pinned to
shaft E
Fia. 381.
194 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
Locking plunger
\

Pinion mounted
-0n rocker arm
~— and driven by D
engages change
gears

Splined shatt ue ———Rocker ari

arrives gears
Dan Noel)
_--~Locking plunger
engages Hest
notches

-Locking plunger
engages these
notches when
driving other
roller gears
Fia. 382.

Cam keyed
to shaft B

Section Y-Y
SSB SS
Lever mounted on ' , Dwell
samme shaft Bascam Rotation of cam moves
yokes to engage cluster gears
Fic. 383.

Gireular rack engages pinion Change gears separated

fastened to hollow shaft fo by hardened and ground
which Is attached! shitting bar washers \

SSS Section
Se Se. NOY 4SSZ % 6
— Pivot
LLLLELLELLL: A

: S>= —Hardened and

INN ZINN HN? SH : ground shaing

SY
GA, QZ key

)
UN Ni
FONY
LS li, NN semeedlY
LBSSSSSSSSSSESSSSESSSSN SSSssssi4
= 2)
y/
GBP SSAAAAQNARAAAE
URRY
Gy

Section X-X
Fic. 384.
POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 195

GIBS AND GUIDES

: Cone- porte
r Screw adjustment — \ screw adljust-
\ Feor G/b
\
\ ment
\
\

‘Adjustment and locking through

crew engagement 17 counter bored
1b

<—h000
0G
NOaDG

<=8
IN=N
“|
 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
\ Dovetail guide in table | Shirms
\ 1

WUEBa® Lip bl euueunEIE7

'™{CG . GG] WW
Fic. 399. Fic. 400.

KSQI

UG
rw HH — 1
POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 197

VME
WY

Fie. 408. Fic. 409.

a
UUUULUULI

YS A /
‘Opposite topered gibs adjust gib A ¢
: Fie. 414.
198 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

CAM DESIGNS
Typical Forms Used in Machine Design

Radial Cam with Roller

ollower

Radial Cam with Toe and Wiper

Mushroom Follower

Cylindrical Cam with Swinging

Follower

Barrel Cam Plate Cam

 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 199

VARIABLE-SPEED DEVICES
Driven core,

Beoring,
|

“Driving cone
Fic. 415.— Device for transmitting power between fixed parallel Fic. 416.—These speed cones are mounted
shafts. Convex disks mounted freely on a rocker arm and pressing at any convenient distance apart and con-
firmly agaist the flanges of the shaft wheels by a coiled spring nected by a belt, whose outside edges consist
form the intermediate sheave. Speed ratio changed by moving of an envelope of tough, flexible, wear-
rocker lever. No reverse possible, but driven shaft may rotate resisting rubberized fabric built to withstand
above or below driver speed. Convex disk must be mounted on the wear caused by the belt edge traveling
self-aligning bearings to ensure good contact at all positions. at a slightly different velocity from the part
of the cone in actual contact. Speed ratio
changed by sliding the belt longitudinally.

7
Shifter /
Squeezed
eit
Fic. 417—Two cones mounted close Fie. 418.—Another device to avoid belt
together and making actual contact through “creep”? and wear in speed-cone transmis-
a squeezed belt. Speed ratio is changed by sions. The inner bands are tapered on the
shifting the belt longitudinally. Taper on inside and present a flat or crowned surface
cones must be moderate in order to avoid to the belts in all positions. Speed ratio is
excessive wear on the sides of the belt. changed by moving the inner bands rather
than the main belts.
200 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Universal,
Joint

eliminated, and universal joints present a problem of cost and maintenance. At right, a roller is substituted for the
belt, giving more compactness.

Rollers --~Q
Driving
i: ¥ pulley

RSM O999

Fic. 420.—The main component of this drive Fia.421.—In this transmission, the cones are mounted
is a hollow cone driven by a conical roller. Speed in line and supported by the same shaft. One cone is
ratio changed by sliding driving unit in V guides. keyed to the main shaft and the other is mounted on a
Note that when the roller is brought to the center sleeve. Power is transmitted by a series of rocking
of the hollow cone, the two run at identical speed shafts and rollers. Pivoting rocking shafts and allowing
with the same characteristics as a cone clutch. them to slide change the speed ratio.
This feature makes the system attractive where
heavy torque at motor speed is required in com-
bination with lower speeds for light preliminary
operations.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 201

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
x Xx [Iransport
| !

A LJ A= op of
PR Fal.

fi we

‘Poth of
transport
7Center of X= Articles
Cae crank arm moved
welghts ~~ _27 Center of
cronk arm

—-- Path of
Shaft D-~ transport
‘Shott D
Fig. 422.—In this design, a rotary action is used. The shafts D rotate in unison and also support the main
moving member. The shafts are carried in the frame of the machine and may be connected by either a link motion, a
chain and sprocket, or by an intermediate idler gear between two equal gears keyed on the shafts. The rail AA is
fixed rigidly on the machine. A pressure or friction plate may be used to hold the material against the top of the rail
and prevent any movement during the period of rest.
(Transport

lin
/
Bearing
arm 7 ae
q { als
-1- Driven
A
\- YA. Swivel
i
Swive/ arm” 4
A =e
W\ SB
Whe?ee Sia
Driven arm 7 oak Sy Shaft
Poth of transport?
of #: transpo Gee
‘ath of
Path
X= Articles moved
Fic. 423.—Here is shown a simple form of link motion which imparts a somewhat egg-shaped motion to the
transport. The forward stroke is almost a straight line. The transport is carried on the connecting links. As in
design in Fig. 422, the shafts D are driven in unison and are supported in the frame of the machine. Bearings E are
also supported by the frame of the machine, and the rail AA is fixed. The details of operation can be understood
readily from the figure.

A= Top of raid
+ Friction slice C
Transport-7
Path of -~ >
transport
4

\ \ I ‘Pin E \ etetion ceil

Lifting lever ‘ Lifting lever
Tepsy NN ‘Transport
Key / Supporting
an We slide B
Driving arm--~ My \\
tq
Oe X= Articles moved
Wh

Fic. 424.—Another type of action. Here the forward and return strokes are accomplished by a suitable mecha-
nism, whereas the raising and lowering is imparted by a friction slide. Thus it can be seen from a study of the figure
that as the transport supporting slide B starts to move to the left, the friction slide C, which rests on the friction
rail, tends to remain at rest. As a result, the lifting lever starts to turn in a clockwise direction. This motion raises
the transport which remains in its raised position against stops until the return stroke starts at which time the reverse
action begins. An adjustment should be provided for the amount of friction between the slide and its rail. Tt can
readily be seen that this motion imparts a long straight path to the transport.
202 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Xx X (Transport

Path of'
transport
Eccentric ~Y
link

Shaft E-X@) \OE 7 ‘

A \ X= Articles moved
Tierod Camarm
Fic. 425.—Here is illustrated an action such that the forward motion is imparted by an eccentric while the raising
and lowering of the transport is accomplished by means of acam. The shafts F, H, and D are located by the frame
of the machine. Special belleranks support the transport and are interconnected by means of a tie rod.

X Transport Top of rar/ ~~

Bearing
eu?
- VY\
\\ pa
Shaft D Bearing \PRYK 7
Swinging
sya.
I\ t

&) i
Pople
(el (e)ope ee
cran. 0
X= Articles
ee moved
Fie. 426.—This is another form of transport mechanism wherein a link motion is used. The bearings C are supported
S by the frame, as is the driving shaft D.

X /Iransport

~Path of.
transport

moved

mol
AK 1H (papher
, x

X=Articles moved ~ Gear B transport SSPaiae ©

Fia. 427.—An arrangement of interconnected gears Fic. 428.—In this transport mechanism the forward
of equal diameters which will impart a transport and return strokes are accomplished by the eccentric
motion to a mechanism, the gear and link mechanism arms, while the vertical motion is performed by the
imparting both the forward motion and the raising cams.
and lowering. The gear shafts are supported in the
frame of the machine.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 203

AUTOMATIC FEED HOPPERS

- Rotating Retaining 7 Rotating .
finger ehipms ~

Fic. 429—The rotating arms of the nut hopper Fie. 430.—Same type hopper and rotating arms as in
push the nut blanks up the incline into the chute. Fig. 429, but a different chute, designed to feed bolts.
The retaining finger holds several nuts and prevents Kicker wheel at the mouth of the chute kicks back into
them from sliding back into the hopper. the hopper the bolts that do not enter the chute properly.

a lube conveyor

Hopper sides,

--Ag/tator - -
fingers

Fic. 431.—Hopper used for feeding Fic. 432.—The hopper is adjustable for feeding various lengths
shell-like pieces into a tube conveyer. and diameters of plain round stock, the pieces falling into the chute
A reciprocating plunger picks up the by gravity. The agitator finger at either end of the work prevents
work at the lower end of the stroke and _ bridging or wedging of blanks over the chute opening.
deposits it in snap fingers at the end of
the conveyer tube.
---Incenter of hopper~___
Hopper, Chute slice surface

Oscillating orm=
Fic. 433.—An oscillating arm carries the blade through the center of the bolt hopper and at the top of its stroke
forms a continuation of the bolt chute. Sides of the hopper are inclined toward the center to feed bolts into the blade
at a low position in the hopper. One blade is used for each diameter of stock handled, tapered spacers in hopper being
adjustable to accommodate varying widths of blade.
204 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Fic. 434.—Tilting hopper for small rivets and Fie. 435.—Rotating hopper set at angle is slotted
screws, in which the work falls into a slot at the bot- at the lower face to feed into the chute small cup-
tom center of the hopper, which is tilted to the same shaped objects, as shown at A, positioning them with
angle as the chute. their open end up. Should cups enter chute open-end
down, they will drop through selector slot in the chute;
thus only those correctly positioned are allowed to
proceed to the assembly point.

a
ae
N
eee

qjusting
N

Adjusting scre ws Hopper” Prongs

Fic. 436.— Vertical rotating disk hopper for feeding Fie. 437.—Another type of vertical rotating disk
shouldered pieces to the chute. By adjusting the hopper for feeding hollow cylindrical pieces having a
hardened dog-point screws, it is possible to feed pieces blind hole. Prongs are milled on the periphery of the
with a difference of only 0.010 in. on the diameter. disk; these prevent work from being fed open end up
into the chute.
 POWER TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS 205

GLUE-APPLYING MECHANISMS

ABAVAVURAAVALLLELTTLSSELT
CLELEMT EET OL LTE ETE Hs
KKK WLLL
ILL. LL

EEE

Fie. 488.—Direct glue dabbers such as this Fic. 489.—Example of an indirect type of
are inexpensive and simple, but can be used gluing mechanism, similar in design to the
only when it is permissible for the quantity of direct type except for the addition of the trans-
glue to be applied to vary and when the applica- fer member. This makes it possible to apply
tion is to be made in strips or dots. The glue to top surfaces and also to control in a
applicator, of any desired shapes, is held on the certain measure the thickness of the layer of
end of a bent rod, all parts that immerse in glue applied. This mechanism is also of the
the glue being so shaped as to drain freely and type that applies strips or dots rather than
not to splash when entering the glue. A collar films. In all these designs, simplicity is of
on the rod serves as a stop to enable quick greatest importance in order that the device
resetting after its removal for cleaning, whereas will be easy to keep clean, lubricated, and
the linkage holding the applicator permits adjusted.
adjustment over a wide range of positions. With reference to all types of gluing mecha-
The glue pot can be removed freely and usually nisms, the practice of exposing the glue to the
requires no securing device other than means to atmosphere after it has been applied and before
prevent it from shifting. the closing or uniting operation, in order to
In designing these mechanisms, the device partly evaporate the solvent and thus make the
must allow only a minimum of variation in the glue more tacky, must be avoided. Such a
consistency of the glue at the point of applica- practice usually is a serious source of troubles
tion. Therefore the glue pot must be amply as many variable factors such as time, tem-
large so that evaporation of the solvent will perature, and atmospheric conditions enter in
affect the glue consistency but slightly. Even and will seriously affect the efficiency of the
in transferring the glue, it should be exposed as machine unless compensation can be made for
little as possible to the atmosphere. In the the variation in these factors and the time
device shown here, its directness of application element can be maintained constant by uninter-
and the simplicity of the parts in contact with rupted operation of the machine.
the glue give it a high rating for continuous
good performance.
206 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

4Y Sa

4ANRRAVLLRUVY
CTT T ILL AD

Frc. 440.—Film applicators are used much more extensively than those applying dabs, because they permit the
application of a uniform film of glue of any selected thickness. A direct-acting type of this class of device is shown
here. The material receiving the application runs in contact with the wheel that dips in the glue, the application
being made to the under surface. Best results are obtained when the wheel runs at the same surface speed as the
material passing over it. In this class of glue applicators, greatest attention must be given to the design of the trimmer
blade. This blade must be adjustable, but it should be so constructed that in making the adjustment the blade will
keep its proper relation to the wheel.

RO
RSM
ND
NDOQOOODODONGODO0

Fic. 441.—In the indirect types of film applicator, a Fic. 442.—In this design of direct applicator,
transfer wheel receives glue from the main wheel and transfers the film of glue is applied to the upper surface
it to the point of application. The clearance between the of the sheet. To keep the exact relation
transfer wheel and the main wheel is usually made adjustable. between the trimmer blade and wheel, there
On machines that must be stopped frequently, the drive to the must be a complete elimination of lost motion.
glue wheels should be independent of the drive for the main If a means for locking the trimmer blade in
machine so that the glue wheels can be kept revolving when position is provided, it should be so designed
the machine is stopped, thus preventing the glue from drying that the act of locking will not disturb the set-
on the surface of the wheels. ting. It should also be possible to remove the
parts for cleaning without disturbing the set-
ting. The drive of the glue wheel should be
positive to ensure the proper speed. A belt
drive is not to be recommended. .

P]5 Z
41 Zg
44 yZ
gZ
H4 g
‘ensssrareseresesssrrscssrssersssss,

Fig. 443.—A type of gumming mechanism that is much in use in sheet-mounting machines and gumming
machines. This type is easily cleaned and adjusted. When the rollers are long, consideration should be given to the
deflection in the center of the rollers due to the pressure exerted in squeezing out glue. This deflection will result in
a thicker film of glue in the center of the rollers than at the ends. This is usually compensated for by making the
glue roller larger in diameter in the center than at the ends. The device has no trimmer blade, but thickness of glue
film is regulated by adjusting the gap between the rollers.
 CHAPTER VII

DRIVES AND CONTROLS

PaGE
Sienificanceroriltzae eee ae aaaaeas 208 Electric Control Methods................
Analysis of Motor Load.................. 211 Hlectrically Operated Valves..............
Selection of Motor Type................ Hild. ANtnwormneyen@ “IMAGTS.006cc0s0cccacaccoccese
Inquiry Form for Electric Motors......... 218 Trigger Switch Mountings................
Winding Connection Diagrams for Multi- Thermostatic Mechanisms...............-
speed Motors................-. oct PAD) ANWWOVITEMTI WOW. cocoon ccoesscoauecbcagce

207
208 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SIGNIFICANCE OF WR?
In Drives for Machinery
Any moving body has stored in it kinetic energy, the magnitude of which is pro-
portional to the mass of the body and to the square of its velocity. Whenever the
speed of a body is changed, the amount of kinetic energy is increased, and the increase
in energy must be supplied from a source within the system. If the speed is decreased,
the kinetic energy of the body is decreased, and the energy lost must be absorbed by
some other part of the system.
In a body of mass M moving with a linear velocity V ft. per sec., the kinetic
energy FE in foot-pounds is
& I 5 = isMy: I=5(")
|
2 2NG
7 (35)
where W is the weight of the body, in lb., and g is the acceleration of gravity, in ft.
per sec. per sec.
In a body rotating at N r.p.m., the kinetic energy of the mass as actually dis-
tributed is the same as an equivalent mass concentrated at a point distant from the
axis of rotation equal to the radius of gyration R of the body, the equivalent mass hav-
ing the same speed of rotation N. The kinetic energy E in foot-pounds then becomes

