Electrical Power 3 (EPM430)

Lecture No. 3
By:
Dr. Naema Mansour
28/2/2023
 Transient stability

➢ Important severe disturbances are a short circuit or a sudden loss

of load.
➢ If 𝜹 starts to decrease after reaching a maximum value, it is normally
assumed that the system is stable and the oscillation of 𝜹 around the
equilibrium point will decay and finally die out.
➢ Upon occurrence of a severe disturbance, say a short circuit, the
power transfer between machines is greatly reduced, causing the
machine torque angles to swing relatively.
➢ The circuit breakers near the fault disconnect the unhealthy part of
the system so that power transfer can partially restored improving the
chances of the system remaining stable.
➢ The shorter the time to breaker operating called clearing time, the
higher is the probability of the system being stable.
➢ 80-90% of faults on any overhead line network are transient in
nature. The remaining 10%-20% of faults are either semi-permanent
or permanent

What is a transient fault?

❖ Transient faults include the momentary loss of network connectivity
to components and services, the temporary unavailability of a
service. These faults are often self-correcting.

➢ Most of the line faults are transient in nature, therefore it is common

practice now to employ auto-reclose breakers which automatically
close rapidly after each of the two sequential operating. If the fault
still persist, the circuit breaker open and lock permanently till cleared
manually.
 Transient stability
❖ For ease of analysis certain assumptions and simplifications are always
made (some of these have already been made in arriving at the swing
equation).
1) Transmission line as well as synchronous machine resistance are ignored.
This leads to pessimistic results as resistance introduce damping term in
the swing equation which helps stability.
2) Damping term contributed by synchronous machine damper winding is
ignored. This is also leads to pessimistic results for the transient stability
limit.

3) Rotor speed is assumed to be synchronous. In fact, it varies

insignificantly during the path of the stability transient.

4) Mechanical input to machine is assumed to be constant during the

transient (regulating action of the generator loop is ignored). This leads to
pessimistic results
5) Voltage behind transient reactance is assumed to remain constant
(action of voltage regulating loop is ignored). It is also leads to
pessimistic results.

6) Shunt capacitances are not difficult to account for in a stability study.

Where ignored, no greatly significant error is caused..

7) Loads are modelled as constant admittances. This is a reasonably

accurate representation.

Note:-
❖ Since rotor speed and hence frequency vary insignificantly, the
network parameter remains fixed during a stability study.
Equal area criterion
❖ In a system where one machine is swinging with respect to an infinite bus,
it is possible to study transient stability by means of a simple criterion,
without resorting to the numerical solution of a swing equation.
❖ Consider the swing equation :-
𝒅𝟐 𝜹 𝝅𝒇 𝝅𝒇
𝟐
= 𝑷𝒎 − 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝒂
𝒅𝒕 𝑯 𝑯
❖ lf the system is unstable 𝛿 continues to increase indefinitely with time and
the machine loses synchronism.
❖ On the other hand, if the system is stable, 𝛿(𝑡) performs oscillations (non-
sinusoidal) whose amplitude decreases in actual practice because of
damping terms (not included in the swing equation).
❖For a stable system, indication of stability will be given by
observation of the first swing where 𝛿 will go to a maximum and will
start to reduce. This fact can be stated as a stability criterion.
❖The system is stable if at some time:-
𝒅𝜹
=𝟎
𝒅𝒕
❖And is unstable:-
𝒅𝜹
>𝟎
𝒅𝒕
✓ The stability criterion for power systems stated above can be converted into a simple and easily
applicable form for a single machine infinite bus system.
𝑑𝛿
✓ Multiplying both sides of the swing equation by 2 𝑑𝑡 we get:-
𝒅𝜹 𝒅𝟐 𝜹 𝒅𝜹 𝝅𝒇
2 =𝟐 𝑷
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝑯 𝒂
➢ Integrating
𝒅𝜹 𝒅𝟐 𝜹 𝒅𝜹 𝝅𝒇
න𝟐 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝟐 𝑷 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝑯 𝒂
𝟐
𝒅𝜹 𝝅𝒇 𝜹
=𝟐 න 𝑷 𝒅𝜹
𝒅𝒕 𝑯 𝜹𝟎 𝒂
𝒅𝜹 𝝅𝒇 𝜹
= 𝟐 න 𝑷 𝒅𝜹
𝒅𝒕 𝑯 𝜹𝟎 𝒂

