Electus Distribution Reference Data Sheet: LEDLASER.

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LEDS & LASER DIODES

Light-emitting diodes or ‘LEDs’ are now very widely used in
almost every area of electronics, mainly as indicator and
display devices — in effect, ‘solid state lamps’. They’re very
well suited for such uses, because they are physically quite
rugged and hence much more reliable than filament-type
incandescent lamps. They also run much cooler and are
much more efficient, requiring far less electrical power
input for the same amount of light output.
Other common uses for LEDs are as a source of either
visible or infra-red light, as a carrier for data and other
information over short ‘line of sight’ distances.
A LED is basically just a specialised type of P-N junction
diode, made from a thin chip of fairly heavily doped
semiconductor material. When it is forward biased to
reduce the potential barrier provided by the junction’s
narrow depletion layer, electrons from the semiconductor’s
conduction band can combine with holes from the valence
band, releasing sufficient energy to produce photons of Fig.1: The construction used for most common
light. Because of the thin chip a reasonable number of these ‘leaded’ LEDs.
photons can leave it and radiate away as its light output.
Unlike diodes made for detection and power rectification, diameter ‘bullet’ type with a spherical front lens are the
which are generally made from either germanium or silicon, most common. Other much smaller packages are used for
LEDs are made from compound semiconductor materials surface-mount LEDs, including ‘naked’ LED chips.
such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP), In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC
gallium arsenide-phosphide (GaAsP), silicon carbide (SiC) supply, with a series resistor (Fig.2) to limit the forward
and gallium indium nitride (GaInN). The exact choice of current to a suitable value — from say 5-6mA for a simple
semiconductor determines the pilot lamp or status indicator
wavelength of peak emission of application to 20mA or more
photons — and hence the where more light output is
colour of the light emitted, in needed. The series resistor value
the case of visible light LEDs. It Rs is calculated using Ohm’s law,
can also determine the electro- knowing the required operating
optical conversion efficiency, and current IF, the supply voltage VS
hence the light output. and the expected forward
Another parameter which is voltage drop of the LED at this
determined by the current level, V F:
semiconductor used is the
forward voltage drop for a given Rs = (VS - VF)/IF
amount of forward conduction The LED’s forward voltage drop
current. VF can usually be estimated from
Table 1 shows the peak emission the figure usually given in the
wavelength for the most common types of LED, with the data books for a current of 20mA, although the actual
approximate colour indicated and also the typical forward voltage drop will be a bit lower for very low current levels.
voltage drop for a forward current of 20mA. LEDs are intended to operate only in forward conduction
The construction of a typical LED is shown in Fig.1. The mode, and should not be subjected to reverse voltage. In
semiconductor chip is glued via electrically conductive most cases they have a reverse voltage rating of 5V or even
cement to the inner end of the cathode lead, which is often less, so they can be damaged by accidental reverse
formed into a tiny dish-shaped reflector to direct as much connection at even quite low supply voltages. If the LED
as possible of the emitted light upward. A small bonding
wire is used to connect the anode lead to an electrode
deposited on the top of the chip, and the complete
assembly is then encapsulated in transparent epoxy resin
plastic — either ‘water clear’, or tinted to match the
colour of the LED’s peak emission.
Leaded LEDs like that shown are made in a variety of
package shapes and sizes, of which the 3mm and 5mm
Fig.3: Two ways
of running a
LED from an
Fig.2: When a LED AC supply.
is operated from
DC, a simple
series resistor is
used to set the
forward current
level.
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to increase with current level. So short pulses of
Fig.4: To get significantly higher output separated by periods of no
more light output actually result in a higher average light output, for
output from the same average current .
a LED, it can In addition, the human eye’s persistence of vision tends to
be run from ‘fill in the gaps’ between the light pulses, providing the
a higher but pulse repetition frequency is significantly higher than the
pulsed eye’s critical fusion frequency (CFF). So pulses at a
current... frequency of 100Hz or more actually appear brighter than
continuous light of the same average intensity.