_ WRN?
Dae oy
Note that the term WR? is a physical term applying to a specific body; the term
involves the weight W of the body and a radius of gyration R which is determined by
the shape and dimensions of the body. The kinetic energy stored in a rotating body,
therefore, is proportional to its WR? and to the square of N, its rotational speed.
Since Eq. (36) represents the kinetic energy stored in the body after speed N is
attained, this equation also represents the energy that must be supplied from some
source, to accelerate the body from rest to N r.p.m. In mechanical-drive problems,
however, energy as such is of little interest; the major concern deals with the torque
required to produce the acceleration. It can be easily demonstrated that the torque
T in pound-feet required to accelerate a body from rest to a speed of N r.p.m. in f¢
sec. is
_ WRN
3081 (37)
From Eq. (37), it is obvious that the term WR? is also an important factor in
determining the torque required to produce a given acceleration.
By making use of the familiar equation
_ torque X N
IBID = 5,250 (38)
and Eq. (37), it is simple to determine the horsepower H required to accelerate uni-
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 209

formly the body from rest to a speed N r.p.m. in t sec., by using an average speed N /2
TE SIN YA
lal = ae (39a)
WR?N
2NJ2
WR?N
2NJ 2
(39b)
~ 10,500 X 308 3,234 x 10? xt
In mechanical systems with a number of rotating parts, the energy H, stored in
the moving system is the sum of the energies stored in each part, or
N2,
WaRNe) => WoR2oN2> = WeR2,N2; --- > + W,R2,
Bi, = 5,873 (40)
In power-drive and motor-application problems, it is advantageous to express
the energy FE, in the system in terms of an “‘equivalent WR?,” which will be designated
here as W,R?,, at the drive or motor shaft having a speed of Nz, such that
W.R?,N74
Be Ra oe
By combining Eqs. (40) and (41), it will be seen that

wae, we (8) wae (3) ses) +o ene) ae

7 2 en ((Se
2
Mppekn
N
(2
2
LiPo
N
(eee
2

The torque 7’, necessary to accelerate uniformly a system at rest to a required

areke
N.
2s (eet
2

speed in ¢ sec. can be obtained by substituting W.R?, for WR?, and Nz for N in Kq. (37),
which then becomes
_ W.R?.Na
ie 308¢ )
The horsepower H, required to accelerate the system from the drive shaft at rest
to a speed of Nz r.p.m. in ¢ sec. can be determined by substituting W,R?,N?, for WR2N?
in Eq. (39), which then becomes
W.R?.N74
ily = 3,234 X 103 x ¢ Ce)
or from Eq. (89a) by substituting Nz for N, and for T the value of T, as given by Eq.
(43) which then becomes
W.R?.Na 5 Na EY Wee N7e
H, = 308¢ 5,200 <2 35234 < 10? Xt
(45)
Sometimes complex systems are encountered involving both linear and rotating
motion. The equivalent WR? of the linearly moving parts can also be reduced to
the motor-shaft speed by the equation
a4
Equivalent WR PAID
W Ta (a = (46)
46

where W = weight of the body V = velocity, in feet per min

Na = r.p.m. of the drive or motor shaft
210 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

This equation can be used only where the linear speed bears a continuous fixed
relation to the rotating speed, as a rack driven by a gear. A more complex equation
is necessary for systems involving reciprocating linear motion obtained by a crank
arm.
By this method, it is possible to reduce the WR? of the individual parts of a com-
plex system to an equivalent WR? at the drive or motor shaft speed. These values of
equivalent WR? may be added directly, and the total equivalent WR? plus the WR? of
the driving unit or the motor represents the Wk* of the complete system which the
motor must accelerate or decelerate. All further calculations may be made as though
the system were a simple one of one element of WR? equal to the total equivalent Wh’.
To simplify the calculation of the radius of gyration of various mechanical struc-
tures, see the tables on pages 17 and 19 to 25.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 211

ANALYSIS OF MOTOR LOAD FOR TORQUE REQUIREMENTS

Starting Torque and Time Required to Start the Machine
Condition at starting
Rors = Startin, 4
Pe Foraiee Axis of
mofor
notes | shatt \
! Rye \
Ts 4 — Pp
iN | 2% || Pia ibe
\
Rs Pp =(Holding torque ‘ofstatic load
on driven mach.)* (holding frictional
torgue of machine parts)
70 start mach. Rts must be greater than Pp
the excess being available for accelerating
the machine

To start a machine, the motor torque must overcome all frictional resistances of
bearings, sliding parts, and transmission elements, and also the resistance of any con-
nected load. Where the load is not imposed until the machine has come up to working
speed, the load resistance is zero. However, machines such as compressors, piston
pumps, and hoists without unloading devices may be required to start under full load.
With machines of these types, the resistance should be determined for the point of
maximum starting torque in the machine cycle.
The motor torque delivered in excess of that required to overcome running fric-
tion at start plus starting load on the machine is used in bringing the machine up
to speed.

Accelerating Torque and Time Required to Bring Machine Up to Speed

Condition when = e--
>-- Linear
accelerating acceler
mM ation per
Torgue to overcome ; \ SEC.
frictional forces L- Rad. of gyration
I
Ta f of mach. parts
Axis of 7 Equivalent mass of ro-
\ motor’ tating driven mach. parts
\ shaft
_- Torque to accel-
Ra 5. erate load on

Ra tq = Accelerating torque delivered by motor

To accelerate mach. Rorg must be greater than
algebraic surn of combined torques res/sting
acceleration in machine

The amount of torque needed to accelerate the machine and the rate at which it
should be delivered by the motor will depend upon the moments of inertia of the
masses contained in the moving parts and their radii of gyration about or with refer-
ence to the motor axis. Flywheel members added to make the load on the motor
uniform increase the WR? of the machine and, consequently, increase the accelerating
torque which must be delivered by the motor. (For a discussion of these factors, see
page 208.) Other factors that determine the torque needed are loads on machine
that must be accelerated before full speed is attained. The time allowed for acceler-
ation is an important factor in determining the heat developed in the motor windings.
212 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Running Torque over Time Interval Required by Local Cycles on Machine

| Suning
Condition when running ;

Anisefmotorstotty \ fico work

\| at load

Running torque to moke

up tor frictional and in-
herent mach. losses

R- rp =Running torque of motor

To keep mach. running R; r,; must be greater
than algebraic sum of combined resisting
running torques in mach. Limiting value of
Rr rr is motor pull-out torque

When operating at rated speed, the torque supplied by the motor is that required
to do useful work and to make up for frictional and inherent machine losses.
In calculating the running torque required to keep the machine operating, it is
desirable to add something on the safe side to take care of unexpected loads and circuit
variations. It is poor practice to plan to use the excess torque that a motor can deliver
over its nominal rating, because such overloads cause a rise in winding temperature
with consequent depreciation in insulation properties and shortening of motor life.

Work Load Applied After Motor Is Running

1g

Countershatt Start
load
no
orive for
machine, Torque -- -Clutch
load
Run
at
no engaged
=>

Time

With a disengaged clutch or unloading device between motor and machine, the
conditions at starting favor the motor since it is then free to start and to come up to
speed against little resistance.
When clutch is engaged, the machine load imposed on the running motor may be
applied almost instantaneously if the clutch is of the jaw or the magnetic types, or
the load may be applied to the running motor gradually over a short time range if the
clutch is of the frictional or the spring-separated plate type that permits slipping.
However, the ability of the running motor to start and accelerate the driven
machine when the clutch is engaged is limited by the torque-value at which the motor
will stall, usually called the break-down or pull-out torque.
If applying the machine load slows the motor, an accelerating torque will be
required of the motor to bring the machine up to the desired speed. Thereafter, the
machine load will determine the running torque required of motor.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 215

‘Work Load Applied as Motor Speed Increases

late}
cS
=
wn load
increas
£ie load
K
-Accelerating

Time

When the motor is directly connected to the driven machine, and the nature of the machine load
is such that it increases as the machine speed increases from no load at rest to full load at full speed,
as in fans, blowers, and centrifugal pumps, the motor is required to deliver an accelerating torque
that can accelerate the increasing load plus the torque required to accelerate the revolving masses.
At the instant of starting, the inertia and holding torque of the machine may be small enough to
be negligible. However, this fact should not be taken for granted, since dry bearings, cold lubricants,
deflected shafting, and sprung parts are factors that may set up considerable resistance to starting.
After the machine has begun revolving, at any instant the rate at which the machine accelerates
will depend upon the relation between the motor accelerating-torque versus the WR? of the moving
machine parts, plus frictional resistance, plus the load that is on the machine at that instant.
The running torque required of the motor after coming up to speed is mainly determined by the
useful work done and the efficiency of the machine.
Work Load Applied on the Motor When Starting

Accelerating
increasing
load

Torque

Time

With the motor connected directly to a machine upon which a heavy work load must be encount-
ered at instant of starting, such as in compressors and piston pumps without unloading devices, lifts,
and hoists, the torque required to start and to accelerate may be many times greater than that needed
to keep the machine in motion after the desired running speed has been reached.
Especially is this so when the mass of the machine parts is large and their radii of gyration is
great. The motor may be able to deliver enough starting torque to turn the loaded machine over
slowly, but if the motor is not capable of delivering sufficient accelerating torque to bring the machine
and load up to speed in a short time, heating will probably occur.
When the motor has to start and stop frequently under full load, the length of time of motor
operation as compared with the idle time in the work or duty cycle is an important consideration that
governs the generation and dissipation of heat.
214 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

SELECTION OF MOTOR TYPE

Following the analysis of torque requirements and duty cycle of the driven
machine, the next step in the selection of the motor is a matching of the torque charac-
teristics of the load with torques that the various types of motors can be expected to
deliver when starting, accelerating, and running.
The torques that motors can deliver are dependent upon the type of windings and
the scheme of connections employed in the particular motor; the nature, uniformity,
and magnitude of the voltage at the motor terminals; the capacity of the feed lines;
and the physical conditions surrounding the motor.
Motors are designed primarily to deliver torque at specified speeds at definite
voltages. Electrical current is supplied commercially as either a direct, 7.e., unidirec-
tional potential, or as an alternating potential in which the voltage alternates in
direction at definite frequencies or cycles per second. When the electrical service is
alternating, a motor must be selected not only to suit the magnitude of the voltage
as with direct current, but also to suit the frequency and the number of phases of
current.
Although the frequency of alternating current as furnished by power companies
is so nearly constant that variations in frequencies can be considered negligible the
same is not true of voltage. Voltages do vary considerably especially at the end of a
transmission line.
Variations in voltage are very important considerations in motor performance
because the effective torque output of any motor will vary-as the square of the change
in applied voltage. Therefore, line voltages at the motor terminals should be known,
and if a variation from rated motor voltage does exist the rated torque should be
interpolated accordingly.
Feed-line capacity should be large enough to take care of the high inrush of cur-
rent at starting without reducing the voltage and thus lowering the effective starting
torque. The motor even though starting under subnormal voltage may be able to
break the static load but have difficulty in accelerating the load up to speed; thus
the accelerating time is lengthened, with attendant high current, which tends to
cook the windings and in some types of motors to blow the condenser or burn the
commutator.
Effect of Physical Conditions.—Extreme heat surrounding the motor, 7.e., high
ambient temperatures, increases the operating temperature of the active iron and
copper in the motor and thus limits the power output of the motor. Insulation will
be affected and the life of the motor reducedif the temperature of the motor windings
rises beyond safe limits.
Extreme cold around the motor and driven machine may cause the lubricating
mediums to stiffen or harden. Stiff oil in the bearings, pistons, and packings of a
machine will cause hard starting.
Extreme dampness, moisture, or corrosive acid fumes reduces the effectiveness of
the insulation resulting in current leakage or actual puncture of the insulation.
Special insulations are available for abnormal conditions.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS ZNO

Dirt, either falling or suspended in the atmosphere, and dripping water should
not get into the motor: if these elements are present, an inclosed type of motor should
be used.
DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS

Series wound
D.C. motor
Shunt wound,
D.C. motor
oeel Compound wound,
D.C. motor

Fie. 444.—Wiring diagrams of typical winding schemes employed in direct-current series, shunt and compound
motors.

In direct-current motors both the field and armature are excited directly from
the power supply. A commutator and brushes are used to continuously commutate
the armature currents to produce a rotating magnetic pull on the armature. The
same electrical and magnetic reaction that is used to start the direct-current motor is
also used for the running operation after the motor is brought up to speed.
The starting torque that direct-current motors can deliver is high, ranging as
much as six and one-half times the full load torque. This type of motor will pull up
or accelerate any load it can start.
When the driven machine is required to start frequently under heavy load, and
it is not objectionable to have the operating speed vary inversely with the load,
series motors can be used. The speed of a series motor will be constant only when the
load is constant.
For operating conditions in which constant speed is desired with fluctuating
loads and starting is not frequent, either shunt motors or compound motors can be
considered. A shunt motor with field resistance control will give speed adjustments
over a wide range. Compound motors can deliver higher starting torques than
shunt motors, and if the high torque is needed only at starting the motor series field
may be cut out after the driven machine is up to speed.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS
In alternating-current motors a magnetic field is produced electrically which
revolves at a speed equal to the frequency multiplied by 60 divided by the number
of poles. The magnetic field as it rotates cuts and induces a current in the conductors
of the short-circuited secondary winding. The secondary current in turn establishes
secondary magnetic fields within the primary field and torque is thus produced. With
rotor at standstill, 7.e., with a slip of 100 per cent, the maximum e.m.f. is induced in
the secondary. Induction motors do not ever reach full synchronous speed because
if there is no slip no secondary current is induced.
Maximum pull-up or accelerating torques that alternating-current motors, except
the squirrel-cage type, can develop range from two to two and one-half times their full
load torque.
Straight single-phase squirrel-cage type induction motors are not self-starting,
and a supplementary means must be provided to give the motor the rotating effect
required; however, the single-phase induction motor will run and provide torque after
it is brought up to speed.
216 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Repulsion-start induction-run motors develop a continuous rotating effect on

the rotor because of induced currents in the rotor made continuously effective by
commutation to produce torque during the starting period.
Repulsion-start induction-run motors have high starting and accelerating torques
and when running as a single-phase induction motor with squirrel-cage rotor, or
its equivalent, are very efficient. These motors at starting are repulsion motors,
but on reaching a predetermined speed expanding governor weights push a device
under the commutator which short circuits the commutator bars through a common
ring; the same movement releases tension on the brushes with the result that the
armature is short-circuited and is the equivalent of a squirrel-cage rotor in a poly-

Self starting, Repulsion startand & Repulsion start,

single-phase motor, run, Single-phase motor = induction run,
with phase coil cutout single-phase motor

: €
Capacitor start, 5 Capacitor start, ‘ Squirrel cage
induction run, = capacitor run, induction
single- phase motor single-phase motor 3-phase motor

Fic. 445.—Wiring diagrams of winding schemes and starting devices used in typical alternating-current fractional
horsepower motors.

phase induction motor. When the motor stops, the governor and mechanism return
automatically to their original starting positions.
Repulsion-start induction-run type motors are suited for loads requiring high
starting and accelerating torques. Repulsion-start induction-run type motors are
furnished only for single speed applications.
The split-phase start induction motor develops its magnetic rotating effect by
splitting the magnetic field of the stator winding into two separate windings displaced
in space and having different electrical characteristics. One winding is a starting or
phase winding, and the other is the main or running winding. When the motor starts,
both windings are on the line. After accelerating up to a predetermined speed, a
governor attached to the rotor acts to open a switch and cuts out the starting winding.
The motor then continues to operate on the running winding as a single-phase induc-
tion motor.
Split-phase motors can be designed with high starting torque but only by using
relatively high starting current. They are purposely designed with low starting
torque so that the current and consequently the heating in the starting winding will
be limited.
Equipment driven with split-phase motors should be easy to start. The inertia
of the load should be small so that the motor can accelerate rapidly to avoid “ cook-
ing” the starting winding. Feed wires should have capacity great enough to carry
the high starting current without reducing the voltage at the motor terminals with
consequent reduction of the motor torque.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 217

Capacitor motors are basically split-phase motors using split magnetic fields in
starting. Improved starting characteristics are obtained by using a capacitor or
condenser in connection with the starting winding. The electrical effect of the con-
denser increases the angle of the magnetic action to about 90 deg. between the two
windings, approaching a true two-phase effect.
Capacitor-start and induction-run motors employ a centrifugal governor switch
which cuts out both the starting winding and the condenser at a predetermined speed
after which the motor operates as a straight single-phase squirrel-cage induction-
type motor.
Capacitor-start induction-run motors will deliver starting torques that are
approximately three and one-half to four and one-half times their full load torque
with locked rotor currents approximately one and three-fourth times repulsion-start
induction-run motor currents. Their operating characteristics when running are
very similar to those of the repulsion start induction run type of motors.
Capacitor-start capacitor-run motors use a capacitor and also a transformer.
The transformer acts to impress a high voltage on the capacitor for starting. Start-
ing torque is three and one-half to four and one-half times full load torque, and start-
ing current is of the same relative order as the capacitor-start induction-run type of
motor.
Capacitor motors can be obtained for both single- and multispeed applications.
Fractional horsepower squirrel-cage induction polyphase motors have a field
made up of polyphase windings and a squirrel-cage rotor made up of conductor bars.
The starting torque is about two and one-half to three times the full load torque.
Squirrel-cage induction motors like direct-current motors will usually pull up
any load they can start, 7.e., the maximum pull-up torque is about equal to the starting
torque, and the rating of the motor should be selected to suit the greater torque as
required by the load.
218 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

INQUIRY FORM FOR ELECTRIC MOTORS

. Name of machine to be driven ___ (d) What is the inertia of the load including
. Field
Noe of use couplings, pulleys, gear drives, or fly-
. Estimated quantity, initial order wheel?
first year. (e) Speed of driven element. r.p.m.
. Power supply: (f) Drive: direct , gear , belt
(a) Direct current. volts , chain_____ Type of coupling
(b) Alternating current. volts, if direct drive
phase, cycles . Space available for motor:
(c) Universal motor volts (a) Restricted to a maximum diameter of
(d) Will power supply vary? in.
. Motor speed and direction of rotation: (b) Restricted to a maximum length of
(a) Full-load running speed TROL, eee
see} 115
(b) Allowable variation + per cent of . Motor mounting:
full-load speed (a) Vertical______, horizontal__ ;
(c) Direction of rotation, from end opposite oblique
shaft extension, clockwise_____, (0) Foot mounting at end , below
counter clockwise , reversible , above , flange mount-
ing -Special (show by sketch)
(d) Is a multispeed motor required? Give (c) Resilient mounting
speeds ; 5 (d) Is mounting position of the motor
(e) Adjustable speed motor, speed range changeable?
to 10. Motor housing:
Running load requirements and conditions. (a) Motor exposure: outdoor , in-
Load determined by test________,_ ob- door.
tained from present practice______, or (b) Within machine or housing, partly in-
estimated (For multispeed motor closed_____, totally inclosed_____
give following data for each speed): (Give dimensioned sketch of housing and
(a) Continuous load_—___hp. show ventilation provisions)
(b) Intermittent load__hp. ii, Condition of ventilating air:
(1) length of time at full load____ (a) Presence of dust. , grit ;
min. moisture , steam , corrosive
(2) idle running ___min., time at gases , oil vapor , explosive
RE ___—_____ iva, gas , salt air , other con-
(3) maximum momentary torque tamination
Io, —__ stm, (b) Maximum temperature of cooling air
(c) Fluctuating load ees whe
(1) magnitude of overloads hp. 12. Bearings and lubrication:
(2) duration of overloads____ min. (a) Manufacturer’s standard_____-
(3) frequency of occurrence (b) Motor to be lubricated at intervals of
(d) Reversing service
(1) reversals per.min. (c) End play restricted ; thrust loads
(2) time intervals on ___min., off present.
= mins (d) Type of bearing preferred
(3) inertia of load (1) Sleeve: lubricated by oil ring ?

