LEARNING

MODULE IN ED
103
The Teacher and
the Community,
School Culture
and
Organizational
Leadership
 2. Education has meaning and function to the extent that it
Course Description: This course focuses on society as a context is relevant to the society within which it exists.
upon which the schools have been 3. The teaching profession has function only to the extent
established. Educational philosophies that that it is able to fulfill the needs of the society and
are related to the society as a foundation of contribute to the development of people in the society.
schools and schooling shall be emphasized.
Further, principles and theories on school The Social Science Theories of Education
culture, and organizational leadership shall Education and Society
be included to prepare prospective Education and schooling are found within the context of
teachers to become school leaders and society. Schools exist within social context and any change
managers. within schools in terms of educational aims, goals, and
objectives including its contents are always in relation to societal
Course Credits: 3 units changes. Society and schools are interdependent and provide bi-
Contact Hours: 3 hours/week
directional influence to each other. Sociology as a science
Pre-requisite: ED 102 The Teaching Profession
provides theories, concepts and principles that help us better
The Teacher understand theories and principles that help shape and guide
education. Education on the other hand through its curriculum
The Teaching Community
trains and educate the people with the necessary
The Community The Learner
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that The School and
The State are necessary for its its Curriculum
(What to teach?
continued How to teach?
Local
maintenance, Community
Point for Reflection: growth and National
1. A teacher cannot separate himself/herself from the development. International/Gl
community of which s/he is a part. S/he together with obal
his/her teaching profession has a social dimension.
Three Social Science Theories that provides models of examining Consensus and Conflict Theory
society which in turn provides the bases for educational changes.
Dahrendorf (in Vega, Prieto, & Carreon, 2015,p.2)

describes society as with two faces – consensus and

The school through its SCHOOL conflict and that sociological theory should be divided into two
curriculum trains and parts – consensus theory and conflict theory.
develops students into a
set of relevant Depends on schools Consensus is defined as the widespread agreement among all
knowledge, skills, values for the training and members of a particular society. Consensus Theories view shared
and attitudes. development of people norms and values as fundamental to society. It is the people’
and what it requires of shared norms and values that ensure the order, peace and
stability in the society. Consensus theories focus on social order
its needed human
based on tacit or implied agreements. Any change that happens
PHILIPPINE SOCIETY resource in terms of in a society is slow, gradual, and orderly.

The country participates, INTERNATIONAL In Consensus Theory, the emphasis is on social order, stability or
social regulation. The theory is concerned with the maintenance
adapts and contributes to COMMUNITY or continuation of social order in society in relation to accepted
the global change by norms, values, rules and regulations as widely accepted or held
sending or allowing its collectively by the society. It emerged out of social order, social
people free movement/ stability or social regulation.
access to social-economic Structural
cultural changes. Functionalism While, conflict is a disagreement or clash between opposing ideas, principles
or people that may be covert or overt. Conflict theories emphasize the
dominance of some social groups over others. Social order is the result of the
dominance and manipulation of
Consensus Social the strong groups over the weak. Social change is seen as
and Conflict Science occurring rapidly and disorderly as the subordinate group tries to
Theory Theories of Interactionism overthrow the dominant group, (Ritzer in Vega, et al., 2015, p. 2).
Education
Horton and Hunt (1984 in Vega, et al. 2015,) argued that the while maintaining the lower social position and status of the
focus of the conflict theory is the heterogeneous nature of dominated-subservient group?
society and the disparity, inequality in the distribution of political
and social power. Groups that have vested interest, and with Conflict Model (Based on Javier, et al Model 2002, in Vega
political, social, and economic power wok for rules and laws, that 2015,p.3)
serve their own interests, to be passed to the exclusion of others.
A struggle between the two social classes – the dominant and the
dominated; the powerful and the powerless- occurs.
unequal social- patterns of
The discussion of the conflict theory is on the emergence of political- inequality in the reorganization
conflict and what causes it. The theory emerges out of the conflict
economic distribution of and change
incompatible aspects of human society; its conflicts, crisis and structures scarce resources
social change. Conflict Theorists are interested in how social
institutions – family, government, religion, education, economic
institutions and the media – may help to maintain the power and
privileges of some groups and keep others in a subservient or
subordinate position. They advocate for social change resulting
from the redistribution resources. In that sense, people who
support conflict theories are viewed as radicals and social Karl Marx argued that society is characterized by class conflicts or
activists, (Ballantine & Spade in Vega, et al. 2015, p.2). the conflict between the bourgeoisie (the rich owners of
production) and the proletariat (the poor workers or working class).
From this class struggle or class conflict, interpreters of the theory
Conflict Theory and Education
posit that social change may emerge from this conflict.
Issue for Conflict Theory in the Context of Education:
On the issue of the role of schools in maintaining the dominance
of the powerful over the powerless, Max Weber argued that
How do schools contribute to the unequal distribution of people
schools teach and maintain particular “status cultures” through
into jobs in society so that more powerful members of society
which groups in society with similar interests and positions in the
maintain the best positions and the less powerful groups are
status hierarchy are able to maintain their status, their power,
allocated to lower ranks in society?
their dominance. Schools are often seen as rather homogenous
What is the role of education in maintaining the prestige, social- in their composition of students and they teach to those
political-economic power and position of the dominant group
students thus perpetuating that “status culture”.
 1. Adaptation. A system must cope with external situational
exigencies. It must adapt to its environment and adapt
environment to its needs.
Points for Reflection: 2. Goal Attainment. A system must define and achieve its
1. Schools for the Rich and Schools for the Poor and how it primary goals.
perpetuates and even farther the gap between the rich 3. Integration. A system must regulate the interrelationship
and the poor of its component parts. It must also manage the
relationship among the other 3 functional imperatives
2. How can education address the class divide? (adaptation, goal attainment, and latency).
4. Latency or Pattern Maintenance. A system must furnish,
maintain and renew both the motivation of individuals
3. Examine the Philippine Society: and the cultural patterns that create and sustain the
motivation.