A simple low cost pulse generator using a 555 or similar
needs to be operated from an AC supply, or from a signal device can be used to produce pulses with a duty cycle of
source which cannot be relied upon not to reverse its say 20%, and can be used to drive the LED either directly
polarity, it can be protected by one of the methods shown or via a power MOSFET. Either way a series resistor is
in Fig.3. The simplest approach is shown in A, where a again used to limit the LED current — but in this case to
reverse connected silicon diode is connected directly the right peak value (say 100mA, for a 20% duty cycle).
across the LED to limit any reverse voltage to 0.6V. This
protects the LED, but of course no light is emitted for the Laser diodes
negative half-cycles of the AC waveform — even though Laser diodes (also called ‘injection lasers’) are in effect a
current is still drawn from the supply. So the light output specialised form of LED. Just like a LED, they’re a form of
and efficiency are both effectively halved. P-N junction diode with a thin depletion layer where
The alternate method shown in B is more efficient, and also electrons and holes collide to create light photons, when
maintains the LED light output. Here a bridge of four the diode is forward biased.
diodes is used to ensure that the current always flows The difference is that in this case the ‘active’ part of the
through the LED in the forward direction, regardless of depletion layer (i.e., where most of the current flows) is
supply polarity. (Note that the voltage drop of two diodes made quite narrow, to concentrate the carriers. The ends
— about 1.2V — needs to be
taken into account when the value
of Rs is being calculated.)
The maximum light output from a
LED (usually measured and rated in
millicandelas ) is essentially limited
by the maximum average forward
current which it can handle, which
is determined mainly by the LED
chip’s power dissipation rating —
typically less than 100mW, for
plastic encapsulated devices.
When higher light output is
required, the usual approach is to
operate the LED not from a steady
DC supply, but from a pulsed Fig.5: The two main types of laser diode chip — horizontal (left) and vertical.
current with a fairly short duty
cycle (on-off ratio). This allows the current and hence the of this narrow active region are also highly polished, or
light output to be increased significantly during the actual coated with multiple very thin reflective layers to act as
pulses, while still keeping the LED’s average current level mirrors, so it forms a resonant o p t i c a l c a v i t y .
and power issipation within its ratings (Fig.4).
The forward current level is also increased, to the point
Why does this pulsed output give an advantage? Partly where the current density reaches a critical level where
because the electro-optical efficiency of LEDs actually tends ‘carrier population inversion’ occurs. This means there are
more holes than electrons in the conduction band, and
more electrons than holes in the valence band — or in
other words, a very large excess population of electrons
and holes which can potentially combine to release
photons. And when this happens, the creation of new
photons can be triggered not just by random collisions of
electrons and holes, but also by the influence of passing
photons.
Passing photons are then able to stimulate the production
of more photons, without themselves being absorbed. So
laser action is able to occur: L i g h t A m p l i f i c a t i o n b y
S t i m u l a t e d E m i s s i o n o f R a d i a t i o n . And the important
thing to realise is that the photons that are triggered by
other passing photons have the same wavelength, and are
also in phase with them. In other words, they end up ‘in
sync’ and forming continuous-wave c o h e r e n t r a d i a t i o n .
Because of the resonant cavity, photons are thus able to
Fig.6: How a typical ‘horizontal’ laser chip is mounted in travel back and forth from one end of the active region to
its package, with the built-in monitoring diode able to the other, triggering the production of more and more
sense its ‘rear’ output... photons in sync with themselves. So quite a lot of coherent
light energy is generated.
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Fig.7: How the monitor diode is used to control the

laser operating current and optical output, in a simple Fig.8: Lasing occurs only at current levels above a
feedback circuit. c r i t i c a l v a l u e , I TH.