Starting load: waste.

(a) Torque, starting , accelerating (2) Ball: lubricated by oil____, or
grease
(b) Is motor started under load? , or 13. Shaft extension: single or both ends
without load? ; if vertical, up. or down
(c) Type of unloading device ; straight. or tapered___
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 219

(a) Diameter_____in., length ____in. (b) Motor protected against overload ap

(b) Pulley fastened by setscrew_____, under voltage
IG yee (c) Is limit switch used
(c) Keyway dimensions: standard____, or (d) Are brakes used
special, width ____in. depth______ in. 16. Electrical leads:
length__in. (a) Manufacturer’s standard ___——
(d) Can the design be made for standard (b) Special leads: number , length
shaft dimensions ?____ (c) Attachment cord: length__, plug
14. Weight limitations if any eink eS
15. Electrical control: 17. Give special requirements such as special
(a) Hand_____, automatic______, re- insurance regulations, dynamically balanced
OCC rotor, quietness of operation, etc.
220 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

WINDING CONNECTION DIAGRAMS FOR MULTISPEED MOTORS

MULTISPEED MOTORS, CONSTANT HORSEPOWER, KEY DIAGRAMS

i Ta

Ts %

Ts Ts
i G 15 Th Tg

Single winding, two speed Single winding, two speed

N.E.M.A. MG. 6-41, Fig. 8, 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 1938

Speed Ly | Le | Ls Speed In | Le | Ls
- :
TOWihachae nceecenctsess T,| Ts | Ts. | Ti, Te, Ts together HOWRsayscecr eae Ti | T2| T3 |Ts, Ts, Ts together
EWAN conogeconooo| Mn} Mb |) Wg |)ey IMs We ooen High. T,| Ts | Tc | Li, Ts, T3 open

Th 14 Un

& q,

Ts
T3 Tz T,6 T
i. es 5 Ta

Two winding, three speed Two winding, three speed

N.E.M.A. MG. 6-41, Fig. 8, 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 1938

Speed L, | Le Ls Speed Ty Le Ls

Wow ts) sea YBa | Ws Ts T,, T2, T3, Tz together hows ae T, T. T; | Ts, Ts, Tc, T7 together
Second + poou0 Tu Ty T 13 Second} Snood Tu Ty T13

JabN So coanc Wy |) Shy \\ Whe, Yt ISIE, ooo Ln || Ws, Whe |) 4G

Terminals not listed must be left open. Terminals not listed must be left open.
* Low speed half of high speed. * Low speed half of high speed.
+ Second speed between low and high. t+ Second speed between low and high.

qT, Ty

Ts 14 T4

h Tr
Tz Tg Ine TG hh Ty Tr

Two winding, four speed Two winding, four speed

N.E.M.A. MG. 6-41, Fig. 8, 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 19388

Speed | Li | Le Ls Together Speed Ty Ls Lz

Low Sub on T's Ts T¢ Pog T2, Ts, T7 Low..... Ties Ts T; | Ts, T's, T's, T'7 together
Second .. T14 Tis T 16 Ti, T 12, T 13, Ti Second .. Tu T 1.2 T 13 T 14, T 15, T 16, T17 together
Third....| 71 | T2 | 73, T7 |None Third.... Ts Me T7 Ts

High. 6} are Ti T19 T 13; T17 None High. oo ol Leng T 15, T17| Tis

Terminals not listed must be left open. Terminals not listed must be left open.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 221

TWO WINDING, THREE SPEED, THREE PHASE, CONSTANT HORSEPOWER

N.E.M.A. Bul. 110, p, 612, 1926 A.S.A. C-6 3.725, 1938
Th Th T Tis

® Ts Ts Th
15 : T.
Te J,
TG 2 Te Te 5 Tp aT he 16

Speed Ly | Le Ls Connect together Speed Ey | Ee Es Connect together

WOWisse ete aia Ti1| Tie T 13 None WWOweeateceusteeeeccks 1 || 9h Ts; None

Second*.......... Ts 7 5 Ts T., T 2, Ts, T; Second*........ 2 Ti T 19 T 13 T 14 T 155 T 16, Ti7
label eeeeeiselee
oon T, | Tz | T3, T7 |None High*...........| Tig] Tis | Tis, V17 |None

* Second speed half the high speed. Terminals not listed must be left open.
* Second speed half the high speed.

TWO WINDING, THREE SPEED, THREE PHASE, CONSTANT TORQUE

N.E.M.A. Bul. 110, p. 612, 1926 A.S.A. C-6 3.725, 1938

Ip Th T,
=
Tha

h if

Tt3oe T;2 if
Is
©
Te
: T,
16
BB ps Tz Tis

Speed Ly | Le L; Connect together Speed I, | Le Ls Connect together

WOWieece: ee Tu T12 T 13 None MOWilac: eesniecnsales T, | T2 Ts None

Se@onl, ssc cccce T, | T2 | T3, Tz |None Second*.........] Tur] Tio! T13, Ti7 |None
High* OTcat haa Tae | Ia Ts T 6 T,, T 2, T's, T; High*. Saad coke 6 T 14 T15 T16 T 11, T 12, T 13, T17

* Second ‘speed half the high speed. Terminals not listed must be left open.
* Second speed half the high speed.

TWO WINDING, TWO SPEED, THREE PHASE, CONSTANT TORQUE,

VARIABLE TORQUE, CONSTANT HORSEPOWER .
N.E.M.A. MG. 6-41, Fig. 3, 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.725, 1938
if Tu Th Tn

ee Ts. Ti l T Ts The

Speed L, | Lz | Ls Speed Dy | L; | Ls

MGOsWitenes nee T, | T2 | T3 | Tur, Tie, 713 open ION a to iota rea cieoearans T, |T2 | Ts |Tur, T12, Tis open
IebheACe eeraehe cuinene eo Ti T12 T 13 Pp T, T; open High oveg0on oo 006000 Ti | Tie T13 T., T 2, Ts, open

TWO WINDING, TWO SPEED,

TWO PHASE, CONSTANT TORQUE, VARIABLE TORQUE,
CONSTANT HORSEPOWER
N.E.M.A. MG. 6-41, Fig. 6, 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.730, 1938

Ts Ty qT Ty

hk Ts Ta Th an h qT4 Th

Tir, T12, Tis, T14 open IWOK~s 560006 T,.| Po | T3 | Ts T11, T 2, T13 T14 open

T1, Ts, T3, T4 open ich eeeee Tir| Tig) Tis | Tis T1, Tx, T3, Ts open
222 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

MULTISPEED MOTORS, CONSTANT TORQUE, KEY DIAGRAMS

Tg Ts Ts hh Ty

Single winding, two speed Single winding, two speed

N.E.M.A. MG 6-41, Fig. 7, 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 1938

Speed L, | Le | Ls Speed Dy | L. | Ls

WOWelttisnnee ene T, | T2| T3 | Ts, Ts, Ts open TOW: anor cie T, | T2| T3 | Ts, Ts, Tc, open
ELIDS... poche cs T,| T:| T> | Ti, T2, T3 together 1IBKANS Sxbooaconooasl| YHA || Wg | T>; | T1, T2, T3 together

14 Ty 4 Ty

T,

r
Cal ail es Ts Tr Ts h 1 Ts Te
Two winding, three speed Two winding, three speed
N.E.M.A. MG 6-41, Fig. 7, 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 1938

Speed Ly | Le Ls Speed L, | Le L3

Low* dongeoR T\ T. Ts, T; WON os sooo 8 T, | T2 | T3, T7

Second ¢ wipeneis Ti1| Tre Tis Secondy..... Ta| Tre Tis
i ghee By \)Bs Té T1, To, Ts, T7 together Tens og560c Why || 9s Ts T,, Te, T3, T7 together
|

Terminals not listed must be left open. Terminals not listed must be left open.
* Low speed half of high speed. * Low speed half of high speed.
+ Second speed between low and high. + Second speed between low and high.

T
T, Ts Tie
Par Ts Ty 5

Two winding, four speed Two winding, four speed

N.E.M.A. MG 6-41, Fig. 7, 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 1938
]
Speed | Li | Le Ls Together Speed | Li | Le Ls

Low....| 21 | T2 | Ts, Pz | None Low....| 71 | T2 | Ts, T7

Second 5 Tu Tr. T 13, T17 None Second 5 Tu Ti T 13, T7

AML, «al Fa ||Ws Re | Way, Poy, Why, Ty Tl,» afa |)5 Ts |T1, Tx, T's, Tz together
High. ..| Tia} Tis T16 Tu, T12, T13, T17 High...} Tia] Tis] Tis | Pur, P12, Tis, T17 together

Terminals not listed must be left open. Terminals not listed must be left open.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 223

MULTISPEED MOTORS, VARIABLE TORQUE, KEY DIAGRAMS

%4

qT af

Te Ts Ts Ts a) Ts

Single winding, two speed Single winding, two speed

N.E.M.A. MG 6-41, Fig. 4, 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 1938

Speed I, | Le | Ls Speed L, | Le | Ls

ILO, ae eee eee ae ee T, lis) T3 la Ih, Ts open ILOWie so heeee T, T. T3 Ts, Ts, Ts open

15
RGA NG aeeora eels T,| T;,| Ts | T1, T2, Ts together IEAM. coccococoooe) MMA |) Ws |) 9G ||Why IM Wp veorgadarsre

Ts Tu Ty Ty

th
T Ts a

Ts I Ts Ts Tr Ts Te i Ts Ty

Two winding, three speed Two winding, three speed

N.E.M.A. MG 6-41, Fig. 4, 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 1938

Speed I, | Le | Ls Speed *| Ty | Le | Ds

MEO Watetne nis eudneeee T1 T. T3 WOW ore eee T. T. T3

Secondf. Boe Ot camo Ti Ti2 T13 Second} oagocDooo dos Phy T12 T 3
High*. T, |\T; | Ts | T1, To, T3 together Tet ccscococ0 cco Ma | M5 | Wg ||Phy Uo, Pe topaiaer

Terminals not listed must be left open. Terminals not listed must be left open.
* Low speed half of high speed. * Low speed half of high speed.
+ Second speed between low and high. {7 Second speed between low and high.

4 Ti

Tj Th

TS Th Ts Tis Ti Tie

Two winding, four speed Two winding, four speed

N.E.M.A. MG 6-41, Fig. 4 1930 A.S.A. C-6 3.720, 1938

Speed L, | Lz | Ls Together Speed iba \|ibe |Ls |

| |.

EOWie ae ace T, | T. | T3 |None EOWA ene Gy |) Ws IG

Second.......... Ti1| Ti T13 None Seoonel. sanesoocsl| Man || Whe T13

Wate), ssacsceoes GP, | 9s ||$a Wig They Ihe abhindere hee T, | 7; | Te | Li, T2, 13 together
T14 T15 T16 Tu, Ti2, T13 High. Ty4 Tis T16 T1, Ti2, T13 together
High Ratoat seketee suse

Terminals not listed must be left open. Terminals not listed must be left open.
224 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

ELECTRIC CONTROL METHODS

A.C. motor

Torque

Reel Diameter

_ ALC.
diagram

Mofor----=

Torgue
adjustment
rheostat
Fic. 446.—Constant tension with constant peripheral speed is required in this wire-reel
application. The application can be used on wire-drawing machines, insulating machines, or
any other reeling operation. As the reeling diameter increases, the reel speed decreases, and at
the same time the reeling torque is increased. The required constant horsepower characteristic
is obtained accurately with a direct-current motor and a regulator type of control on shunt
field. An alternating-current wound rotor motor with secondary resistance control approxi-
mates ideal conditions.

- Grinding wheel

drueing
| Marronad Rheostat

Wheel
of
R.p.m.
Armature Wheel Diameter
Fic. 447.—For automatically limiting the peripheral speed of a grinding wheel, the truing
diamond is mechanically interlocked with the wheel motor field rheostat. The wheel r.p.m.
is increased as the wheel diameter decreases.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 225

Fi lyer motor 6
oQa
Za)
L
o
>
ir

Capstan Speed
Fic. 448.—A wire-insulating machine requires a constant speed ratio between capstan motor °
and flyer for starting and running. The capstan motor drives a frequency changer or transmitter
electrically connected to the synchronous motor of the flyer. The speed ratio between flyer and
capstan is constant at all times.

Max. constant load

Ploten cutter
Load
on
SY Yj Position of work

———
— + — —— +
Return speed |

ETT
|
| Milling <
S
cu Hed

platen
of
Speed Flaten
Position of plater
Fie. 449. Fia. 450.
Fic. 449.—For high-speed cutting on a metal planer, the tool enters the work at a slow speed to prevent tool
breakage, cutting speed is then increased, and near the end of the cut the cutting speed is reduced to prevent breaking
out at edge of work. This speed control is accomplished by limit switches which put full field on the motor before the
tool leaves work. After the return stroke, delayed acceleration keeps full field on motor until tool enters work; then
the fast cutting speed is resumed.
Fic. 450.—To keep load constant on the cutter and spindle of a milling machine for maximum production, a relay
controlled by the armature circuit of the direct-current spindle motor regulates the field of direct-current feed motor.
This automatically controls the feed within limits to maintain a maximum constant load on the spindle motor.
226 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Movement
of work ‘ee

Position
Limit switches
Slow- ee
Qown
~~Reversing limit Se - Reverse limit switch’
Fria. 451.—When milling work having a gap between Fic. 452.—Accurate positioning of reversing and stop
machined surfaces, production is increased by rapid limits is necessary on tapping machines especially when
traverse between machining positions. Jump feed tapping blind holes. Special alternating-current revers-
control is accomplished by means of adjustable limit ing motors for tapping service permit as many as 60
switches, multispeed motors, and suitable magnetic reversals permin. The use of two- or four-speed motors
controls. reduces the number of gear changes required. Accurate
limit switches, quick-acting contactors, and high torque
motors are used. A plug stop is used for braking at the
“out’’ position.

Platen

WZ
“Final position switch Slow-down switch

Fa Rapid traverse

& Position ~~
x of X
me)
aS ~-Slow speed
Fie. 453.—Accurate location of boring tools for indexing
requires extremely slow speed of work table to prevent over-
travel when stop limit is reached. A direct-current motor and
control is used; heavy armature series resistance and armature
parallel resistance provide for creep speeds for final positioning.
 : DRIVES AND CONTROLS 227

E= Vo/tage
Rectifier av.= Average
RMS= Root mean square
leeel ig 2050 Eaves

IN iN!
(B) Ne neUHENT Tevn aE

Eav= 0.9 Eems

Load

\ \ 4

(C) eH AH
Fig. 454.—Single-phase rectifier circuits generally used. (A) Half-
wave rectifier circuit used in radio, also in industrial equipment such as
vibrating machinery or electric razors, requiring reciprocating motion. (B)
Full-wave rectifier circuit used in radio work and magnetic chucks. (C)
Full-wave rectifier circuit used in industrial applications to obtain direct-
current from alternating-current source.

