Comprehension Passage

Caffeine, the stimulant in coffee, has been called “the most widely used psychoactive substance on Earth.”Synder,
Daly and Bruns have recently proposed that caffeine affects behavior by countering the activity in the human brain
of a naturally occurring chemical called adenosine. Adenosine normally depresses neuron firing in many areas of the
brain. It apparently does this by inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, chemicals that carry nerve impulses from
one neuron to the next. Like many other agents that affect neuron firing, adenosine must first bind to specific
receptors on neuronal membranes. There are at least two classes of these receptors, which have been designated A1
and A2.
Snyder et al propose that caffeine, which is structurally similar to adenosine, is able to bind to both types of
receptors, which prevents adenosine from attaching there and allows the neurons to fire more readily than they
otherwise would.
For many years, caffeine’s effects have been attributed to its inhibition of the production of phosphodiesterase, an
enzyme that breaks down the chemical called cyclic AMP. A number of neurotransmitters exert their effects by first
increasing cyclic AMP concentrations in target neurons. Therefore, prolonged periods at the elevated
concentrations, as might be brought about by a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, could lead to a greater amount of
neuron firing and, consequently, to behavioral stimulation. But Snyder et al point out that the caffeine
concentrations needed to inhibit the production of phosphodiesterase in the brain are much higher than those that
produce stimulation. Moreover, other compounds that block phosphodiesterase’s activity are not stimulants.
To buttress their case that caffeine acts instead by preventing adenosine binding, Snyder et al compared the
stimulatory effects of a series of caffeine derivatives with their ability to dislodge adenosine from its receptors in the
brains of mice. “In general,” they reported, “the ability of the compounds to compete at the receptors correlates
with their ability to stimulate locomotion in the mouse; i.e., the higher their capacity to bind at the receptors, the
higher their ability to stimulate locomotion.” Theophylline, a close structural relative of caffeine and the major
stimulant in tea, was one of the most effective compounds in both regards. There were some apparent exceptions to
the general correlation observed between adenosine-receptor binding and stimulation. One of these was a
compound called 3-isobuty1-1-methylxanthine(IBMX), which bound very well but actually depressed mouse
locomotion. Snyder et al suggest that this is not a major stumbling block to their hypothesis. The problem is that the
compound has mixed effects in the brain, a not unusual occurrence with psychoactive drugs. Even caffeine, which is
generally known only for its stimulatory effects, displays this property, depressing mouse locomotion at very low
concentrations and stimulating it at higher ones.
Based on the Passage, answer the following questions:
1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) discuss a plan for investigation of a phenomenon that is not yet fully understood
(B) present two explanations of a phenomenon and reconcile the differences between them
(C) summarize two theories and suggest a third theory that overcomes the problems encountered in the first two
(D) describe an alternative hypothesis and provide evidence and arguments that support it
(E) challenge the validity of a theory by exposing the inconsistencies and contradictions in it
2. According to Snyder et al, caffeine differs from adenosine in that caffeine
(A) stimulates behavior in the mouse and in humans, whereas adenosine stimulates behavior in humans only
(B) has mixed effects in the brain, whereas adenosine has only a stimulatory effect
(C) increases cyclic AMP concentrations in target neurons, whereas adenosine decreases such concentrations
(D) permits release of neurotransmitters when it is bound to adenosine receptors, whereas adenosine inhibits such
release
(E) inhibits both neuron firing and the production of phosphodiesterase when there is a sufficient concentration in
the brain, whereas adenosine inhibits only neuron firing
3. In response to experimental results concerning IBMX, Snyder et al contended that it is not uncommon for
psychoactive drugs to have
(A) mixed effects in the brain
(B) inhibitory effects on enzymes in the brain
(C) close structural relationships with caffeine
(D) depressive effects on mouse locomotion
(E) the ability to dislodge caffeine from receptors in the brain
4. According to Snyder et al, all of the following compounds can bind to specific receptors in the brain EXCEPT
(A) IBMX
(B) caffeine
(C) adenosine
(D) theophylline
(E) phosphodiesterase
5. Snyder et al suggest that caffeine’s ability to bind to A1 and A2 receptors can be at least partially attributed to
which of the following?
(A) The chemical relationship between caffeine and phosphodiesterase
(B) The structural relationship between caffeine and adenosine
(C) The structural similarity between caffeine and neurotransmitters
(D) The ability of caffeine to stimulate behavior
(E) The natural occurrence of caffeine and adenosine in the brain

