Dept.

Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

MIXING OF LIQUIDS
INTRODUCTION
Revise the section on non-Newtonian fluids. Exam problems will include mixing of
both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. Please refer to Chapter 5 of the prescribed
text: Holland and Bragg more on Mixing.

5.1. DESIGN OF MIXERS

The following design considerations are to be taken into account for liquid mixers:
a) vessel shape
b) impeller types
c) impeller size
d) impeller speed
e) impeller location
f) baffles
g) draft tube

The main objectives in designing mixers is to:

a) obtain homogeneity in a short period of time
b) minimize power requirements and
c) minimize effects on constituents

A rotating agitator generates high speed streams of liquid which in turn entrain
stagnant or slower moving regions of liquid, resulting in uniform mixing by
momentum transfer. In general, agitators can be classified onto two groups :

1. small blade area with high rotating speeds, e.g. turbines and marine propellers.
2. Large blade area that rotate at low speeds, e.g. anchors, paddles and helical
screws.
The second group is more effective for the mixing of high viscosity liquids.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

The mean shear rate produced by an agitator in a mixing tank is γ m which is

proportional to the rotational speed, i.e. γ m = kN where k is a dimensionless

proportionality constant.

The shear rate is greatest in the vicinity of the agitator. The shear rate decreases
exponentially with distance from the agitator. Thus the shear stresses and shear rate
vary greatly throughout the liquid in a mixing tank. Since the dynamic viscosity of a
Newtonian liquid is independent of shear at a given temperature, its viscosity is
constant throughout. In contrast the apparent viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid will
vary throughout the tank, and this in turn significantly influences the mixing process.

For shear thinning liquids, the apparent viscosity is at a minimum in the immediate
vicinity of the agitator with a progressive increase with distance away from the
agitator. For shear thickening, the apparent viscosity is at a maximum in the
immediate vicinity of the agitator with a progressive decrease with distance away
from the agitator. In general shear thinning and shear thickening liquids should be
mixed using high and low speed agitators respectively.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

5.2. SMALL BLADE HIGH SPEED AGITATORS

Used to mix low to medium viscosity fluids ( 10 – 50 Pa.s). Two of the most common
types are the six-blade flat blade turbine (Figure 5.1) and the marine propeller (Figure
5.2).

Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.2.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

Flat blade turbines are used to mix liquids in baffled tanks produce radial flow
patterns primarily perpendicular to the vessel wall as shown in 5.3. In contrast marine
type propellers used to mix liquids in baffled tanks produce axial flow patterns
primarily parallel to the wall as shown in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.4.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

Figure 5.5 shows a turbine agitator of diameter DA in a cylindrical tank of diameter

DT filled with liquid to height HL. The agitator is located at a height HA from the
bottom of the tank, and the baffles, which are located immediately adjacent to the wall
have a width b. The agitator has a blade width a and blade length r, and the blades are
mounted on a central disc of diameter s.

Figure 5.5.

A typical turbine mixing system is the standard configuration Figure 5.5 above
defined by the following geometrical relationships:

i) 6 - blade - flat blade turbine agitator

ii) DA = DT/3
iii) HA = DT/3
iv) a = DT/5
v) r = DT/4
vi) HL = DT
vii) 4 symmetrical baffles

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

viii) b = DT/10

Agitator speeds (uT) are commonly used as a measure of the degree of agitation.
u T = πD A N 5.2.1.
The recommended speeds for turbine agitators are:
2.5 - 3.3 m.s-1 - low agitation
3.3 - 4.1 m.s-1 - medium agitation
4.1 - 5.6 m.s-1 - high agitation

The marine propeller can be considered as a case-less pump, hence one can define its
“pumping” or volumetric circulating capacity is:
Q = ηV N 5.2.2.
A D
where η = efficiency (approx. 0.6)
VD = volume displaced per revolution
N = speed (rev/s)

πD A 2 p
VD = 5.2.3.
4
where p = pitch

For square pitched propellers :

p = DA
πD A3
VD = 5.2.4.
4
0.6πND A3
QA =
4
Tank turnover rate is defined as :
QA
IT = 5.2.5.
V
where V = tank volume
IT = number of turnovers/time

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

To get the best mixing, IT should be at a maximum. For a given tank volume, V, the
circulating capacity, QA, should have the highest possible value for the minimum
consumption of power.

The head developed by the rotating agitator, hA, is:

h A = C1 N 2 D A2 5.2.6.
where C1 is a constant.

5.3. LARGE BLADE LOW SPEED AGITATORS

Large blade low speed agitators include anchors, gates, paddles, helical ribbons and
helical screws. Use to mix relatively high viscosity liquids and require a large blade
area to produce liquid movement throughout the tank. Figure 5.6 shows a gate type
anchor and Figure 5.7 shows the flow pattern in a baffled helical screw system.