Load

AC
supply
(B)
Fig. 455.—Other rectifier circuits. (A) Single-phase voltage-doubler rectifier
circuit used in radio work to obtain higher than line voltage without transformer.
(B) A three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit, one type of rectifier used to obtain
a large amount of direct-current power for power circuit.
228 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Pushbutton ~». -- Pushbutton

for B aL mcs for A

Fic. 456.—Illustrating the use of rectifiers in conjunction with magnetic control equipment on relays. Through
the use of a rectifier in conjunction with direct-current relay, multiple control can be obtained over a single-control
circuit.

1
'
25 cycle ac
fl

1%
0%
fe]
6008
fore]

Boe xa
fe]
[el

OOO00
10

"25 SEC. Te

Y
Fie. 457.—Showing the use of a pulsating direct current on a vibrating machine. In most instances, frequency of
pulsations is important and on hammer shown 25-cycle alternating current is used with a single-wave rectifier.

Pump Wheel ©} Start-stop

motor motor push buttons
control control

- Grinding wheel
ariven by motor

Fic. 458.—Large grinders use pumps driven by separate motors. Pump moter need not be in operation when
grinding wheel is not running, but it is sometimes desirable to allow wheel motor to coast to rest before shutting down
pump motor. This can be done electrically by means of time delay relay to permit pump motor to operate for pre-
determined time after wheel motor is shut down. For the starting sequence, an arrangement similar to that in Fig.
462 may be used.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 229

Reversing
controller

ua
"Limit
switches

Limit switch!
operated by
bridge

_- Limit switch operated

Close by trolley
Fic. 459.—Motor-operated press with safety Fic. 460.—In a machine for polishing telescope mirrors, an
control requiring operator to use both hands elliptical motion of the polishing lap is sometimes required.
to start press. In starting, if either “close’’ Controls are arranged to reverse bridge motor at center of
button is released, the motor stops. To guard trolley motion and to reverse trolley motor at center of bridge
against blocking in one close button, the con- motion.
trol is wired so that both close buttons must be
fully released or press will not operate. Limit
switches are used.

SAS
Sy

SS
SSS
SSSy
~N SS
SSS
e~ SS
SSS
Table ~~>~

‘S-Limit switch
Fic. 461.—On a sheet catcher, the table must
reverse and return the sheet as soon as it passes
through the rolls. Since the length of the sheet
varies, the sheet itself is used to operate the limit
switch which reverses the table. This application
requires specially designed motors and exceptional
ruggedness in the control equipment.
230 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

TABLE FOR SEQUENCE

OF OPERATIONS

Press start button Pressure

switch
Pump motor starter closes
Pressure switch closes
Spindle motor starter closes
Press feed start button
Feed motor starter closes
Stop button stops all motors
Spindle
TS
BY
dS
SM
@&
“|
Cc)
& Feed stop stops feed motor motor
Starter

Start
button

Purp
@) motor Feed
starter motor Feed!
starter motor

Fic. 462.—Electrical interlocking or sequencing of motors for large milling machine ensures that coolant pump
motor is running and pressure obtained before spindle motor starts and that spindle motor is running before feed motor
can be started. A master ‘“‘stop”’ button dominates all controls.

Torque

\
rir
No? e)

Fic. 463.—Combination mechanical and electrical torque or load limiting device for control of motor-operated
valves, chucks, and clamps. When load becomes sufficiently high to stall wormwheel, the worm sliding on a splined
shaft moves axially, similarly to a screw threading through a nut. This movement compresses a calibrated torque
spring and opens a limit switch, thereby shutting off the motor.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 231

ELECTRICALLY OPERATED VALVES

—
7) C————— FONE
lines
Con tro/ switch

Exhaust
Supply
Fie. 464.—Straight-way solenoid valve as com- Fie. 465.—Straight-way valve applied to control
monly connected for simple fluid control. Control automatically liquid level. Float switch used as pilot
switch energizes solenoid, opening valve, and per- control device for valve.
mitting flow to begin.

Processing
owen machine with
- heating and
lines cooling coils

First Condition
A-open, B-closed Drain
Fic. 466.—Two straight-way valves, A normally Fic. 467.—Two straight-way valves offer means of
open and B normally closed, provide two-way fluid automatically controlling cycle of processing machine,
control. Energizing the solenoids cuts off supply such as plastic molding press, having heating and
and vents delivery through exhaust. cooling coils.

Pilot
Compressor circuit

Furnace

Or! supply
Fie. 468.—Single straight-way valve can be con- Fic. 469.—Straight-way valve of trip type inter-
nected across one phase of motor winding to start locked with oil-furnace control system to cut off oil
flow of cooling water to compressor whenever motor supply upon loss of current to motor-driven pump or
starts. to atomizing equipment, or upon occurrence of low
water, low stack temperature, or similar conditions.
232 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Pilot Pilot
circult circuit

and

=n Exhaust ==> Exhaust

Supply Delivery Supply Delivery

First Condition Second Condition

Fic. 470.—Single three-way solenoid valve cuts
eee off supply and
é vents delivery through exhaust. Application similar
to that, shown in Fig. 466, using two straight-way valves.
°

Load
to be

—— piston Down
Supply i Supply |
Three-way” Up
valve . ;
Operating Operating —_
cylinder cylinder —
First Condition Second Condition
Fra. 471.—Three-way valve provides convenient means of controlling single-acting cylinders or diaphragms. By
utilizing principle shown in Fig. 470, valve cuts off supply and vents delivery through exhaust, thus permitting return
stroke of piston to take place.

Pilot
circurt

Exhaust Exhaust

a
Pressure operated *
4 operated “s valves
valves

First Condition Second Condition Me

arranged for multiple control of pressure-operat ed valves. In the first condition,
Frc. 472.—Three-way valve
is true, with valve A open and valve B
valve A is closed and valve B open. In the second condition, the reverse
closed. :
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 233

Pilot Pilot
circult circurt

Delivery
Supply Supply No.2
Delivery No.1

First Condition Second Condition

Fig. 473.—Three-way valve applied as convenient means of transferring one supply to either of two deliveries.

Pilot Pilot
Circuit circuit
Operatimn 7 Operatin
fen im ‘r
od 5
Exhaust

Operating Op i BUR g
cylinder YE GeE
Supply
First Condition Second Condition
Fy. 474 —Four-way valve arranged to control double-acting cylinder. Upon energization of solenoid, operating rod
of cylinder reverses direction.

Pressure-operated valve a
First Condition Second Condition
control of tank
Fic. 475.—Four-way valve arrangement, employing principle shown in Fig. 474, provides automatic
level through pressure-operated valve.

Pilot
circult

Emergency
supply :
Delivery
Norma/
supply
Normal Condition
either of two
Fre. 476.—Three-way valve, utilizing inversion of principle shown in Fig. 473, offers means of transferring
supplies to a common delivery. Useful in applications where an emergency supply is provided.
234 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

AUTOMATIC TIMERS

_- Make and break

x4 contacts

Lt -Trip ale US ele

venT ~
N

(esse) Clearance
gap | \

To contact
through
- Adjustable spring or
ver solenoid - Make and
rea
-Fluid contacts

Fic. 477.—Dashpot principle. Simplest form consists of a Fic. 478.—Inertia mechanism.

piston or plunger operating in oil, mercury, or air. Adjustable Time delay is by virtue of the inertia
small orifices or bleeders provide time adjustment. A by-pass of two weights mounted on a pivoted
may be provided near the end of the piston travel for snap arm and the length of arc to be trav-
action closing of the contact. Widely used because of its ersed before mechanical contact is
simplicity and low cost. When air is used, changing clearances made. Tilted by gravity, this device
caused by dust, gumming of lubricant, and leakage affect the gives a relatively short interval and
timing. If oil is used, the temperature will change oil viscosity becomes clumsy forlong time intervals.
and affect the timing. Also subject to error because of clear-
ance changes from wear.

Main air line

Connect for
| back pressure

mas
‘Air cylinder
on contactor

Air line

Fic. 479.—Contactor works on back pressure from the main cylinder on the welder, pressure being assured
between the welding points before the welding contactor closes. When the back pressure has built up to a predeter-
mined value, the plunger moves upward at a definite rate of speed and the hardened cam closes the main contacts.
After a predetermined time, the cam moves by the roller that it engages and the main contacts open. One adjustment
sets the back pressure at which the contactor plunger starts to move and therefore determines the lag in applying the
current after pressure has been applied. A second adjustment changes the needle valve opening to the contactor air
cylinder and thus times the upstroke. This determines the welding time. A third adjustment varies the time of the
downstroke and is of importance only when used with a repeater.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 235
; Copper block
/Bimetallic strip
BVEiennwiance
WSIS SLES _-- Make and A
1
ey break ‘

MMMM.
Moke ond break.
contacts
contacts
or
\

Copper block Copper sacket or ring or!

short Gace) Piypgee
7Heat barriers

LI; bimetallic
Strips
d
Make and break contacts
Fie. 480.—Thermal relays. Inexpensive time delay Fie. 481.—Magnetic time delay, used on direct
utilizing the effect of a heating coil around a bimetallic current only. Relatively inexpensive, — effects
strip. Least accurate device. Has a slow make and break time delays up to 10 sec. by means of residual
action. For longer time intervals, a copper block may be magnetism. Magnet may be copper jacketed,
mounted to absorb some of the heat; the larger the block of may have copper rings, or may have short-cir-
copper, the longer the time interval. Time intervals cuited turns around the magnet. Variation in
ranging from 1 sec. to 5 to 10 min. are possible with this the amount of copper or in the resistance of short-
device. circuited turns will affect the time delay.

Make and break

contacts

- Electro magnet

Fic. 482.—Magnetic-drag time delay.

A small electromagnet is used, and the
motion of the relay plunger is made to
revolve a metal disk in the field of the mag-
net. The rotation of the disk is retarded by
magnetic induction. Reliable device, trou-
ble free, but relatively expensive.
236 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Switch
Relay Relay

= 9 Switch

+ , oS
Fie. 483.—Vacuum tube. Condenser charged or discharged through a resistor closes a relay after definite time,
using direct current. When switch is open, the condenser discharges slowly through shunt resistor. This lowers the
negative potential on the grid, and at the critical value the plate current will rise enough to operate the relay. Full
line voltage may be applied to the condenser to obtain longer time delay.

Fie. 484.—In this circuit, operation is maintained for a predetermined time after the starting impulse has stopped.
When the button has been pressed, the filament gets current in series with relay winding 1, and the relay pulls up,
locking in the circuit. The second contact charges the condenser negative, and no plate current flows. When button
is released, the relay stays closed until condenser discharges. Then the plate current flows through the second relay
ads in opposition to the first, releasing the armature. Applicable to direct current or rectified alternating current:
only.

Rectifier NY
Relay
Resistor,
/

\
Condenser

‘\

Po tentio-
4 meter
{
‘Transformer
Switch
Fra. 485.—In the Westinghouse electronic relay, there is no temperature error, reset is instantaneous, adjustment
is easy, and first cost islow. When the switch is closed, the tube passes current. As the current increases, the increas-
ing [R drop from the potentiometer causes a charging current through condenser. The JR drop across the resistor
because of this current applies the negative bias to the grid. Plate current cannot build up very rapidly, because the
faster it increases, the more negative the grid becomes. After a time period, adjustable through potentiometer, the
plate current will operate relay. The time delay is proportional to the product of resistance and capacitance. Long
delays require large resistors, and short delays correspondingly small resistors. Maximum time delay with this device
is about 3 min. About 0.05 sec. is the minimum.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS Zoi

TRIGGER SWITCH MOUNTINGS

Switch - Position Top View with

Indicator Cover Removed
Fic. 486.—Trigger-operated ratchet-type single-pole switch, a design no longer in general use. An arrow
stamped on the end of the shaft shows through a hole in the cover plate to indicate the position of the switch. Spring
blades pressing on the faces of the square contact block give a snap action and hold the block in position.

Snap lever sprin Snap lever fo give Stationar:

ee A Hee break action” feConse

Trigger
Spring ~..

N
. Star wheel
Ni
XN
<. ~ Ratchet operated drum
Paw! pivoted on trigger
» “Trigger

Fic. 487.—Ratchet-type switch with double pole for three phase. Can also be used for single phase. The word
“on” is stamped on diametrically opposite points on the ratchet wheel. With switch in “‘on”’ position, the word
shows through a hole in the cover plate. A spring lever snaps into the star wheel, giving quick snap action. To open
the switch, a definite movement of the trigger is required.
238 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

a B/
Compression Spring 7 On position of trigger
,

HPSSOSN
lhdf emarr

Fie. 488.—A design of switch similar to that shown in Fig. 486 except that it is a two-pole design and is self-
opening when the trigger is released. It is shown here in the ‘‘on”’ position. As soon as the trigger is released, the
eompression spring opens the switch.

Toggle type releasing switch handle. Used on

old style dic. reamers, toggle device for ~
quick make and break

Fig. 489.—A toggle-type self-opening switch used on old-style direct-current reamers. The tripper is pushed
forward until the line of pull of the spring passes the dead center of the link to which it is attached. The spring then
pulls the switch closed. Upon releasing the trigger, the mechanism returns to the position shown, the switch snapping
‘open when the toggle spring passes dead center.

Fic. 490.—A conventional-type switch of old design that is self-opening when the trigger is released but can be
held in the closed position by means of a locking pin. Common to all the switches shown in this group of designs, it 1s
not dustproof.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 239

Round contact causes

“rapid increase in arcing
distonce and quick
break of arc

.OLIN

Fic. 491.—A special design of built-up switch of the self-opening type and provided with a locking pin, similar to
that shown in Fig. 489. Common to all the designs shown here, the switch is now obsolete in favor of fully enclosed
and easily replaceable switch units.

\
DE
w ee
= SSSSSASSAAASSS SSSA

|
a SSS y
Sp
\SSS
(es

aNSNCAS

Fia. 492. Fie. 493.

Fic. 492.—A modern-type commercial switch mounted in a side handle. Such switches are readily replaced as a
unit, inexpensive, and sealed against the entrance of dirt. The switch opens as soon as the trigger is released unless
the locking pin is set, in which case a slight pull on the trigger releases the locking pin and opens the switch.
Fia. 493.—Another example of a modern commercial switch mounted as a unit in a grip-type end handle.
 240 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

<5
STS
Y

Fic. 494. Fic. 495.

Fic. 494.—A rocker-type switch such as used on polishers and portable sanders. It is not self-releasmg and is
now being replaced by plunger-operated dusttight switches such as shown in Fig. 498.
Fie. 495.—Another style of mounting a commercial-type switch in a side handle. The switch is replaceable as a
unit and is self-opening, as soon as the trigger is released; the return spring being shown dotted.

Fic. 496.—In this switch mounting, the trigger actuates the switch by means of a lift rod attached to the back
of the trigger. A tension spring attached to the upper end of the lift rod and anchored to the lower end of the switch
plate pulls the switch open as soon as the trigger is released. If the locking pin is depressed when the trigger is pulled
back, it passes through the hole in the trigger which then cannot return to the open position. As soon as the trigger
is pressed, the locking pin is released, snaps back, and releases the trigger.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS

erereT

1.06%070.0
000
0:

OOO

Sl

Fie. 497.—A slider-operated switch. The slider Fic. 498.—Latest type switch handle for polishers,
moves back and forth as indicated in the drawing. sanders, and portable grinders. The switch is in a dust-
This switch is not provided with any release arrange- tight chamber and is operated by a plunger instead of a
ment. It is used only on light model tools where no trigger which eliminates the necessity of an opening such
damage would be done if the tool were laid down as is required when triggers or rockers are used. The
with the power still on. plunger makes a close fit. Switch is not self-releasing, it
being necessary to push the plunger for both on and off
positions.

tty

Fic. 499.—Latest design of switch arrangement for small die grinders and sanders. The toggle-operated switch
unit is mounted in a dusttight compartment and a dust seal is provided where the toggle comes through the case.
This type of switch does not have a release arrangement that opens it automatically.

OE
Recesereeeeessreee
SOSSTSIII RS <> oS4
SSSR
ease = SSH
$2393 - see
SETS Seo
= See z

Fie. 500.—This switch is of the same type as shown in Fig. 495. It is mounted in a longer handle, being actuated
by a remote trigger arrangement. It is provided with an additional return spring for quick action and also has a
locking pin for holding the switch in the closed position when the trigger is released. A slight pull on the trigger
releases the locking pin and opens the switch.
242 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

THERMOSTATIC MECHANISMS
‘Sensitivity or change in deflection for a given temperature change depends upon
the combination of metals selected as well as the dimensions of the bimetal element.
Sensitivity increases with the square of the length and inversely with the thickness.
The force developed for a given temperature change also depends on the type of
bimetal, whereas the allowable working load for the thermostatic strip increases with
the width and the square of the thickness. Thus, the design of bimetal-elements
depends upon the relative importance of sensitivity and working load.
Bime tal helix .

Pen pressure
adjustment

Fra. 501.—In the Taylor recording thermometer, a pen is moved vertically

across a revolving chart by a brass-invar bimetal element. To obtain sensi- / Stee/ blade
ts
tivity, the long movement of the pen requires a long strip of bimetal, which is
coiled into a helix to save space. For accuracy, a relatively large cross section
gives stiffness, although the large thickness requires increased length to obtain
the desired sensitivity.