Comprehension Passage
The majority of successful senior managers do not closely follow the classical rational model of first clarifying goals,
assessing the problem, formulating options, estimating likelihoods of success, making a decision, and only then
taking action to implement the decision. Rather, in their day-by-day tactical manoeuvres, these senior executives
rely on what is vaguely termed “intuition” to manage a network of interrelated problems that require them to deal
with ambiguity, inconsistency, novelty, and surprise; and to integrate action into the process to thinking.
Generations of writers on management have recognized that some practicing managers rely heavily on intuition. In
general, however, such writers display a poor grasp of what intuition is. Some see it as the opposite of rationality;
others view it as an excuse for capriciousness.
Isenberg’s recent research on the cognitive processes of senior managers reveals that managers’ intuition is neither
of these. Rather, senior managers use intuition in at least five distinct ways. First, they intuitively sense when a
problem exists. Second, managers rely on intuition to perform well-learned behavior patterns rapidly. This intuition
is not arbitrary or irrational, but is based on years of painstaking practice and hands-on experience that build skills. A
third function of intuition is to synthesize isolated bits of data and practice into an integrated picture, often in an
“Aha!” experience. Fourth, some managers use intuition as a check on the results of more rational analysis. Most
senior executives are familiar with the formal decision analysis models and tools, and those who use such systematic
methods for reaching decisions are occasionally leery of solutions suggested by these methods which run counter to
their sense of the correct course of action. Finally, managers can use intuition to bypass in-depth analysis and move
rapidly to engender a plausible solution. Used in this way, intuition is an almost instantaneous cognitive process in
which a manager recognizes familiar patterns.
One of the implications of the intuitive style of executive management is that “thinking” is inseparable from acting.
Since managers often “know” what is right before they can analyze and explain it, they frequently act first and
explain later. Analysis is inextricably tied to action in thinking/acting cycles, in which managers develop thoughts
about their companies and organizations not by analysing a problematic situation and then acting, but by acting and
analysing in close concert.
Given the great uncertainty of many of the management issues that they face, senior managers often instigate a
course of action simply to learn more about an issue. They then use the results of the action to develop a more
complete understanding of the issue. One implication of thinking/acting cycles is that action is often part of defining
the problem, not just of implementing the solution.

Based on the Passage, answer the following questions:

According to the passage, senior managers use intuition in all of the following ways EXCEPT to
(A) speed up of the creation of a solution to a problem
(B) identify a problem
(C) bring together disparate facts
(D) stipulate clear goals
(E) evaluate possible solutions to a problem
The passage suggests which of the following about the “writers on management” mentioned in paragraph 2?
(A) They have criticized managers for not following the classical rational model of decision analysis.
(B) They have not based their analyses on a sufficiently large sample of actual managers.
(C) They have relied in drawing their conclusions on what managers say rather than on what managers do.
(D) They have misunderstood how managers use intuition in making business decisions.
(E) They have not acknowledged the role of intuition in managerial practice
According to the passage, the classical model of decision analysis includes all of the following EXCEPT
(A) evaluation of a problem
(B) creation of possible solutions to a problem
(C) establishment of clear goals to be reached by the decision
(D) action undertaken in order to discover more information about a problem
(E) comparison of the probable effects of different solutions to a problem
It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would most probably be one major difference in
behavior between Manager X, who uses intuition to reach decisions, and Manager Y, who uses only formal decision
analysis?
(A) Manager X analyses first and then acts; Manager Y does not.
(B) Manager X checks possible solutions to a problem by systematic analysis; Manager Y does not
(C) Manager X takes action in order to arrive at the solution to a problem; Manager Y does not.
(D) Manager Y draws on years of hands-on experience in creating a solution to a problem; Manager X does not.
(E) Manager Y depends on day-to-day tactical manoeuvring; manager X does not
The passage provides support for which of the following statements?
(A) Managers who rely on intuition are more successful than those who rely on formal decision analysis.
(B) Managers cannot justify their intuitive decisions.
(C) Managers’ intuition works contrary to their rational and analytical skills
(D) Logical analysis of a problem increases the number of possible solutions.
(E) Intuition enables managers to employ their practical experience more efficiently.