𝒅𝜹 𝝅𝒇 𝜹
= 𝟐 න 𝑷 − 𝑷𝒆 𝒅𝜹
𝒅𝒕 𝑯 𝜹𝟎 𝒎
➢ Where 𝜹𝟎 is the initial rotor angle before it begins to swing due to disturbance. Then condition
for stability can be written as:
𝝅𝒇 𝜹
𝟐 ‫׬‬
𝑯 𝜹𝟎
𝑷𝒎 − 𝑷𝒆 𝒅𝜹=0
𝜹
න 𝑷𝒎 − 𝑷𝒆 𝒅𝜹 = 𝟎
𝜹𝟎
 𝛿
න 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒 𝑑𝛿 = 0
𝛿0
❖ The condition of stability can therefore be stated as: the system is stable if
the area under 𝑃𝑎 –𝛿 curve (accelerating power) reduces to zero at some
value of 𝛿.
❖ In other words, the positive (accelerating) area under 𝑃𝑎 –𝛿 curve must
equal the negative area (decelerating) and hence the name 'equal area'
criterion of stability.
❖ To illustrate the equal area criterion of stability, we now consider several
types of disturbances that may occur in a single machine infinite bus bar
system.
➢ The area under the curve 𝑷𝒂 should be zero, which is possible only
when 𝑷𝒂 has both accelerating and decelerating powers, i.e., for a
part of the curve 𝑷𝒎 > 𝑷𝒆 and for the other 𝑷𝒆 > 𝑷𝒎 .
➢ For a generation action,
➢ 𝑷𝒎 > 𝑷𝒆 for the positive area 𝑨𝟏
➢ 𝑷𝒆 > 𝑷𝒎 for negative areas 𝑨𝟐
❖ For stable operation 𝑨𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 . Hence the name equal area criterion.
❖ The equal area criterion is also used for determining the maximum
limit on the load that the system can take without exceeding the
stability limit.
➢ The problems associated with the transient stability of the system are
caused by the following reasons.
1) Sudden change in load.
2) Switching off one of the lines which cause a change in the reactance of
the system and hence a change in load conditions.
3) Sudden fault on the system which causes the reduction in output,
requiring an arrangement for clearance of the fault rapidly, and study the
fault condition which may cause part of the system outage.
In each case, the procedure will be:-
1) Determine the power angle curve for the initial conditions of the system,
for the conditions under fault, and for that after the fault condition and
plot the curve.
2) Then locate the points for the load initial conditions finding out 𝜹𝟎 .
3) Then, using equal area criterion, determine the new angle of
displacement δ. The maximum angle 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 which may be allowed, and
the corresponding maximum permissible load can also be determined.
1) Sudden Change in Mechanical Input
❖ The figure shows the transient model of a single machine tied to infinite bus bar. The electrical
power transmitted is given by:
𝑬 𝑽
𝑷𝒆 = ′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹
𝑿𝒅 + 𝑿𝒆
❖ Under steady state condition:-
𝑷𝒎𝟎 = 𝑷𝒆𝟎 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝟎
This is indicated by the point a in the 𝑷𝒆 − 𝜹 diagram.
❖ Let the mechanical input to the rotor be suddenly increased to 𝑷𝒎𝟏 (by opening the steam valve).
❖ The accelerating power 𝑷𝒂 = 𝑷𝒎𝟏 − 𝑷𝒆 cause the rotor speed to increase 𝝎 > 𝝎𝒔 and so does
the rotor angle.
❖ At angle 𝛿1 𝑷𝒂 = 𝑷𝒎𝟏 − 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝒎𝟏 − 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝟏 = 𝟎 (state point at b)
❖ But the rotor angle continues to increase as 𝝎 > 𝝎𝒔
❖ 𝑷𝒂 now becomes negative (decelerating), the rotor speed begins to reduce but the angle continues
to increase till at angle 𝜹𝟐 , 𝝎 = 𝝎𝒔 once again (state point at c).
𝜹
❖ At point c, the-decelerating area 𝑨𝟐 , equals the accelerating 𝑨𝟏 [‫] 𝟎 = 𝜹𝒅 𝒂𝑷 𝟐 𝜹׬‬. Since the rotor is
𝟎
decelerating, the speed reduces below 𝝎𝒔 and the rotor angle begins to reduce. The state point now
traverses the 𝐏𝐞 − 𝛅 curve in the opposite direction as indicated by arrows.