Heating co1/\
IY)
‘Permanent
magne

Fig. 502.—Room tempera-

tures in summer as well’ as
winter are controlled over a
wide range by a single large-
spring diameter coil of brass-invar in
Fig. 503.—In this Westinghouse overload relay for large motors, a portion the Friez thermometer. To
of the motor current is passed through a heating coil within the relay. Heat prevent chattering, a small
from the coil raises the temperature of a bimetal spiral which rotates a shaft permanent magnet is mounted
carrying an electrical contact. To withstand the operating temperature, a on each side of the steel contact
heat-resistant bimetal is used, coiled into the spiral form for compactness. blade. The magnetic attrac-
Because of the large deflection needed, the spiral is long and thin, whereas the tion on the blade, increasing
width is made large to provide the required contact pressure. inversely with the square of the
By the use of heat barriers between the bimetal spiral and the heating coil, distance from the magnet, gives
temperature rise of the bimetal can be made to follow closely the increase in a snap action to the contacts.
temperature within the motor. Thus, momentary overloads do not cause
sufficient heating to close the contacts, whereas a continued overload will in
time cause the bimetal to rotate the contact arm around to the adjustable
stationary contact, causing a relay to shut down the motor.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 243

Insulated heater
winding
Intake manifold
4 a a / Load
: CI contacts

Contacts close when birnetal 1s heated

Fie. 505
jHeat barriers, Active bimetal strip
im heated by electric current,
— — ST] [ i. 4
(Cl ar|

“Termp
Strip
erature compensating

Fie. 504. Fia. 506.

Fie. 504.—On the Dodge carburetor, when the engine is cold, a vane in the exhaust passage to the “‘hot spot” is held
open by a bimetal spring against the force of a small counterweight. When the thermostatic spiral is heated by the out-
side air or by the warm air stream from the radiator, the spring coils up and allows the weight to close the vane. Since
high accuracy is not needed, a thin, flexible cross section is used with a long length to give the desired sensitivity.
Fie. 505.—In the Friez relay, a constant current through an electrical heating coil around a straight bimetal strip
gives a time-delay action. Since the temperature range is relatively large, high sensitivity is not necessary, hence a
short straight strip of bimetal is suitable. Because of the relatively heavy thickness used, the strip is sufficiently stiff
to close the contact firmly without chattering. !
Fie. 506.—A similar type of bimetal element is used in the Ward Leonard time-delay relay for mercury-vapor
rectifiers. This relay closes the potential circuit to the mercury tube only after the filament has had time to reach its
normal operating temperature. To eliminate the effect of changes in room temperature on the length of the contact
gap, and therefore the time interval, the stationary contact is carried by a second bimetal strip similar to the heated
element. Barriers of laminated plastic on both sides of the active bimetal strip shield the compensating strip and
prevent air currents from affecting the heating rate. The relatively high temperature range allows the use of a
straight thick strip, whereas the addition of the compensating strip makes accurate timing possible with a short travel.

Oil pressure claphrogm

Grounded contact
Ynoved by diaphragm
XN
‘Birmetal

dash

Fie. 507. Fia. 508.

Fie. 507.—Oil pressure, engine temperature, or gasoline level are indicated electrically on automobile dashboard
instruments built by King-Seeley in which a bimetal element is used in both the sender and receiver. A grounded con-
tact at the sender completes an electric circuit through heaters around two similar bimetal strips. Since the same cur-
rent flows around the two bimetal elements, their deflections are the same. But the sender element when heated will
bend away from the grounded contact until the circuit is broken. Upon cooling, the bimetal again makes contact and
the cycle continues, allowing the bimetal to follow the movement of the grounded contact. For the oil-pressure gage,
the grounded contact is attached to a diaphragm; for the temperature indicator, the contact is carried by another
thermostatic bimetal strip; in the gasoline-level device, the contact is shifted by a cam on a shaft rotated by a float.
Deflections of the receiving bimetal are amplified through a linkage that operates a pointer over the scale of the
receiving instrument. Since only small deflections are needed, the bimetal element is in the form of a short stiff strip.
Fic. 508.—Oil dashpots used in heavy-capacity Toledo scales have a thermostatic control to compensate for changes
in oil viscosity with temperature. A rectangular orifice in the plunger is covered by a swaged projection on the bimetal
element. With a decrease in oil temperature, the oil viscosity increases, tending to increase the damping effect; but the
bimetal deflects upward, enlarging the orifice enough to keep the damping force constant. A wide bimetal strip is used
for stiffness so that the orifice will not be altered by the force of the flowing oil.
244 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
Helical /Bimetal
expansion
tube ~~_

Valve closed
at /40deg.F
Full oper at
180 deg. F

Fic. 509.—In mercury-filled indicating thermometers, Fie. 510.—In cooling-water thermostats for auto-
expansion of the mercury in a bulb at the end of a mobile engines, the water flow imposes a load on the
capillary line causes the spiral tube in the gage to uncoil, bimetal spiral, and in addition the overtravel caused
the dial pointer being moved by means of a linkage. by continued cooling after the valve is closed sets up
However, changes in the temperature of the mercury stresses that increase as the temperature decreases.
in the capillary and spiral also affect the movement of the Sufficient strength and cross section to safely with-
linkage introducing an error in the reading. In the stand these stresses without permanent deformation
Taylor indicating thermometer, compensation for changes requires a long flexible element. High accuracy is
in gage temperature is obtained by a flat bimetal strip not obtainable, but in this application a relatively
that forms a part of the pointer linkage. The strip is large variation in operating temperature is permis-
designed so that its deflections are equal but opposite sible. In the Chase thermostat, the bimetal element
to the effect caused by changes in gage temperature. is in the form of a tapered spiral spring which is con-
Since little load is imposed on the thermostatic strip, the nected to a rotating valve by a simple linkage. To
compensating action can be obtained with high accuracy. stabilize the bimetal element, it is subjected to a
series of hot and cold treatments at temperatures
beyond the normal temperature range.

_--Bimetal
strip

A aa
aN Sa

mechanism

Fig. 511.—When the bimetal element in a gas pilot-light control is placed near the pilot flame, the bimetal is
subjected to a temperature near its maximum operating range, and in service over long periods of time the valve may
become corroded and fail to function when an emergency arises. In the pilot control made by the Patrol Valve
Company, operating temperature of the bimetal is reduced and distortion from overheating is prevented by a dual
pilot construction. The constant-burning pilot ignites a second pilot which heats the bimetal strip when the thermo-
static control calls for heat. The bimetal strip upon heating opens the toggle-operated main burner valve, which, by
means of a double-seat construction, reduces the supply of gas to the second pilot, just enough flame being left to keep
the bimetal from closing the valve. Since relatively wide limits for temperature of operation are permissible, the
bimetal element is designed to develop sufficient force to operate the toggle spring without the use of high working
stresses.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 245

Double-throw contact blade,

> ~ Nickel silver

vacuum check

x. — Nickel silver
valve pin

Valve closed
by float or
expansion
A of bellows
Concave A Bimetal Thermostat
bellows \
bimetal disk, toggle \
Spring

%
ayy:

7 \ UB
Temperature Contacts
adjustment 8 Vent regulating Screw
Fia. 512. Fie. 513. Fig. 514.
Fie. 512.—Toggle action, without separate springs, is obtained in the Spencer disk thermostat. The disk is a
saucer-shaped piece of bimetal sheet which snaps itself from a concave to a convex shape at a predetermined tempera-
ture. Both the amount of movement and the temperature differential between opening and closing temperature
depend on the design of the disk. For greater sensitivity, smaller differential and a larger movement than can be
obtained with the plain disk, the bimetal disk is corrugated. Since the disk is small and stores but little heat, it warms
or cools rapidly.
When used as an electrical control device, insulated silver contacts are mounted on the bimetal disk. In the cold
position shown, each of the contacts bridges a gap in insulated plates connected to the heavy terminals. When
heated, the disk snaps to a convex shape, the circuit opening through the device at three points.
Fic. 513.—In the Westinghouse thermostat for electric hot-water heaters, a small range of temperature difference
between on and off is needed, and to eliminate the necessity for an intermediate relay, the contacts must break a rela-
tively heavy current. These conflicting requirements are met by using a double-toggle mechanism. A light toggle
spring on the contact blade keeps the contacts firmly seated until the stronger toggle on the bimetal strip comes into
operation.
The bimetal blade is free to move nearly to the dead-center position, thereby storing energy in its toggle spring
before any pressure is applied to the contact blade. Energy released by the toggle spring, when the bimetal blade
passes dead center, delivers an impact to the contact blade, breaking loose any slight welding that may have occurred
during the previous operation. This thermostat is used as a current-limiting switch, disconnecting one heater as
another is connected. Because of the double-toggle design, the thermostat contacts will safely interrupt 5 kw. at
220 volts alternating current with a temperature differential of 5°F. or less.
Fic. 514—In radiator air valves made by the Anderson Manufacturing Company, air forced into the valve
passes around a small bellows partly filled with a liquid. When steam reaches the valve, the heat increases the vapor
pressure within the bellows, and the resultant expansion raises the float, thereby closing the air-vent orifice.

s Si/ver conduct- aS
as \Adjusting screw ing str "Py ame

2= i
= 1 4

=
i Thermostat,
an “TE
= a
2\ Ys:
/

Y
Fic. 515.—Electric irons require a convenient adjustment for the temperature at which the bimetal element opens
the circuit. In the mechanism designed by Proctor & Schwartz, a double lever not only permits adjustment of the
operating temperature, but also relieves the bimetal strip of any restriction when it cools to room temperature. Since
the operating temperature range is high, a heat-resisting bimetal material is used in the form of a short stiff strip. Cur-
rent is conducted to the bimetal contact through a flexible silver ribbon eliminating the effect of heat caused by current
passing through the bimetal strip.
246 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN
, Pressure
“ connection
Pressure
Ce,
> /kubber
| Aiaphragm

aaa
/ filled bellows

a2ial
Water inet ' Screw -
Fie. 516.—Automobile cooling water temperature Fic. 517.—In aarti type of circulating water
is controlled by a self-contained bellows in the thermo- control valve made by C. J. Tagliabue Manufacturing
stat made by the Bridgeport Brass Company. As Company for use in refrigeration plants, the valve
in the radiator air valve, the bellows itself is subjected opening varies with the pressure on the bellows. This
to the temperature to be controlled. As the tem- valve controls the rate of flow of the cooling water
perature of the water increases to about 140°F., the through the condenser, a greater amount of water
valve starts to open; at approximately 180°F., free being required when the temperature, and- therefore
flow is permitted. At intermediate temperatures, the the pressure, increases. The pressure in the con-
valve opening is in proportion to the temperature. denser is transmitted through a pipe to the valve
bellows thereby adjusting the flow of cooling water.
The bronze bellows is protected from contact with
the water by a rubber diaphragm.

Liquid out™=
s7de of , Pressure spring
bellows —_’ adijusted by dial
\Capilary tube ——Exmeral.
1 belade

Bellows
housing
IN ° Pilot Light
va/ve

Throttling“ ~~Double break

gas valve contacts
Fic. 518.—An automatic gas-range control made Fic. 519.—For electric ranges, the Wilcolator
by the Wilcolator Company has a sealed thermostatic thermostat has the same bellows unit as is used on the
element consisting of a bulb, capillary tube, and gas-type control. But, instead of a throttling action,
bellows. As food is often placed near the bulb, a the thermostat opens and closes the electrical contacts
nontoxic liquid, chlorinated diphenyl, is used in the with a snap action. To obtain sufficient force for the
liquid expansion system. The liquid is also non- snap action, the control requires a temperature
inflammable and has no corrosive effect upon the difference between ‘‘on”’ and “off” positions. For a
phosphor bronze bellows. By placing the liquid control range from room temperature to 550°F., the
outside instead of inside the bellows, the working differential in this device is plus or minus 10°F.; with
stresses are Maximum at normal temperatures when a smaller control range, the differential is propor-
the bellows bottoms on the cup. At elevated working tionately less. The snap-action switch is made of
temperatures, the expansion of the liquid compresses beryllium copper, giving high strength, better snap
the bellows against the action of the extended spring action, and longer life than obtainable with phosphor
which, in turn, is adjusted by the knob. Changes in bronze, and because of its corrosion resistance the
calibration caused by variations in ambient tempera- beryllium-copper blade requires no protective finish.
ture are compensated by making the rocker arm of
bimetal suitable for high-temperature service.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 247
Permanent

- Stee/ Blade

Muxiliary
contacts Silver ace .
le spring .
contacts . Cs aaa SS
Lely Stainless
stee/ blades ~_

Ili i
[ 0 ca
per

‘Bellows Spring
Temperature
o Differential ' Jemperature\
adjustment adjustment signa
Fie. 520. Bie. 521. | Fia. 522.
Fie. 520.—For heavy-duty room-temperature controls, the Penn thermostat uses a bellows mechanism that
develops a high force with small changes in temperature. The bellows is partly filled with liquid butane, which at
room temperatures is a gas having a large change in vapor pressure for small temperature differentials. Snap action
of the electrical contact is obtained from a small permanent magnet that pulls the steel contact blade into firm contact
when the bellows cools. Because of the firm contact, the device is rated at 20 amp. for noninductive loads. To avoid
chattering or bounce under the impact delivered by the rapid magnetic closing action, small auxiliary contacts are
carried on light spring blades. With the large force developed by the bellows, a temperature differential of only 2°F.
is obtained.
Fig. 521.—Snap action in the Tagliabue refrigerator control is obtained from a bowed flat spring. The silver
contacts carried on an extended end of the spring open or close rapidly when movement of the bellows actuates the
spring. With this snap action, the contacts can control an alternating-current motor as large as 114 hp. without the
use of auxiliary relays. Temperature differential is adjusted by changing the spacing between two collars on the bel-
lows shaft passing through the contact spring. For temperatures used in freezing ice, the bellows system is partly
filled with butane.
Fic. 522.—In the General Electric refrigerator control, the necessary snap action is obtained from a toggle spring
supported from a long arm moved by the bellows. With this type of toggle action, the contact pressure is a maximum
at the instant the contacts start to open. Thermostatic action is obtained from a vapor-filled system using sulphur
dioxide for usual refrigerating service or methyl chloride where lower temperatures are required. To reduce friction,
the bellows makes point contact with the bellows cup. Operating temperature is adjusted by changing the initial
eu ieeion in the bellows spring. For resistance to corrosion, levers and blades are stainless steel with bronze pin
earings.

Flexible bellows 1 Thermostatic

at LLL tT t Ean sea/, |Lellows spring
‘ule
.
Sot]
I i } Capillary

ES ;UEREDE
Si
ay
Needle! ‘
valve Y Bellows
% SPrIn
NY
4 4 4 4 4 4 HY 4
adjus?ment
; Fie. 523.—Two bellows units are used in the Fedders thermostatic expansion valve for controlling large refrigera-
tion systems. A removable power bellows unit is operated by vapor pressure in a bulb attached to the evaporator
output line. The second bellows serves as a flexible, gastight seal for the gas valve. A stainless steel spring holds
the valve closed until opened by pressure transmitted from the thermostatic bellows through a molded push pin.
248 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

AUTOMATIC STOPS
\

‘STihread or
wire

—ldller carrier
N.
fn Aa \
HB Me Driving rol/’
Firger--- p A \ — Stanacard!
4 “SHirrup swivels on
Stirrup ~~ this Pope that it
cannot reengage
Crank-~~ Sw Gere 7
bee \ > Oscillating
aa shaft
Stationary-— 5 ‘Angle of con-
L tinuous oscillation
Feelers . To clutch ~

Thread?
Fie. 524.—A mechanism used on the Barber- Fic. 525.—Mechanism used with variations on tubular
Colman spooler. When the thread breaks, the braiding machines. When braiding, tension on the wire or
feelers are released and the spiral spring causes thread lifts the idler carrier which thereby releases the pawl
the spindle with finger to rotate. The latter from the ratchet on spool flange and allows the spool to turn
throws the stirrup into the path of the oscil- and unwind. When the machine stops, the tension on wire is
lating crank, which on its downward stroke decreased, allowing the idler carrier to fall so that the pawl can
throws the spool into the position shown dotted, engage the ratchet. If the wire breaks while the machine is
the stirrup then being thrown out of the path running, the unsupported idler carrier falls to the base of the
of the oscillating crank. standard, and when the standard arrives at the station in the
raceway adjacent to the cam C, the lug Z on idler carrier
strikes the cam C, rotating it far enough to disengage a clutch
on the driving shaft, thereby stopping the machine.
[Crankshaft

Unsealed
Continuously
rotating, /
eccentric \
_--Eccentric arm oscillates
-~ continuously about the
fixed center
Reciprocating Fixed
/ pivot
lg Stop,

4
—_—_> 4

~"--Floating center in .
Thread
;
guide black that tension
rides in slot
‘Ratchet wheel
Fic. 526.—When the thread breaks, the stop drops and Fie. 527—Arrangement used on some
intercepts reciprocating bar. On the next counterclockwise package-loading machines to stop the machine
oscillation of the eccentric arm, the bar B is raised. A feature if a package should pass the loading station
of this design is that it permits the arm B to move up or down without receiving an insert. Pawl finger F has
independently for a limited distance. a rocking motion obtained from crankshaft,
timed so that it enters the unsealed packages
and is stopped against the contents. If the box
is not filled, the finger enters a considerable
distance and the pawl end at the bottom
engages and holds a ratchet wheel on the driving
clutch, which disengages the machine driving
shaft.
 DRIVES AND CONTROLS 249

Bobbin in S. PUSS
its shuttle ~\ “>
oscillates wit, |
the lay SS a

Pivoted. BPA
BN

_ Gutch and brake

operating shaft

Fie. 528—Schematic diagram of mechanism to Fie. 529.—Simple type of stop mechanism for limit-
cause bobbin changer to operate. If the contact arm ing the stroke of a reciprocating machine member.
does not slip on the bobbin, the lever A will rotate Arrows indicate the direction of movement.
to the position shown. But if contact with the
bobbin center slips, as it will do if the bobbin is empty,
lever A will not rotate to the position indicated by
the dashed line, thereby causing the bobbin changer
to come into action.