Figure 5.6.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

Figure 5.7.

5.4. DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS FOR MIXING

PA
Power number Np = 5.4.1.
ρN 3 D A5

Reynolds number for mixing

ρND A2
Re m = 5.4.2.
µ

Froude number for mixing

N 2 DA
FrM =
g
5.4.3.
appliedforce
=
gravityforce

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

Gravity effects are only important in vortex formation.

Weber number for mixing

ρN 2 D A3
We m =
σ
5.4.4.
appliedforce
=
surfacetension

Weber number for mixing is only of importance when separate physical phases are
present in the system, e.g. liquid-liquid extraction.

where PA = power input (W)

ρ = density (kg.m-3)
µ = viscosity (Pa.s)
N = speed (rev/s)
DA = agitator diameter (m)
From dimensional analysis :

Po = C (Re) αM ( Fr ) My 5.4.5.
where C = overall dimensionless shape factor that represents the geometry of the
system
Po
φ= y
= C Re αM 5.4.6.
FrM
where φ = dimensionless power function

In liquid mixing systems, baffles are used to suppress vortexing. The Froude number
is not required to describe baffled mixing systems, since vortexing is a gravitational
effect.
y
For non-vortex flow y = 0, therefore FM =1.

⇒ φ = Po = C Re My 5.4.7.

and log Po = log C + x log Re M 5.4.8.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

equations 5.4.7 and 5.4.8. can be used to correlate Po with ReM .

5.5. POWER CURVES

A power curve is a plot of the power function (φ ) or the power number (Po) against
the Reynolds number for mixing (ReM). Each geometric configuration has its own
power curve. Thus a power curve used to correlate power data in a 1 m3 tank is
equally applicable to a 1000 m3 provided that both tanks have the same geometrical
configuration.

Figure 5.8. shows a power curve for the standard tank configuration. Since this is a
baffled non-vortexing system equation 5.4.8. applies.

Figure 5.8.

For laminar flow the curve is linear with a slope of –1. For ReM < 10, the above
equation can be written as
log Po = log C − log Re M 5.5.1.
that can be rearranged to

PA = µCN 2 D A2 5.5.2.
where C=71 for the standard tank configuration. For laminar flow, power is directly
proportional to dynamic viscosity for a fixed agitator speed.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

For the transition flow region BCD where ReM = 10000, the parameters C and x vary
continuously.

In the fully turbulent flow region DE, the curve becomes horizontal and the power
function, φ, is independent of the Reynolds number for mixing. Therefore for the
region ReM > 10000
φ = Po = 6.3 5.5.3.

At point C there is sufficient energy for the liquid to start vortexing. However the
baffles in the tank prevent this. If baffles were not present vortexing would develop
and the power curve would be as shown in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9.

The power curve for the baffled system is identical to the un-baffled tank system up to
point C where ReM ≅ 300. Beyond C in the un-baffled system, the Reynold’s number
increases, vortexing increases and the power falls sharply.

Equation.5.4.5. can be written as:

log Po = log C + x log Re M + y log FrM 5.5.4.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

For the unbaffled system, φ = Po at ReM < 300 and φ = Po / FryM at ReM>300.

A plot of y against log ReM is a straight line. If the slope of the line is –1/β and the
intercept at ReM = 1 is α/β then

α − log Re M
y= 5.5.5.
β

Substitute the above equation into equation 5.4.6. gives

Po
φ=  (α − log Re M ) 
5.5.6.
 β 
Fr M

If a power curve is available for a particular system geometry, it can be used to

calculate the power consumed by an agitator at various rotational speeds, liquid
viscosities and densities. The procedure is as follows:
• Calculate the Reynold’s number for mixing, ReM
• Read the power number Po or the power function, φ, from the appropriate power
curve
• Calculate the power, PA, from either

PA = Po ρN 3 D A5
or
y
5  N DA 
2
PA = φρN D A 
3

 g 
For non-Newtonian fluids the apparent viscosity (revise section on non-Newtonian
fluids) has to be used in the calculation of ReM. Thereafter follow above method, but
make sure that the appropriate power curve for the given liquid mixing system is
used, i.e. geometry must be the same. Note: Power curves differ from Newtonian to
shear thinning and shear thickening.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

The last two equations is used to calculate the theoretical power consumed by the
agitator. Additional power is required to overcome electrical and mechanical losses
which occurs in all mixing systems.

5.6. POWER CURVES FOR NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

The power curves in Figure 5.8. and 5.9. were obtained for Newtonian liquids. It is
possible to calculate the apparent viscosities of non-Newtonian liquids in agitated
tanks from the appropriate power curves for Newtonian liquids. The Newtonian
power curves were used by Metzner and Otto to obtain the dimensionless
proportionality constant k in the following equation and a non-Newtonian power
curve for a particular system geometry.

Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.10. shows the deviation from the Newtonian curve for a shear thinning
liquid (pseudoplastic).
γ m = kN

The curve for pseudoplastics is NEVER HIGHER than the Newtonian curve. The
curve for shear thickening (or dilatants) lies between the Newtonian and the shear

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

thinning curve show in Figure 5.108888888. Thus the use of the Newtonian curve to
predict power consumptions for pseudoplastics will give a conservative design.

5.7. SCALE-UP OF LIQUID MIXING SYSTEMS

Process results are observed at a small scale and then duplicated at a large scale. To
achieve the same kind of flow pattern in both units, geometrical, kinematic and
dynamic similarity, and identical boundary conditions must be maintained.

Geometric similarity

Ratios of corresponding dimensions in one system are equal to those in the other, i.e.
all length dimensions have a constant ratio :

DT H L b H A
; ; ; ; etc 5.7.1.
D D D D

Hence, geometric similarity exists between two pieces of equipment of different sizes
when both have the same shape.

Kinematic similarity

Units have to be geometrically similar and the ratios of velocities between

corresponding points in one system are equal to those in the other, i.e. a common
constant velocity ratio.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

Dynamic similarity

In addition to being geometrically and kinematically similar, the ratios of forces

between corresponding points in one system are equal to those in the other. For
different forces : inertial, gravitational, viscous, surface tension and other forces :

Fa1 Fb1 Fc1

= = = constant 5.7.2.
Fa 2 Fb 2 Fc 2

For scale-up from system 1 to system 2 for the same liquid properties and system
geometry, equation 5.4.2. for Rem, equation 5.4.3. for Frm and equation 5.4.4. for Wem
can be written respectively in the following terms.

N 1 D A21 = N 2 D A2 2
N 12 D A1 = N 22 D A 2 5.7.3.

N 12 D A31 = N 22 D A3 2

Clearly the scale-up rules above are in conflict. In order to scale-up with accuracy it is
necessary to design pilot equipment so that the effects of certain dimensionless groups
are deliberately suppressed in favour of a particular dimensionless group. For
example, baffles can be used to eliminate vortexing so that the Froude number can be
neglected.

The scale-up of liquid mixing systems can be divided into two categories:
(i) process result
(ii) scale-up of power data

For scale-up from system 1 to system 2 for the same liquid properties and system
geometry, the following equations can be written :

N 1 D A1 = N 2 D A 2 5.7.4.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

for a constant tip speed TS

D A1 D A 2
= 5.7.5.
N1 N2

QA
at a constant ratio of circulating capacity to head and
hA

N 13 D A21 = N 23 D A2 2 5.7.6.

at a constant power per unit volume PA /V.

Once again the rules are in conflict. In practice, the process result (small-scale data)
and agitator speeds can be obtained in three small geometrically similar tanks systems
of different sizes. The data are extrapolated to give the agitator speed in a
geometrically similar production size tank system, which will give the desired process
result.

The power curve obtained on a pilot plant scale can be used to obtain the power
requirements for a geometrically similar production size unit once the agitator speed
is known.

Consider the scale-up of the rotational speed of marine propellers for the same power
consumption and Reynolds number for mixing.

Power consumption is given by equation 5.4.1. For scale-up from system 1 to system
2 for the same liquid properties and system geometry :

N p1 N 13 D A51 N p 2 N 23 D A5 2
= 5.7.7.
PA1 PA 2

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

which for the same power consumption and Reynolds number becomes:

N 13 D A51 = N 23 D A5 2 5.7.8.

Corresponding equation for Rem in (11) above. Divide equation (16) by equation (11)
to give :

N 12 D A31 = N 22 D A3 2 5.7.9.

The circulating capacity, QA, of a square pitch propeller is:

ηπND A3
QA = 5.7.10.
4

For scale-up from system 1 to system 2 :

ηπNDA3
QA = 5.7.11.
4

Combining equations 5.7.9. and 5.7.11. we get :

 η  N 
Q A 2 =  2  1 Q A1 5.7.12.
 η1  N 2 

Above equation shows that circulating capacity of low speed square pitch propellers
greatly exceeds that of high speed propellers for the same power consumption and
Reynolds number.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

The choice of which scale-up technique to use depends on the particular system. As a
general guide:
(i) constant tip speed is used where suspended solids are involved, where heat is
transferred to a coil or jacket and for miscible liquids.
(ii) Constant power per unit volume usually used with immiscible liquids,
emulsions, pastes and gas-liquid systems.

5.8. The purging of stirred tank systems

Read over this section p. 185, Holland (1973). No calculations will be give from this
section. Possible theoretical question can be given in the exam.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

EXAMPLE 5.1.

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Dept. Chemical Engineering DUT Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

EXAMPLE 5.2.

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