𝑷𝒆 − 𝜹 diagram for sudden increase in

mechanical input to generator
❖ The system oscillates about the new steady state point b (𝜹 = 𝜹𝟏 ) with angle
excursion up to 𝜹𝟎 and 𝜹𝟐 on the two sides.
❖ As the oscillations decay out because of inherent system damping (not modelled),
the system stabilize at the new steady state where:-
𝑷𝒎𝟏 = 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝟏
Areas 𝐴1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 are given by:-
𝜹𝟏
𝑨𝟏 = න 𝑷𝒎𝟏 − 𝑷𝒆 𝒅𝜹
𝜹𝟎
𝜹𝟐
𝑨𝟐 = න 𝑷𝒆 − 𝑷𝒎𝟏 𝒅𝜹
𝜹𝟏
❖ The equal-area criterion is used to determine the maximum additional power
𝑷𝒎 which can be applied for stability to be maintained.
❖ With a sudden change in the power input, the stability is maintained only if area
𝑨𝟐 at least equal to 𝑨𝟏 can be located above 𝑷𝒎 . If area 𝑨𝟐 is less than area 𝑨𝟏
the accelerating momentum can never be overcome. The limit of stability occurs
when 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 is at the intersection of line 𝑷𝒎 and the power-angle curve for 90𝑜 <
𝛿 < 180𝑜 , as shown in the figure:-

➢ For the system to be stable, it should be

possible to find angle 𝜹𝟐 such that 𝑨𝟏 =
𝑨𝟐 . As 𝑷𝒎𝟏 is increased, a limiting
condition is finally reached when
𝑨𝟏 equals the area above 𝑷𝒎𝟏 line.
Under this condition, 𝜹𝟐 gets the
maximum value such that:-
−𝟏
𝑷𝒎𝟏
𝜹𝟐 = 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝅 − 𝜹𝟏 = 𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
➢ The equal area criterion is also used for
determining the maximum limit on the
load that the system can take without
Equal-area criterion-maximum power limit. exceeding the stability limit.
➢ Any further increase in 𝑷𝒎𝟏 , means that the area available for 𝑨𝟐 , is less than 𝑨𝟏 ‘ so
that the excess kinetic energy causes 𝜹 to increase beyond point d and the
decelerating power changes over to accelerating power, with the system
consequently becoming unstable.
➢ The system will remain stable even though the rotor may oscillate beyond (𝜹 =
𝟗𝟎𝒐 ) as long as the equal area criterion is met. The condition of (𝜹 = 𝟗𝟎𝒐 ) is meant
for use in steady state stability only and does not apply to the transient stability case.
𝜹 𝜹
𝑷𝒎 𝜹𝟏 − 𝜹𝟎 − ‫ 𝜹𝒅 𝜹𝒏𝒊𝒔 𝒙𝒂𝒎𝑷 𝒙𝒂𝒎 𝜹׬ = 𝜹𝒅 𝜹𝒏𝒊𝒔 𝒙𝒂𝒎𝑷 𝟏 𝜹׬‬- 𝑷𝒎 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝜹𝟏
𝟎 𝟏