-Pouring spout

Fastened i
to frome

--Hardened
stee/ stops

Shatt

Fie. 530.—In this textile machine, any movement Fie. 531—When the predetermined weight of
that will rotate the stop lever counterclockwise will material has been poured on the pan, the movement
bring it in the path of the continuously reciprocating of the scale beam pushes the latch out of engagement,
shaft. This will cause the catch lever to be pushed allowing the paddle wheel to rotate and thus dump
counterclockwise and the hardened steel stop on the the load. The scale beam drops, thereby returning
clutch control shaft will be freed. A spiral spring the latch to the holding position and stopping the
then impels the clutch-control shaft to rotate clock- wheel when the next vane hits the latch.
wise, which movement throws out the clutch and
applies the brake. Initial movement of the stop
lever may be caused by the breaking of a thread, a
moving dog, or any other means.
 ioe a ih
oe
(ai
FSG eeeeial 7
 CHAPTER VIII

DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION

METHODS
Pace
HusionawWeldinowe sane a eaoo eee ae ae 252 Permanent Mold Casting................ 267
Resistance Welding...................... 259 IDICRC AS LUI Owes rh vontee Ateneo tre 268
unnacesbrazinceeeman eee cae oe 264 JRROPHETU
OVERes aesa Cecio, Susie aiaTare oie eran seco Cie 270
Hiamevrardenine nner renee oan e eae es 266 IMleving CUEGINER o¢0000007e000c0c0
0D Ubb00s 275
Centrifugal Casting. ...°..../........... 267 Powdered Metal Pressings................

251
252 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

BUILT-UP WELDED CONSTRUCTIONS

The details illustrated, taken from designs for sanitary 4
4 d bottom
and chemical processing equipment, represent utilization
of diversified metal-working equipment—bending rolls, = 22777777]

power presses, flangers and such—to fabricate function- Bent and flame
cut fo size
ally correct parts from simple sheet and fittings. Com-
Pipe section
mercial shapes are used where practical; but parts are ~-Stee/ base plate
flame cut, forged, or rolled when such fabrication is more
economical or design requirements dictate.

~ Half coupling flame

cut to shape
”>>Pipe section
-Stee/ base plate
BUILT-UP SUPPORTS

Stee/
ete Thrust bearing

Pipe section —
~

‘Flame cut to tit tank shape ~Sheared and

= fp Flanged chan- Lert to shape
peg! ne/ not welded SUPPORT FOR LIGHT-LOADED
LARGE DIAMETER TANKS

Angle «~
ed Fee >
welded
to shell

A
/ Steel base
, plate
SIMPLE SUPPORT FOR CIRCULAR
OR SQUARE TANKS

_Fleavy gage
“ plate sheared
and Lent to

Steel base plate

SIMPLE TANK SUPPORT
 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS

Flame -cut
: circle.
“Cylindrical mS
Sel)
Fipe. Aluminum washer
section,
jRubber gasket
/
Tank base,
flame-cut
stee/ Circle \
\

‘Loose stee/
washer

--Aluminum coupling

: Shel] “ 'Drop- forged spud

Fipe or forged Peer plate
section : she.
Pipe
Section,
4

1-Frosion
plate

/Steam
Jacket
Flame-cut
circle
Outlet cast of ~
cdadaing material

wal] allowing two weld

points for additional BUILT-UP INLETS AND OUTLETS
strength

Flamme-cut BUILT-UP AGITATOR-

i ~Reamed SANITARY PROCESSING
stee/ mings /

He
Za N Yl
N
Za
y|
Z|
= Z
annie
Inn
-——it
qt:
UU

CLLEZZZ
x¢ V5.
ea
ELL
WEAR \ Re ‘placeable
Pipe. maple shoe
section

—Facking “Round iron

Zi AVRRRRARRRRRR
O05
BASSES<V bar, threaded
4 and reamed
‘\Flame-cut --— Formed and
Steel ring flame cut

Slot for
maple block
STUFFING BOXES
254 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Flat iron Dished top,

ring bolted #
to shell

Light-gage
olomimn«um shell

1s PERMANENT
TANK COVER
=| Cover ,
BSS iuminum Rubber, plate
Rl, \ Sar Flame-cut circle
\
Poon K_—ES
Jee == Ng
Gum-rubber , Rubber plate
gasket \‘ i gaskets, —a
Clarmp “S Light- fa - Sees Tank oma R
VAPOR-TIGHT i SLE. Z HE | Shell Rubber) Flame-cut
TANK COVER SSS SS gasket steel circles
'S/eel clips solid welded Haexrag ors
to tlat iron band bolted S\GHT- GLASS DETAIL Cylindrical shell
to drum ACCESS DOOR

as i te Tank- Tee bolt

Section C-C shell | DD ai
Faw] end ~
B C CI ae _-Stee/ oor
Coe = ~ frame
—— Stee/ sleeves
an
ee
Hh: Gasket
Deval Lf door |
N \ --Asbestos
gasket
Section B-B
TLE, -~ TIGHT DOOR
Handles STEAHE TG

Section AA
_---7 Cover Clamps
FOUR-SEGMENT DEMOUNTABLE / equally spaced
TANK COVER

Low- pressure
Jacket iFlattened HINGED
Outer base
Jacketing
JACKETS land arilled |
|
COVERS
Round-iron
Forged stee/ Heavy forged arm
ring ~~ steel FING x,
~Stee/
gusset
Outer Inner Inner . ah
shell >. shell Shel] flee cur

Out
BUT 4 ae
stee/ wre:
shel] Stee/ plate wo | pipe Cylindrical —
welded to tank
Moderate Pressure High Pressure and pipe
{ Hee] washers
 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 259

“Flanged and . 7 Flanged and

Slotted! cover a eee cover
0
\ ° Slotted steel Angle
A ! reinforcing
Qaessi ring
SSA” N
N QE Gasket Gasket ~-
Cylindrical Steelring WY ~Steel ring
Sea IS Or pin NWR eee Cylindrical
Angle ring, . MIDE LG sored Sanitary SHG == “Angle
Slotted ‘Cylindrical shell Gasketin
Construction

- Dished fop -Dished top

Alloy casting =
x

“Forged steel - forged steel

‘machined _ SS machined
a Hlanges ._tlanges

Shel] —— Sees
e — Cylindrical shell — s-Cylindrical shell
VARIOUS FORMS OF PRESSURE JOINTS

Square iron ring

detail, shaped and
cut from solid bar
machined to section
shown above

Flame-cut slots-“
for hold down
bolts

“EE=—— Ru bber gasket

Flame-cut
/ steel ring “Iron ring, M1 Gasket
welded to cd
= - Stor)
ee . shell ‘/ron ring
see
SRI y ah
oon ‘ eS Flat Pin?
5

’sFlorme-cut Iron U7 Cylindrical Cylindrical

~~ shell
Cylindrical steel ring
1 clip shell
shell
CLAD JOINT HIGH-PRESSURE JOINTS
256 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

WELDING S.A.E. 4340 STEEL

By welding, quenching, and tempering after gas welding, 8.A.E. 4340 tubes can
be butt-welded to give a tensile strength of more than 180,000 lb. per sq. in. with a
Rockwell hardness of C 46. It is considered that a minimum tensile strength of
125,000 Ib. per sq. in. can be safely specified for parts made by gas welding 8.A.E.
4340 steel tubes and normalizing.
As shown in the accompanying table, butt-welded specimens of 8.A.E. 4340
tubes can be heat-treated to develop a maximum tensile strength of 217,000 lb. per
sq. in. as compared with a maximum tensile strength of 252,800 lb. per sq. in. for the
unwelded tube. The gas-welding characteristics of this material are equal to or bet-
ter than those of S.A.E. 4130 steel tubes.

RESULTS OF TENSION TESTS, RESULTS OF TENSION TESTS,

BUTT-WELDED 4340 STEEL TUBES BUTT-WELDED 4340 STEEL TUBES
2% in. O.D. X 0.125-in. wall 134 in. O.D. X 0.65-in. wall
:
Specimen Tensile strength, Hockwel Speci- Bersile ||odkwell
No Tih, aeeeee aa hardness, ean Gonnition strength, |hardness
; : Tees (base metal) lb. per (base
No. :
sq. in. metal)
As Welded
19 | 99,000] B 91.0
31 tes o00 g auf 20 ‘
Annealed and welded ,
1 98.700| B 91.5
136,000 } 3
é 131,200
D CG 36.0 ASVverage
OTA £ Cra lien eet nsec nee ERR 98,850] B 91.3
2

iS 135,500 C 36.5
: 139,900 © 36.5 op] |Welded “as received” |}522’800 ee
145 , 500 C 37.5 , -
Average.......... 136.000 C 36.5 IAVIETACEC). Pn Ree) Whose y tare eee 130,500} C 38.0

z : 23 Welded ‘‘as received” || 124,000} C 39.0

WWeldediand Normalized 24 and normalized 134,000] C 37.0
7 135.000 C 40.5 ASVGTARC'est ako eae.sue tn ate ran ie 129,000} C 38.0
: 125,700 C 36.5
9 130,800 C 42.5 25 Welded “as received,’’| 217,000} C 51.0
10 133.900 C 38.0 26 oil quenched 1525°F.,| 211,500] C 51.0
ss 134,800 CG 43°5 tempered 400°F.

a 137,500 C 38.5 TAViera gen nas Ween american ane ae 214,250) C 51.0
Average. noaooo nod
iS) 182,900 C 40.0 5
Z Note: All specimens except 19 and 20 broke in or
Welded, Quenched, and Tempered eatiaganit tt Who well

- 175 ,000 C 45.0

15 171,000 C 46.5
16 182,000 C 46.0
17 167 ,000 C 46.0
18 199,000 C 46.0
204 ,000 C 47.0
Average.......... 183.000 C 46.0

Notes: Longitudinal bead welded on specimens 7 and 8.

All specimens broke in the weld.
 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 257

ARC WELDING THIN SHEET Ss

Uniformly good are welds in sheets less than 0.050 in. (18 gage) thick can be
made with generator-type welders with a minimum setting of 10 to 15 amp. with
stable operation at 20 amp. and higher. Stainless steel and Monel exhaust stacks
and manifolds for aircraft, which are of comparatively thin gage, are being fabricated
by this method. Results of tests on two aircraft materials, S.A.E. 1025 and 4130,
are shown in the following tables.
RESULTS OF TESTS ON WELDED THIN TUBES
Electrode ieee nit
Specimen Material |Thickness |Current |diameter, |Failure*|~-’°! "8° 0"
; tensile stress
in.
Tubing (1 in. diameter)...... 1025 0.035 18 364 O 81,950
F 0.049 27 46 O 80,600
0.065 32 Me I 75,200

4130 0.035 18 a I 94 ,250

0.049 26 46 I 104 ,900
0.065 32 46 I 82 ,600

ONCE Usa serie aes taethen ees veces 1025 0.187 73 1g I 57 , 260
(Specimen 34 in. wide)
4130 0.035 23 Me O 113 ,500
0.049 29 Vie I 103 ,430
0.187 65 345 I 57,260
* T, in weld; O, outside weld.

ROD SIZE AND AMPERAGE FOR WELDING MINIMUM TENSILE STRENGTH OF WELDS FOR
THIN-GAGE MATERIAL WELDER QUALIFICATION TESTS
(Approximate) (Air Corps Spec. 20013-B)
N } .
Ren f Mwoems ae a Carbon content Carbon-steel | Alloy-steel
sa eb Ds ena eecetics of filler rod base metal | base metal
leo 5-10 32-26
3
AS Bal ey Up to 0.06................} 45,000 55,000
oe AO-G0 ae O.O7O.1B. sccooacuassacces 50,000 65,000
uae
lg 60-75 a
10-14 in. Over 0.12. Sees 55,000 70,000

Tubular Section Formed of Thin-gage Stainless Steel.

A. Operations when plaster die formed parts are used:
Round corners Could! not be~_ Worked into
SNE filled by arc ~ circular Cross-
-5 weld SECTION ae

AG e Removed! ONG Caporale OES |

by mibbler=-
B. Operations when steel or hard aluminum-bronze dies are used:
Sh
Sharp corners Arc welded K Sete cen fe

“Sn into shape~_

E
eri Cut off in press eg?

By using metal dies, sharper corners can be formed and nibbling operation
eliminated. By shearing off excess material, section can be are welded in less time.
 NOISNA ONIGTUM SOILSTAALOVAVHO FO WOANINNTV SAOTIV
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 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 259

METALS THAT CAN BE RESISTANCE WELDED

© Good weld
Iron
Completely united
Stainless iron @ but Battle weld
Allegheny metal ® Poor weld
Cobalt steel O Noweld
Blank space- Combination
Nickel not tried
Nichrome * In the course of spot weldin
Monel metal coated materials, the coatings
frequently dissolve in the other
Nickel silver metals present or burn away
Brass
Courtesy of
Bronze Be// Telephone Record
Manganin
Everdur
Copper
Aluminum
Magnesium
Molybdenum
Lead
Tin
Cadmium
Zinc
*Galvanized Iron
*Tin plate
*Chromium plated steel
*Nickel plated brass
 260

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 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 261

FOUR SURFACE PREPARATIONS FOR SPOT WELDING ALUMINUM

Method I.
1. Dip parts in 50 per cent HNO; cold for 15 sec.*
2. Rinse in cold water.*
3. Dip parts in 5 per cent NaOH + 4 per cent NaF at 160°F. for 30 sec.
4, Rinse in cold water.
5. Dip parts in 50 per cent HNO; cold for 15 to 30 sec. to remove black deposit from step 3.
6. Rinse in cold water.+
7. Rinse in boiling water. t
8. Dry parts on steam coils or in sawdust.

Method II.
1. Dip parts in 50 per cent HNO; cold for 15 sec.*
2. Rinse in cold water.*
3. Dip parts in 10 per cent NaOH at 160°F. for 30 sec.
4. Rinse in cold water.
5. Dip parts in 50 per cent HNO; cold for 15 to 30 sec. to remove black deposit from step 3.
6. Rinse in cold water. ¢
7. Rinse in boiling water.t
8. Dry parts on steam cou or in sawdust.

Method III.
1. Paint area to be welded with gum tragacanth HF acid paste and leave on for 30 sec.
2. Wash paste off with running cold water or with wet rags.
3 . Dry off water with dry rags.
Gum-tragacanth paste is prepared from:
3 lb. gum tragacanth
10 gal. hot water
Dissolve gum tragacanth in hot water, add one gallon of alcohol to water if necessary to dissolve
gum tragacanth.
Add 10 lb. hydrofluoric acid to above solution.
Material must be stored in paraffin-lined containers.
Operators must wear rubber gloves and goggles to use this material. In partially assembled
parts precautions should be taken to keep acid out of joint.

Method IV.
Area to be spot welded may be cleaned by mechanical means.
a. Rub with steel wool.
b. Rub with fine emery cloth.
c. Use fine wire brush.
* Omit steps 1 and 2 for material relatively free from oil.
t Repeat steps 3 to 6 for material having very heavy heat-treating film not removed in steps 1 to 6.
ft Final hot water should be thoroughly free of dissolved salts and of organic matter which would tend to stain the
freshly cleaned parts.
262 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR RESISTANCE WELDING

>

abe bo
Fic. 532. Fic. 533. Fic. 534. Fia. 535.
Fic. 532.—Round, embossed projections allow the use of flat electrodes. Several projection welds can be made
simultaneously.
Fic. 533.—Pointed or cone-shaped projections are often used on light-gage materials, such as 22 and 24 gage.
Fic. 534.—Protruding punch out may help to locate parts preparatory to welding. Where great strength is not
required, the punch out itself is sometimes electroforged down.
Fie. 535.—Prick punch marks made with round punch (one blow) used in welding thick plates to light-gage sheets
to throw up a crater which localizes welding heat and pressure.