And as the ends of the cavity are not totally reflective output rises, the monitor diode current increases, reducing
(typically about 90-95%), some of this coherent light can the conduction of Q1 and hence that of transistor Q2,
leave the laser chip — to form its output beam. which controls the laser current. As a result, the laser
Because a laser’s light output is coherent, it is very low in current is automatically stabilised to a level set by
noise and also more suitable for use as a ‘carrier’ for data adjustable resistor V R.
communications. The bandwidth also tends to be narrower
and better defined than LEDs, making them more suitable Laser diode parameters
for optical systems where light beams need to be separated Perhaps the key parameter for a laser diode is the
or manipulated on the basis of wavelength. t h r e s h o l d c u r r e n t (ITH), which is the forward current
The very compact size of laser diodes makes them very level where lasing actually begins to occur. Below that
suitable for use in equipment like CD, DVD and MiniDisc current level the device delivers some light output, but it
players and recorders. As their light is reasonably well operates only as a LED rather than a laser. So the light it
collimated (although not as well as gas lasers) and easily does produce in this mode is incoherent .
focussed, they’re also used in optical levels, compact hand- Another important parameter is the r a t e d l i g h t o u t p u t
held laser pointers, barcode scanners etc. (Po), which is the highest recommended light output level
There are two main forms of laser diode: the horizontal (in milliwatts) for reliable continuous operation. Not
type, which emits light from the polished ends of the chip, surprisingly there’s an o p e r a t i n g c u r r e n t l e v e l (IOP) which
and the vertical or ‘surface emitting’ type. They both corresponds to this rated light output (Fig.8). There’s also
operate in the way just described, differing mainly in terms the corresponding current output from the feedback
of the way the active light generating region and resonant photodiode, known as the m o n i t o r c u r r e n t l e v e l (Im).
cavity are formed inside the chip. (See Fig.5) Other parameters usually given for a laser diode are its
Because laser diodes have to be operated at such a high p e a k l a s i n g w a v e l e n g t h , using given in nanometres (nm);
current density, and have a very low forward resistance and its b e a m d i v e r g e n c e a n g l e s (defined as the angle away
when lasing action occurs, they are at risk of destroying from the beam axis before the light intensity drops to 50%),
themselves due to thermal runaway. Their operating light in the X and Y directions (parallel to, and normal to the
density can also rise to a level where the end mirrors can chip plane).
begin melting. As a result their electrical operation must be
much more carefully controlled than a LED. Laser safety
This means that not only must a laser diode’s current be Although most of the laser diodes used in electronic
regulated by a ‘constant current’ circuit rather than a equipment have quite low optical output levels — typically
simple series resistor, but optical negative feedback must less than 5mW (milliwatts) — their output is generally
generally be used as well — to ensure that the optical concentrated in a relatively narrow beam. This means that
output is held to a constant safe level. it is still capable of causing damage to a human or animal
eye, and particularly to its light-sensitive retina.
To make this optical feedback easier, most laser diodes have
a silicon PIN photodiode built right into the package, Infra-red (IR) lasers are especially capable of causing eye
arranged so that it automatically receives a fixed damage, because their light is not visible. This prevents the
proportion of the laser’s output. The output of this eye’s usual protective reflex mechanisms (iris contraction,
monitor diode can then be used to control the current fed eyelid closure) from operating.
through the laser by the constant current circuit, for stable So always take special care when using devices like laser
and reliable operation. pointers, and especially when working on equipment which
Fig.6 shows a typical ‘horizontal’ type laser chip mounted in includes IR lasers, to make sure that the laser beam cannot
its package, with the monitor photodiode mounted on the enter either your own, or anyone else’s eyes. If you need to
base flange below it so the diode receives the light output observe the output from a laser, either use protective filter
from the ‘rear’ of the laser chip. goggles or use an IR-sensitive CCD type video camera.
Remember that eye damage is often irreversible, especially
Fig.7 (page 3) shows a simple current regulator circuit used
when it’s damage to the retina.
to operate a small laser diode, and you can see how the
monitor photodiode is connected. The monitor diode is
shunting the base forward bias for transistor Q1, which has (Copyright © 2001, Electus Distribution)
its emitter voltage fixed by the zener diode. So as the laser