➢ Integrating the above expression :-

𝑷𝒎 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝜹𝟎 =𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝟎 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 )
➢ Point d is a stable point so, 𝑷𝒎 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙
➢ Substituting for 𝑷𝒎 :
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝜹𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 =𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝟎
➢ The above nonlinear algebraic equation can be solved by an iterative technique for
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 ·
➢ Once 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 is obtained, the maximum permissible power or the transient stability
limit is found from:
−𝟏
𝑷𝒎𝟏
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝅 − 𝜹𝟏 = 𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
2) Effect of Clearing Time on Stability
❖ Let the system of SG with infinite bus be operating with mechanical input 𝑷𝒎 at a steady
angle of 𝜹𝟎 . (𝑷𝒎 =𝑷𝒆 ) as shown by the point a on the 𝑷𝒆 - 𝜹 diagram.
❖ If a 3-phase fault occurs at the point P of the outgoing radial line, the electrical output of
the generator instantly reduces to zero, 𝑷𝒆 = 𝟎 and the state point drops to b.
❖ The acceleration area 𝑨𝟏 , begins to increase and so does the rotor angle while the state
point moves along b-c.
❖ At time 𝒕𝒄 . Corresponding to angle 𝜹𝒄 , the faulted line is cleared by the opening of the line
circuit breaker.
❖ The values of 𝒕𝒄 , and 𝜹𝒄 are respectively known as clearing time and clearing angle.
❖ The system once again becomes healthy and transmits 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝟎 . The state point
shifts to d on the original 𝑷𝒆 - 𝜹 curve. The rotor now decelerates and the decelerating
area 𝑨𝟐 , begins while the state point moves along d-e.
❖ If an angle 𝜹𝟏 can be found such that 𝑨𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 the system is found to be stable. The
system finally settles down to the steady operating point a in an oscillatory manner
because of inherent damping.
 𝛿𝑐
𝐴1 = න 𝑃𝑚 − 0 𝑑𝛿
𝛿0
𝛿1
𝐴2 = න 𝑃𝑒 − 𝑃𝑚 𝑑𝛿
𝛿𝑐
Maximum clearing time
❖ As the clearing of the faulty line is delayed, 𝑨𝟏
increases and so does 𝜹𝟏 to find 𝑨𝟐 = 𝑨𝟏 at 𝜹𝟏
= 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙
❖ For a clearing time (or angle) larger than this value,
the system would be unstable as 𝑨𝟐 < 𝑨𝟏 .
❖ The maximum allowable value of the clearing time
and angle for the system to remain stable are known
respectively as critical clearing time and angle.
❖ For this simple case (𝑷𝒆 = 𝟎 during fault), a clear
relationships for 𝜹𝒄𝒓 , (critical clearing angle) and 𝒕𝒄𝒓
(critical clearing time) are established below. All
angles are in radians.

𝜹
𝑨𝟏 = ‫ 𝒎𝑷 𝒓𝒄 𝜹׬‬− 𝟎 𝒅𝜹 = 𝑷𝒎 (𝜹𝒄𝒓 −𝜹𝟎 )
𝟎
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑨𝟐 = න 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹 − 𝑷𝒎 𝒅𝜹
𝜹𝒄𝒓
𝑨𝟐 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝒄𝒓 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑷𝒎 (𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 −𝜹𝒄𝒓 )

❖For the system to be stable, 𝑨𝟐 = 𝑨𝟏

𝑷
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝒄𝒓 = 𝒎 (𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 −𝜹𝟎 )+𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝅 − 𝜹𝟎
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝜹𝒄𝒓 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 [(𝝅 − 𝟐 𝜹𝟎 )𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝟎 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝟎 ]
Maximum clearing time

𝜹𝒄𝒓 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 [(𝝅 − 𝟐 𝜹𝟎 )𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝟎 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜹𝟎 ]