Electrode

lA
YAN

Electrode

Fic. 536. Fia. 537. Fie. 538. Fic. 539.

Fic. 536.—Design of embossed corners, formed over one another and welded between V-shaped electrodes.
Fic. 537.—Almost any form of screw, rivet, or specially headed part can be projection welded.
Fic. 538.—Slight radius on the end of the rod permits it to be welded to another part without throwing a fin or
flash.
Fre. 539.—The crater or ringlike cavity is filled with the heated metal of the round projection, resulting in close
mechanical contact over the whole surface.

Fic. 540. Fia. 541. Fic. 542. Fic. 548.

Fie. 540.—A ring projection can be turned or coined on the shaft in order to localize the welding area.
Fic. 541.—Similar to Fig. 539, except reversed.
Fie. 542.—Projection swaged on the edges of a piece, a method of embossing thick plates or strap stock.
Fra. 543.—Specially headed screws or studs prepared both to localize weld and to locate the screws without the
necessity of using jigs or fixtures.
 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 263

PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR RESISTANCE WELDING

Fia. 5

Fic. 546.

Fie. 546

Fic. 549. Fic. 547. Fie. 548.

Fic. 544.—Hlongated projections that cross each other are for the lightest gages and certain nonferrous combina-
tions and where a good strong weld is imperative.
Fic. 545.—Elongated projections or a pattern of ribs that cross one another gives many points of small welded
area. Should be used for thin sheet metal.
Fic. 546.—Elongated projection for welding to a curved surface. This assures ample contact surface in the
direction in which movement is likely to occur.
Fic. 547.—Upsetting a tube to form bulges can be done by heating and upsetting on a butt welder.
Fic. 548.—Rods of almost any metal can be upset to provide increased sections or limiting rings.
Fie. 549.—Offsetting helps to locate the lap joint and also contributes to having one side smooth.

Fie. 550.
ag 551.

Fic. aa[

Fic. 550.—Welding both sides of es

a box form by employing a shunt-block device.
Fic. 551.—An example of “‘pry-bar” welding. Done by prying against parts backed up by dies.
Fic. 552.—Coined switch contacts having three conical projections that nest in a ring groove stamped in the
blade.

EZZZIr LIZ
4
eral
cta arate

Fic. 553. Fic. 554. Fie. 555.

Fig. 553.—When wire cables are “cut” by clamping between the jaws of a welder and burning the cable in two,
a globule of metal, formed on the ends, holds the wires together.
Fic. 554.—Pipe or heavy-walled tubes can be butted together or to other pieces. Chamfering the pipe ends
keeps flash at a minimum.
Fic. 555.—Rods or cables can be economically welded into sleeves or ferrules.
 264 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

FURNACE BRAZING
STRENGTH OF COPPER-BRAZED JOINTS

Shear strength, lb. per sq. in.

Material Clearance | Tight
0.003 in. | press fit
IMG ES te elect a ene epee cel ery Ss ot. Veen eer 22,000 29 ,000
INN OVEStCELE nbn Monee Sits ee eee ee 30,000 50,000

Brazing Metal.—For steel parts, copper or brass in the form of wire, paste, or
powder. For inaccessible surfaces, use copper-coated steel or make a spray consisting
of copper or brass powder mixed with lacquer, and thin. This mixture is sprayed or
brushed on the surfaces to be brazed. .
For aluminum, a special flux and brazing metal is required. For inaccessible
places, the aluminum sheet can be obtained with the brazing material rolled in along
the edges.
Furnace Temperature.—For brass wire or powder, 1740 to 2000°F.; for copper
brazing, about 2100°F. Furnace temperature can be anything reasonably higher that
will not be detrimental to the parts.
Furnace Atmosphere.—Percentage composition carbon dioxide, 5.6; hydrogen,
11.9; carbon monoxide, 10.3; methane, 0.2; nitrogen, 72.0. No oxygen.
Heating for annealing or hardening can be simultaneous with the furnace brazing.
All heating operations subsequent to the furnace brazing must be at temperatures
below the melting temperatures of the brazing metal used.
Fit of Part.—Light press fits are desirable. Tight fits increase the flow of the
brazing material into the joint, the tighter the joint the farther the molten metal will
flow. Void spots or gaps are difficult to seal because clearance is too great to permit
capillary attraction drawing the molten metal into the joints.
FURNACE BRAZING CHARACTERISTICS OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Wrought alloys Casting alloys
Heat-
Factors involved Nonheat-treatable Heat-treatable Nonheat-treatable treat-
able
\ 28 38 52S | 53S | 618 | Ale.17S| Ale. 24S] 43 214 | B214/ 406 | 356
1. Brazability........ Good | Good | Poor | Fair | Good} Poor Poor Fair | Poor | Poor |Good | Poor
2. Filler material...... US3s}/ SIS] cca c PASAIG| MEAG! oconce
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Raed MADE cootreneereta
atech 2 30|oOn eee 33 33sec calls aeee Eel | orcstasal hlctasona 30
4. Brazing tempera-|/ 1160] 1160 | .... | 1065 | 1065 | ......
|]...... NO) | sasa |] soca |} LUGO
ture, deg. F...... Wisyay} TNS) |] osc |] HORM | WORD | sasoco
|| sesoee NOB |} secs coca || dlilehs
Note: Thickness range for alloys listed is 0.006 to 14 in.

Design Precautions.—The brazing metals flow by virtue of capillary attraction,

but if the gap between the surfaces to be brazed is greater than about 0.005 in., the
capillary attraction is destroyed. Therefore, at no point in the path of intended flow
of brazing metal should the gap between the surfaces to be brazed be more than about
0.005 in. as this would stop the further penetration of the brazing metal.
 DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 265
DESIGN

DESIGNS OF JOINTS FOR BRAZING

BY THEIR OWN WEIGHT SCREW
PARTS HELD TOGETHER FASTENING
c

om / Copper
y washer ;Brazing
! wire

EG
STAKED

1 Copper
. wire
7 Br Zing
Note square corners to obtain
aconstant minimum clearance Ware
Letween al/ portions of surraces
to be brazed

FLANGED JOINTS METHOD FOR KEEPING

KNURLED CORNERS CLEAN OF
BRAZING MATERIAL
Chamfer
/ Brazing
s
wire
Brazing -~
' wire SS
Ae

\\

Hela)by ex-
SSS
analir
Pies ae
welding or

Brazing
{/ wire
_ ASSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS

EXPANDED TUBE Brazing

N Do sheet
NI

Clearance ~~ onl] SS

Wlddi
CLAMP

BRAZED JOINTS IN SHEETS

rb
(Brazing Brazing / Clamp or
Y wire wire ~~ tack UeTeh

OTT
SOME (277
Zhe
SSS (Brazing wire BD
\
aaa)
PalSNS
BSA
\Clamp or tack weld
266 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

FLAME HARDENING DATA

COMPOSITION
Manganese 0.40
Phosphorus 0.02
Sulphur 0.02
Silicon 0.02

7 Per cent hardness increase

/ atter quenching
i
ie
Hardness
Brinell
\
bs
x
-Hardness as annealed
Hardness
Increase,
Cent
Per

0.2 04 06 0.8 1.0 12 [4 L6 Re}

Carbon, Per Cent
RELATION BETWEEN BRINELL HARDNESS AND CARBON CONTENT WHEN STEEL IS COOLED SLOWLY
AND WHEN WATER QUENCHED

0 0.04 0.08 Ql2 O16 0.20 0) 0.08 0.16 0.24 032 0.38
Depth, Inches Depth Below Surface, Inches
DEPTH HARDNESS CURVES OF FLAME HARDNESS FROM SURFACE TO CORE OF FLAME
HARDENED S.A.E. 4140 ANNEALED STEEL HARDENED S.A.E. 1045 STEEL

Flame Hardening Specifications

Material.—Cast iron, malleable iron, and any alloy steels other than tool steels,
with carbon content equal to S.A.E. 1040 or higher, depending on the hardness
desired.
Preparation.—In order to assure freedom from surface cracking, the steel should
be stress-relieved by annealing or normalizing before flame hardening.
Hardness Obtained.—Surface hardness of the case will depend on the carbon
content of the steel, as shown by the accompanying curves.
Depth of Hardness.—Hardness varies with depth below the surface as shown by
the curves.
Precautions.—Avoid overheating, which is one of the prime causes of surface
checking and cracks.
Reference Literature.—“Flame Hardening by the Oxy-Acetylene Process,”
published by the International Acetylene Association, 30 East 42nd Street, New York,
INERYE
 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 267.

CASTING DATA
Centrifugal Casting
Materials Suitable-—Aluminum, bronze, Monel, beryllium copper, iron, steels of
various grades, stainless steel, copper, and other nonferrous materials.
Shapes.—Any combinations of cylindrical shapes such as wheels, gears, screw-
down nuts, bushings with tapers, and parts with varying diameters.
Maximum Size.—Screw-down nuts, weighing approximately 3,600 lb. each, for a
new continuous-type steel mill, have been centrifugally cast.
Finish Allowances.
: 2 : Outside diameter | Inside diameter
Outside diameter, in. : 5
allowance, in. allowance, in.
9} Cie VOSS is Danaea eee cee ates Chea MIeNG o-eeeae yas le lé
Di «atl se eee rr Ae RESP
f
RR Se ONESee vA4
lg
AN iil eta Sore AL GS HNN ae ne 546 ly
@ =I... 36 MY
OvicrelO ieee ee ehh rne whe emer i) Wy

Ford casting of both bevel and cluster gear blanks allows only }32 to 6 in. stock
for machining.
Wall Thickness.—Practical minimum about !4 in.
Relative Cost.—More costly in small quantities than sand castings in small
quantities. However, as quantity increases to 20 or more, the cost is little if any more
because of the material required for extra gates and risers in sand castings. Centrif-
ugal mold cost is only about 15 per cent that of a comparable forging die. Generally
the cost of a permanent metal die for centrifugal casting can be justified by as few as
10 or 12 pieces, although customarily such a die is not made for fewer than 25 or.
30 pieces. ;
Typical Examples.—The bushings for Hamilton Standard propellers were for-
merly sand cast of beryllium copper with scrap running as high as 30 per cent. Perma-
nent mold castings did not prove feasible. Scrap has been almost eliminated by use
of aluminum bronze centrifugal castings of tapered hollow bushings.
In another case, several hundred bronze rings, about 45 in. outside diameter, and
20 in. inside diameter and 3 in. thick, originally specified as forgings were found to
have satisfactory physical properties when centrifugally cast. Die costs would have
been high for the comparatively few forgings required. Another gain was less time
required to get delivery.
Permanent Mold Casting
Size limitations:
Largest permanent mold casting produced, 20 X 16 X 34 in., weighing more than
100 lb.
Smallest permanent mold casting produced weighed less than 1 oz.
Minimum tolerance, all dimensions:
Who) Ho). Gy aha) ..gS 5.S a Seed sae wees Oe Brn Eteca, Oe Rae eee 5 oer aRE +0.010 in.
(Oyneneie Ha 5 2's Ne eedeen nin etemti ele ainie ioe cig ard eee eenenas Add 0.001 in. per in. of length
268 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Undercuts:
Omit wherever possible, but, if unavoidable, they can be produced through use of
collapsible metal core or, if that is impractical, by use of baked sand core.
Section thickness, minimum.................................- Geer ar 0.085 in.
Coredjholes! minimumydiametersa) 4) lesen noe lessee 0.25 in.
Draftvanglexsmminimrumer jesse cee ee ee eee er ee eee 0.5 deg. per side
Inserts, steel or cast-iron inserts practical
Cast threads, not practical

Aluminum Die Casting

Size limitations:
Maximum’ practicalloyer-alladimension sae eee ne eer ae eee eae ee erent cee eee 36 X 12 X 9 in.
(Few aluminum die castings exceed 25 in. in length)
Largest produced:
BAAS rele RIE isl ceoyetsichcenalDPec oS ICLe ae re MEE mee artes or ie rae ee ai tes ULEe OTL 84 X 12 X 1 in. (14 lb.)
(Die-cast dog used as trade-mark on Greyhound buses)
IBV AW EleDtrsicatia nner teesMaaNet reyes ce aalegicoso lardhat ee RNS neen ac rome ees eS Pg 19 Ib. (12 X 19 X 20 in.)
(Die-cast cases for Leeds and Northrup instruments)
Section thickness:
JEENYXS) CEST HbaYashescantap oaNb0di on cteec setae, Bio OMe etees Oara natin 36.8 binGolo c.g olaola feienare Caer nore ene G 0.085 to 0.10 in.
Smallvcastingspless than’ Gnnelene thon width) 004 eee eran nnrereiieese oie aaa 0.050 to 0.065 in.
Avoid abrupt changes in wall thickness.
Dimensional tolerances:
ImamygoOnerdim Cn sions etoryersey sti. oe aieceise sed eee OTN OTN CLO Ra dD ee ee +0.0015 in. per in.
(Frequently less by trial and error)
Perpendicular to parting line:
MATZe CASHINESR ae ree Reroi yrs tetas fatscoob,AC WCyoR ANSU dy SRE UREERE Rae Sele Pa Tag —0.00 to +0.010 in.
Smallicastinpsi tetas eae Oe kie cee oueat cle te ree Ue Whee Meeiigela, Aree ae tree, Nan —0.00 to +0.003 in.
Between points formed by removable part and die, tolerances are the same as those across parting line.
Cored holes:
Wihieieapran Cheyeneier Cl Conadl NONE. coscupacwosbonnodunsvannoanenconnesasdnaesonoovnsccnas 0.090 in. approx.

Diameter Length limit Diameter Length limit

(Und eras4igilintce a ctycet esr okra ielcejegeiua

eee 3 diameters | Over 4g in.............................| 10 diameters
ERoyapam etal ated teseirre t aeel eget ade ceed 6 diameters | argeniholestan scare ee ee eee No limit

stolerancesfonkthroughyholes—small§holese mee ae eine eee eine ne areas 0.001 in.

Closer tolerances on through holes must be obtained by reaming, the hole being cast 0.005 to 0.010 in. undersize.
Cores for internal threads—preferable to use threaded insert.
Draft allowances:
Outsiderwalls:recommendedBastp ty scans sree eee eee ee eae are 0.010 in. /in.
Rectan gularmcoresonveachesld ener ng rytetss sey ch. coe eee one Pe TRH r as Sen eee 0.008 in. /in.
Internal cores, in general, as in table below:

APPROXIMATE DIAMETER
or Hoe AMOUNT OF DRAFT
Thessuthaine yg amt seatteges <persaeee stars oe omen ey cyat aie Se eee Ree roree 0.015—-0.020 in. on diameter
TEMG OM slmalccs hence rertsc Srp cache eens ac rakewe Tere Tae Tar at eee 0.010—0.015 in. on diameter
Moresthan lin yates aca e eet ec ere ee ee eae 0.010—0.030 in. on diameter
(depending on size and design)

If no draft is permissible, ream or, unless hole is shallow, use insert.

Small holes for tapping usually cast to root diameter of thread plus 15 per cent with standard draft added.
Inserts:
If strained, should be knurled on surfaces within casting.
Small pins, if subject to pull, should be both knurled and grooved.
 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 269
Fillets:
Avoid sharp corners if possible.
Finishes:
Alumilite finish best on alloy 218. Colored alumilite best in darker shades. May be plated with common plating
metals if desired.
Design to aid trimming:
Design part so that flashes will be in or parallel to main parting plane.
Cast threads:
Internal threads—best to cast threaded insert.
External threads—can be cast and need only light chasing to finish.