❖ During the period the fault is still persisting,
the swing equation is
𝒅𝟐 𝜹 𝝅𝒇
= 𝑷 𝑷𝒆 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑯 𝒎
❖ Integrating twice
𝝅𝒇
𝜹= 𝑷𝒎 𝒕𝟐 + 𝜹𝟎
𝟐𝑯
𝝅𝒇
𝜹𝒄𝒓 = 𝑷𝒎 𝒕𝒄𝒓 𝟐 + 𝜹𝟎
𝟐𝑯
𝟐𝑯(𝜹𝒄𝒓 −𝜹𝟎 )
𝒕𝒄𝒓 =
𝝅𝒇𝑷𝒎

❖𝒕𝒄𝒓 = critical clearing time

❖𝜹𝒄𝒓 = critical clearing angle
➢ Clearing time must be less than a certain value (critical clearing time) for
the system to be stable
Critical Clearing Angle
The critical clearing angle is defined as:-
❖The maximum change in the load angle before clearing the fault
without loss of synchronism.
❖The maximum allowable value of the clearing angle for the system
to remain stable.
The critical clearing time:-
❖The maximum allowable value of the clearing time for the system to
remain stable.
❖ It helps us to design the operating times of the relay and circuit
breaker so that the total time taken by them should be less than the
critical clearing time for stable operation of the system.
❖ The value of clearing time corresponding to a clearing angle can be
established only by numerical integration except in this simple case.
The equal area criterion therefore gives only qualitative answer to
system stability as the time when the breaker should be opened is
hard to establish.
3) Sudden
3) Sudden Loss
Loss of
of One
One of
of parallel
parallel Lines
Lines
❖ Consider
❖ Consider nownow aa single
single machine
machine tied
tied to
to infinite
infinite bus
bus through
through two
two
parallel lines.
parallel lines. And
And its
its circuit
circuit model
model ofof the
the system
system isis shown
shown in
in the
the
figure below.
figure below.
❖ Let us study the transient stability of the system when one of the
lines is suddenly switched off with the system operating at a steady
load. Before switching off, power angle curve is given by:-
𝑬′ 𝑽
𝑷𝒆𝑰 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹
𝑿𝒅 + 𝑿𝟏 ↑↑ 𝑿𝟐
❖ Immediately, switching off the line 2, power angle curve is given by:
𝑬′ 𝑽
𝑷𝒆𝑰𝑰 = ′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹
𝑿𝒅 + 𝑿𝟏
❖ Immediately switching off the line 2, the electrical operating point
shifts to curve II (point b). Accelerating energy corresponding to area
𝑨𝟏 , is put into rotor followed by decelerating energy for 𝜹 > 𝜹𝟏 .
❖ Assuming that an area 𝑨𝟐 corresponding by decelerating energy
(energy out of rotor) can be found such that 𝑨𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 , the system
will be stable and will finally operate at point c corresponding to a
new, rotor angle 𝜹𝟏 > 𝜹𝟎
❖ This is so because a single line offers larger reactance and larger
rotor angle is needed to transfer the same steady power.
4) Sudden Short Circuit on One of parallel Lines
Case a: Short circuit at one end of line
❖ Let us now assume the disturbance to be a short circuit at the generator end of
line 2 of a double circuit line as shown in the figure. We shall assume the fault to
be a three-phase one.
❖ Before the occurrence of a fault, the power angle curve is given by:
𝑬′ 𝑽
𝑷𝒆𝑰 = ′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹
𝑿𝒅 + 𝑿𝟏 ↑↑ 𝑿𝟐
❖ Upon occurrence of a three-phase fault at the generator end of line 2
❖ The generator gets isolated from the power system for purposes of power flow
Thus during the period the fault lasts,
𝑷𝒆𝑰𝑰 = 𝟎
❖ The rotor therefore accelerate, and angle 𝜹 increases.
❖ Synchronism will be lost unless the fault is cleared in time.
❖ The circuit breakers at the two ends of the faulted line open at time 𝒕𝒄
(corresponding to angle 𝜹𝒄 ), the clearing time, disconnecting the faulted line.
❖ The power flow is now restored via the healthy line (through higher line
𝑿𝟏 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑿𝟏 ↑↑ 𝑿𝟐 ) with power equal:
𝑬′ 𝑽
𝑷𝒆𝑰𝑰𝑰 = ′ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹
𝑿𝒅 + 𝑿𝟏
• The rotor now starts to decelerate as shown in the figure. The system will be
stable if a decelerating area 𝑨𝟐 , can be found equal to accelerating area 𝑨𝟏 , before
𝜹 reaches the maximum allowable value 𝜹𝒄 .
• At area 𝑨𝟏 , depends upon clearing time 𝒕𝒄 (corresponding to clearing angle 𝜹𝒄 ),
clearing time must be less than a certain value (critical clearing time) for the
system to be stable. It is to be observed that the equal area criterion helps to
determine critical clearing angle and not critical clearing time. Critical clearing
time can be obtained by numerical solution of the swing equation.
• It also easily follows that larger initial loading (𝑷𝒎 ) increases 𝑨𝟏 , for a given
clearing angle (and time) and therefore quicker fault clearing would be needed to
maintain stable operation.
Case b: Short circuit away from line
ends
❖ When the fault occurs away from line ends
(say in the middle of a line), there is some
power flow during the fault though
considerably reduced, as different from case a
where 𝑷𝒆𝑰𝑰 = 𝟎
❖ Circuit model of the system during fault is
now shown in Fig. a. This circuit reduces to
that of Fig. c through one delta-star and one
star-delta conversion. Instead, node
elimination technique could be employed. The
power angle curve during fault is therefore
given by:-
𝑬′ 𝑽
𝑷𝒆𝑰𝑰 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹
𝑿𝑰𝑰
❖ 𝑷𝑰 and 𝑷𝑰𝑰𝑰 as in the figure and 𝑷𝑰𝑰 as
obtained above are all plotted in the figure.
Accelerating area 𝑨𝟏 , corresponding to a
given clearing angle 𝜹𝒄 is less in this case,
than in case a giving a better chance for
stable operation.
❖ It is possible to find an area 𝑨𝟐 , equal-to
𝑨𝟏 , for 𝜹𝟐 < 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 .
❖ As the clearing angle 𝜹𝒄 is increased, area
𝑨𝟏 increases and to find 𝑨𝟐 = 𝑨𝟏 , 𝜹𝟐 Fault on middle of one line of the system
increases till it has a value 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 the with 𝜹𝑐 < 𝜹𝑐𝑟
maximum allowable for stability. This case
of critical clearing angle is shown in the
figure.
❖ Applying equal area criterion to the case of
critical clearing angle:

𝜹𝒄𝒓
𝑨𝟏 = න 𝑷𝒎 − 𝑷𝒆𝑰𝑰 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹 𝒅𝜹
𝜹𝟎
𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑨𝟐 = න 𝑷𝒆𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹 − 𝑷𝒎 𝒅𝜹 Fault on middle of one line of the system
𝜹𝒄𝒓 with critical clearing angle
➢ Critical clearing angle can be calculated from :-
𝑷𝒎 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝜹𝒐 − 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒄𝑰𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹𝒐 + 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹𝒄𝒓 =
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰𝑰𝑰 − 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰𝑰
➢ The angles in this equation are in radians. The equation modifies as
below if the angles are ln degrees.
𝝅
𝑷𝒎 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝜹𝒐 − 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒄𝑰𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹𝒐 + 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹𝒄𝒓 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰𝑰𝑰 − 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰𝑰

The fault at the middle of one line of The fault at the middle of one line of the
the system with 𝜹𝑐 < 𝜹𝑐𝑟 system with critical clearing angle.
Case c: Reclosure
➢ If the circuit breakers of line 2 are reclosed successfully ( i.e., the fault was a
transient), the power transfer once again becomes:
𝑷𝒆𝑰𝑽 = 𝑷𝒆𝑰 = 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙𝑰 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹
➢ Since reclosure restores power transfer, the chances of stable operation improve. A
case of stable operation is indicated by the fig.
➢ For critical clearing angle:

The fault at the middle of the line