COMPARATIVE RATINGS FOR DIE CASTING ALLOYS

Aluminum Magnesium Zine

Belechion| factor ASTM Bes asia, | Asah

Nos. 5, 7, 12 Nos. 12 and 13] Nos. 21, 23, 25

Tensile strength 3 1 (strongest) 3 2

Impact strength 3 1 (toughest) 3 2
Miseventicel| Elongation 4 1 (most ductile) 3 2
: Dimensional stability 2 1 (most stable) 2 3*
BrOpeTUes Resistance to cold flow 2 1 (most resist- 2 3
ant)
Brinell hardness 3 1 (hardest) 3 2

Electrical conductivity 1 (highest) 2 3 2

Physical Thermal conductivity 1 (highest) 2 4 3
constants Melting point 2 1 (highest) 2 3
Weight, per cu. in. 2 4 1 (lightest) 3

Ease, speedof casting 2, 3 2 1 (easiest)

Maximum feasible size 1 (largest 2 1 (largest) 1 (largest
feasible) feasible) feasible)
Casting Complexity of shape 1 (greatest 2 1 (greatest 1 (greatest
character- possible) possible) possible)
istics Dimensional accuracy 2 3 1 1 (most
accurate)
Minimum section thickness 2 3 2 1 (thinnest)
Surface smoothness 2 3 2 1 (smoothest)

Die costt 2 3 2 1 (lowest)

lost Production cost 2 3 2 1 (lowest)
Finishing costt 3 2 3 1 (lowest)
Cost per piece§ 2 3 2 1 (lowest)

* Through the use of a low-temperature annealing treatment, alloy 23 can be made virtually stable in dimensions.
{ Dies for casting the low melting point alloys are least expensive and have longest life.
{ Includes polishing and buffing expense as well as ease of applying all types of commercial finishes, both electro-
deposited and organic.
§ Based on die, material, and fuel costs, production speed, and machining and finishing costs.
iw)|bow=) HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

THE DESIGN OF DROP FORGINGS

Most metal forgings are made from bar stock wherein the lines of the fibers run
parallel to the axis. Best forging results are obtained when the forging pressure is
applied along the axis of the bar, which will compel the metal to flow with least distor-
tion of the fiber lines. When metal is compelled to flow in a direction perpendicular
to the lines of the fiber by means of pressure applied perpendicular to the flow lines,
as in raising a boss on a flat plate, the metal will not be as strong, especially in its
resistance to impact loads. An even worse condition is created when the metal is
compelled to flow at an angle to the direction across the grain.
The accompanying figures illustrate flow conditions in forging bars or plates.
; Forging pressure Forging pressure

Forging
pressure
7
Best forging condition. Raising a boss in this manner Worst condition is
weakens the metal. when a boss is thrown up
on a plane making an
angle with the flow lines.

o
aa | Volume curve
Incorrect o
(cen
(Volume curve
Correct
E design E design
a) Ne}
$ £ forging > ¢ forging

To assure best forging conditions, a curve of volumes, such as above, should be

plotted. This enables the designer to visualize quickly and accurately the flow con-
ditions that will exist in the forging operations. Thus to the left is the volume curve
obtained from a poor design as indicated by the abrupt changes in volume. To the
right is shown the same design corrected so that the volume curve changes smoothly.
Smooth changes in volume also indicate a design that is most economical to forge.
Poor flow conditions will cause an excessive amount of flash, thereby necessitating an
excessive number of forging blows, which favors the formation of cold shuts, the metal
not filling the die cavity. Cracks and other defects are also likely to result if the dis-
: tribution of the metal around the neutral axis is
unsymmetrical.

15to 2d |
I
3d max
In making upset forgings, the bar stock is rough upset
and is usually so proportioned that the upset ratio on the
4 y | diameter will be 1/2 to 2, the length upset ratio usually 2 to
2's, with 3 as amaximum. If it is greater than 3 diameters,
the bar will usually buckle. However, length upset ratio may
V/ Vf exceed 3 diameters, but the die and operation costs will be
‘< Gripping die” greatly increased.
 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 271

STANDARD TOLERANCES FOR FORGINGS UNDER 100 LB. EACH*

Tolerances shall be either “special” or “regular.’”’ Special tolerances are those
which are particularly noted in the specifications and may state any or all tolerances
in any way as occasion may require. Special tolerances apply only to the particular
dimension or thing noted. In all cases where special tolerances are not specified,
regular tolerances shall apply.
Regular tolerances are divided into two divisions, ‘‘commercial standard” ) and
“close standard.”’ Commercial standard tolerances are for general forging practice,
but when or where extra close work is desired involving additional expense and care
in the production of forgings, close standard may be specified. Close standard may be
specified for one or more of the following classes. When no standard is specified,
commercial standard shall apply.
Classes

Regular tolerances are applicable to the following classes:

1. Thickness.
2. Width: (a) shrinkage and die wear; (b) mismatching; (c) trimmed size.
3. Draft angle.
4. Quantity.
5. Fillets and corners.
THICKNESS TOLERANCES
(Inches)

Commercial Close
Net weights up 7

tol. Minus Plus Minus Plus

0.2 0.008 0.024 0.004 0.012

0.4 0.009 0.027 0.005 0.015
0.6 0.010 0.030 0.005 0.015
0.8 0.011 0.033 0.006 0.018
1 0.012 0.036 0.006 0.018
2 0.015 0.045 0.008 0.024
3 0.017 0.051 0.009 0.027
4 0.018 0.054 0.009 0.027
5 0.019 0.057 0.010 0.030
10 0.022 0.066 0.011 0.033
20 0.026 0.078 0.013 0.039
30 0.030 0.090 0.015 0.045
40 0.034 0: 102 0.017 0.051
50 0.038 0.114 0.019 0.057
60 0.042 0.126 0.021 0.063
70 0.046 0.138 0.023 0.069
80 0.050 0.150 0.025 0.075
90 0.054 0. 162 0.027 0.081
100 0.058 0.174 0.029 0.087

* Adopted by the Drop Forging Association, Feb. 11, 1937.

272 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Class 1. Thickness Tolerances

Thickness tolerances shall apply to the over-all thickness of a forging. When
applied to drop-hammer forgings, they shall apply to the thickness in a direction per- _
pendicular to the main or fundamental parting plane of the die. When applied to
upset forgings, they shall apply to the thickness in a direction parallel to the direction
of travel of the ram, but only to such dimensions as are inclosed by the die.
Class 2. Width and Length Tolerances
Width and length tolerances shall be alike and shall apply to the width and/or
length of a forging. When applied to drop-hammer forgings, they shall apply to the
width or length in a direction parallel to the main or fundamental parting plane of the
die, but only to such dimensions as are enclosed by and actually formed by the die.
When applied to upset forgings, they shall apply to the width or length in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of travel of the ram.
Width and length tolerances shall consist of three subdivisions:
Class 2a. Shrinkage and die wear tolerance.
Class 2b. Mismatching tolerance.
Class 2c. Trimmed size tolerance.
Class 2a. Shrinkage and Die Wear
Shrinkage and die wear tolerances shall apply to that part of the forging formed
by a single die block only. They shall not apply to any dimension crossing the part-
ing plane. They shall be the sum of the shrinkage tolerances and the die wear toler-
ances as given in the following table. The shrinkage tolerances and die wear
tolerances shall not be applied separately, but shall only be used as the sum of the
two. They shall not be so applied as to include draft or variation thereof.
SHRINKAGE PLUS DIE WEAR
(Inches)
Lengths or F : ae : :
é Commercial, Close, Net weight Commercial, Close,
widths up : : : ;
aaa at plus or minus | plus or minus up to__lb. plus or minus | plus or minus

1 0.003 0.002 il 0.032 0.016

2 0.006 0.003 3 0.035 0.018
3 0.009 0.005 5 0.038 0.019
4 0.012 0.006 7 0.041 0.021
5 0.015 0.008 9 0.044 0.022
6 0.018 0.009 11 0.047 0.024
For each For each
additional 0.003 0.0015 additional 0.003 0.0015
inch add 2 Ib. add
For example: For example:
12 0.036 0.018 21 0.062 0.031
18 0.054 0.027 31 0.077 0.039
24 0.072 0.036 41 0.092 0.046
36 0.108 0.054 51 0.107 0.054 —
48 0.144 0.072 71 0.137 0.069
60 0.180 0.090 91 0.167 0.084
 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 273

Class 2b. Mismatching Tolerance

Mismatching is the displacement of a point in that part of a forging formed by
one die block of a pair, from its desired position when located from the part of the
forging formed in the other die block of the pair. Mismatching does not include any
displacement caused by’ variation in thickness of the forging but is only the displace-
ment in a plane parallel to the main or fundamental parting plane of the dies.
Mismatching tolerances are independent of, and in addition to, any other
tolerances.
MISMATCHING TOLERANCE

Net weight up to—lb. dnclies bolerance

Commercial Close
1 0.015 0.010
7 0.018 0.012
13 0.021 0.014
19 0.024 0.016 ‘
For each additional 6 lb. add 0.003 0.002
For example:
37 0.033 0.022
55 0.042 0.028
79 0.054 0.036
97 0.063 0.042

Class 2c. Trimmed Size Tolerances

The trimmed size shall not be greater nor less than the limiting sizes at the parting
plane imposed by the sum of the draft angle tolerances and the shrinkage and die
wear tolerances.

Class 3. Draft Angle Tolerances

Draft angle tolerances are the permissible variations from the standard or nominal
angle of draft.
DRAFT ANGLE TOLERANCES
For Drop-hammer Forgings
(Degrees)
Nominal | Commercial Close
angle limits limits
(OUEST cle meen eee Presi Oowhy © Ai ue VM Leach | 7 0-10 0-8
Inside holes and depressions...........................- 10 0-13
: a ae 0-8

For Upset Forgings

Nominal | Commercial Close

angle limits limits
CONUNHSINGLS2:safe Sie ui oe RUG veh Om AED De cle Aber 0rd el ee ge 3 0-5 0-4
Inside holes and depressions.......................+-.-. | 5 0-8 0-7
274 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

Class 4. Quantity Tolerances

Quantity tolerances shall be the permissible over, or under, run allowed for each
release or part shipment of an order. Any shipping quantity within the limits of
over, and under, run shall be considered as completing the order. Commercial and
close tolerances shall be the same amounts.
QUANTITY TOLERANCES

Number of pieceg on order Cvermun \Wesicloveatoo

pieces pieces

1- 2 1 0
a= 5 2 1
6- 19 3 I
20- 29 4 2)
30- 39 5 2
40- 49 6 3
50- 59 7 3
60- 69 8 4
70- 79 9 +
80-— 99 10 5

Per cent | Per cent

100- 199 10 5.0

200- 299 9 4.5
300- 599 8 4.0
600— 1,249 a Bo 5
1,250— 2,999 6 3.0
3,000— 9,999 5 2.5
10,000— 39,999 4 2.0
40, 000-299 , 999 3 1.5
300,000 up 2 1.0

Class 5. Fillet and Corner Tolerances

Fillet and corner tolerances apply to all meeting surfaces even though drawings
and/or models indicate sharp corners, unless such drawings and/or models have or
indicate (even though actual dimensions are not specified) fillet and/or corner dimen-
sions of larger radii than the following standards, in which case such actual or indicated
larger dimensions shall be considered as actually specified and the tolerances shall be
special tolerances.
Fillet tolerances apply to inside corners and edges in all cases in which surfaces
meet at an angle less than 180 deg.
Corner tolerances apply to outside corners and edges in all cases in which surfaces
meet at an angle greater than 180 deg. we
When: a corner tolerance applies on the meeting of two drafted surfaces, the
tolerance shall apply to the narrow end of such meeting and the radius will increase
 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 219

toward the wide end. The total increase in the radius will equal the length of the
drafted surface in inches, multiplied by the tangent of the nominal draft angle.
The radu of fillets and corners may be any value not greater than those given in
the following table. :
FILLET AND CORNER TOLERANCES
(Radii in Inches)

Net weights up to_lb. |Commercial | Close

0.3 339 364

I AS Me
3 539 64
10 46 339
30 Yo Yea
100 MY MB

FLAME-CUTTING DATA

Scope and Limitations

Thickness That Can Be Cut.—Any commercial thickness of steel plate and slabs
up to about 12 in. thick.
Contours.—Straight lines, circles, or any irregular shapes, provided inside radii
are not less than !2 1n., can be flame cut by machines.
Width of kerf, or metal removed, varies with thickness of plate as follows:
THICKNESS OF APPROXIMATE WIDTH
Prats, IN. or Kerr, In.
14-86 Ye
4-2 340
2-6 1s
6-9 46
9-12 14

Effects of Flame Cutting

Steel containing less than 0.35 carbon can be cut without taking any special
precautions. In general, steels that are satisfactory for fusion welding can be flame
cut without causing any difficulties. Higher carbon steel will have a thin layer of
hard steel formed on the flame cut surface. Preheating or reheating after flame
cutting will prevent or eliminate the hardened surface.
Identical parts can be produced most economically by stack cutting or multiple
cutting.
Cutting Speed.— Approximate cutting speeds range from 2 ft. per min. for sheets
up to /s in. thick, to 21 in. per min. for !4 in. thickness, 16 in. per min. for 1 in. thick-
ness, 12 in. per min. for 2 in. thickness, to 3 in. per min. for 12 in. thickness.
Tolerances.—Squareness of cut can be held to 32 in. for plates 6 in. thickness.
This will be affected greatly by size of tip, gas pressure used, and other factors.
Reference Literature.—For a detailed discussion and data see Chap. 16, “ Weld-
ing Handbook,” 1938, published by the American Welding Society.
'
276 HANDBOOK OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

POWDERED METAL PRESSINGS

Design Factors
Formability.— Direct pressure must be applied to the entire cross section of the part when mold-
ing. The amount of pressure required to obtain a required density in the compressed compact
depends upon the malleability of the metal powder used.
Powdered metal materials have almost no lateral flow in the mold in response to pressures
applied axially, therefore reentrant angles cannot be molded in the compact. If reentrant angles
are required at planes normal to the axis, they must be machined to shape by conventional methods.
Hot pressing may be resorted to as a means of obtaining solid, pore-free compacts. With this
method, however, the operation is slow, also die and maintenance costs are higher.
Size and Shape Limitations.—Capacity of press available determines the maximum cross-sec-
tional area that can be compacted. Pressures for compacting vary from 30 to 60 tons per sq. in.
The working stroke of the press, the compression ratio of the powder selected, and the density
required all determine the length of part that can be compacted. Compression ratios range between
2 to 1 and 20 to 1 for various metal powders. Length is limited by minimum density desired because
frictional losses prevent the compacting pressure from being uniformly transmitted throughout the
depth of the mold.
Shapes are confined to simple contours without undercuts in surface parallel to the axis.
Dimensional Tolerances.—Possible to hold very close tolerances in cross-sectional dimensions.
Tolerances in axial dimensions must be more liberal than those in cross sections, because all
the variables add up in the length of the briquette or the sintered piece.
Tolerances for concentricity depend largely upon the clearance that must be provided between
the force and the mold, since this clearance is likely to be all on one side when the compacting pressure
is applied. Eccentricity can be corrected by operations subsequent to-sintering, suchas swaging or
rolling, but this means additional cost.
Physical Properties.—Tensile strengths depend upon unit pressures employed to briquette the
powders, the length of heat-treatment, and the care exercised in control of powder.
With heat-treating and quenching, it is possible to produce from alloy powders, gears that have
higher strength, wear, and impact resistance than case hardened low carbon steel.
Strength and density may also be improved by re-pressing or cold-working if the sintered piece
is sufficiently malleable. ‘
Design Advantages.—Parts having selected properties can be made. Two or more metal pow-
ders can be used to produce alloys which retain proportionately the individual characteristics of each
constituent. Many special properties can be obtained by incorporating nonmetallic ingredients
with the metal powder, but this reduces strength.
Economical for the production of parts which if made by other methods would involve con-
siderable cost for machining operations in comparison with the cost of the material, or where scrap
losses would be high. The more complicated the machining required by a piece made by other
methods, the smaller the quantity that would have to be produced from metal powders in order to
carry the expense for tools and equipment.
 DESIGN DATA ON PRODUCTION METHODS 277
PARTS MADE FROM METAL POWDERS
These surfaces must {Sharp corners
be smooth and free _/; all others approx
trom burrs, a7 /, Q005R

2 X45 “chamfer
, optional
9200 Tad
| At|10090
/

0435 2208 S y 2490 pele

0439 of
Ee 50° AO NS 0498 cys|e ia
ject tees
0448 |“ y mM Ss
ae —° ; 4 Gn P
Cm
2090 max flat
0458 \ SS
Agi a MU : ono?
Q500R’ |,Jaze. 0683 spherical dia o~ When measured
0503 Q28] 0686 on 0.6830 ball must
0.008
R max must be concentric with assermble i171 0.999
OD to within 2002 IR. dia hole

RADIO TUNING BRAKE CLUTCH RELEASE SHAFT BEARING

Note: There car be no burr, ridge or sear OD. with LD. Q00/5 LR-Pitch circle with 1.D:O00025TR-
~ at yunction of cylindrica and flat ---7 Grind 0.0.- Burnish tooth profile
outside surface
; 0015 x45 “chartOD
32x45 chamt ID. bothends, 0.025 both ends
3 drilled hole -
oS in tooth space
0562 0557 OF55.
0577 O557 0565

&oe burnish :
d
zyx45 chamfer’
Jl 00485 LO./A5 hole 12485 +
& x45 chamfer’ J 0.0515 0.148
00565 OOlS x45° Ends must be square | 26/5
chamfer with axis with; OOO/ O655
Total tnd. reading on :
SPRING HOUSING end of tooth End grind
Inspection data
ge over 0250 rolls gave between paralle] jaws
i he two teeth
0.0003 max variation of pee aim. on any one
gear. Tooth strength of (2601b shear load 77777.
SPUR PINION
Note: fractional dimensions
+0.0/0

Face flat within 0002

Indicator reading ~~

1730
snce/|
NFaa
0.840 I5 teeth 20°PA. ’
10 dia pitch 1500 pitch dia
Tooth shape within *Q00/
x45 chamfer
iSin DRIVE GEAR FOR Pitch line must rum con-
AGITATOR SHAFT ON centric with bore within 0002
CLUTCH RELEASE BEARING WASHING MACHINE
 L 1 ¥ — -
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