a. Using the lens of Conflict Theory and identify

The General Structure of Action System by George Ritz, (2000 in
issues and concerns resulting from conflicts;
Vega, et al. 2015, p.5) is presented below.
i. What knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes must be integrated in school
curriculum or program to address
those concerns?
b. Using the lens of Consensus Theory, identify the Cultural Social
shared beliefs and values of people that provide System
stability and order in society and therefore must System
be strengthened in schools.

Structural Functionalism Action Personality

Structural Functionalism states that society is made up of various System System
institutions that work together in cooperation. Institutions are
viewed as Action Systems.

Talcott Parsons’ Structural Functionalism includes 4 Functional

Imperatives for all action systems. Those imperatives are:
Action System is the behavioral organism that handles the Parson’s conception of the social system begins at the micro-
adaptation function by adjusting to and transforming the level with the interaction between the ego and alter ego which
external world. he identified as the most elementary form of the social system. A
social system consists of the following:
Personality System performs the goal-attainment function by 1. Individual actors
defining system goals and mobilizing resources to attain them. 2. Interaction
3. Physical or environmental aspect
Social System copes with the integration function by controlling 4. Motivation towards the optimization of
its component parts. gratification
5. Relation to situation and each other is defined and
Cultural System performs the latency function by providing mediated by a system of culturally-structured and
actors with the norms and values that motivate them for action. shared symbols.

Assumptions of Structural Functionalism Parson was not only interested in the structural components of
1. Systems have the property of order and interdependence the social system, but he was also interested in examining the
of parts. function of social systems. It is believed that systems exist
2. Systems tend toward self-maintaining order, or because they are able to meet the needs of society in its
equilibrium. particular situations. Parsons listed the Functional Requisites of a
3. The system may be static or involved in an ordered Social System:
process of change. 1. Social system must be structured so that they operate
4. The nature of one part of the system has an impact on compatibly with other systems.
the form that the other parts can take. 2. To survive, the social system must have the requisites from
5. Systems maintain boundaries with their environments. other systems.
6. Allocation and integration are two fundamental processes 3. The system must meet a significant proportion of the needs
necessary for a given state of equilibrium of a system. of its actors.
7. Systems tend toward self-maintenance involving the 4. The system must elicit adequate participation from its
maintenance of the relationships of parts to the whole, members.
control of environmental variations, and control of 5. It must have at least a minimum of control over potentially
tendencies to change the system from within. disruptive behavior.
6. If conflict becomes sufficiently disruptive, it must be
controlled.
 7. A social system requires a language in order to survive. 4. Equilibrium. Equilibrium is a characteristic of society that
has achieved the form that is best adapted to its
Functionalist explains that a society assumes a particular form situation. When society has reached a state of balance or
because that form works well for the society and develops equilibrium, it will remain in that condition until it is
certain characteristics because those characteristics meets the forced to change by some new condition.
needs of that society. The key principles of the functionalist
perspective as identified by Farley (in Vega et al. 2015, p.6): The structural functional model addresses the question of social
1. Interdependence. This is one of the most important organization and how it is maintained, (Durkheim & Spencer in
principles of the functionalist theory – society is made up Vega, et al., 2015, p.8). It has its roots in Natural Science and the
of interdependent parts and that every part of society is analogy between a society and an organization. In the analysis of
dependent to some extent on other parts of society. living organisms, the task of the scientists is to identify the
What happens in one affects the other parts. various parts (structures) and determine how they work
(function). In the study of society, a sociologist tries to identify
2. Functions of Social Structure and Culture. It is assumed the structures of society and how they function, thus the name,
that each part of the social system exists because it STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM.
serves some function. This idea is applied to both the The component parts of social structure are:
social structure and culture. 1. Families
a. Social Structure refers to the organization of society, 2. Neighborhood
including its institutions, its social positions, and its 3. Associations
distribution of resources. 4. Schools
b. Culture refers to a set of beliefs, language, rules, values, 5. churches
and knowledge held in common by members of a society. 6. banks
7. countries, etc.
3. Consensus and Cooperation. Societies have a tendency
toward consensus, to have certain basic values that Functionalism
nearly everyone in the society agrees upon. Societies stresses interdependence of the social system
tend toward consensus in order to achieve cooperation. examines how parts are integrated with each other
Inability to cooperate will paralyze the society and compares society with a machine, where on part
people will have to devote a great effort to fighting one articulates with another to produce the dynamic energy
another rather than getting anything done. required to make the society work
 stresses the processes that maintain social order by Education also plays a significant function in a political democracy.
stressing consensus and agreement Schools provide citizens with the knowledge and dispositions to
understands that change is inevitable and underscores participate actively in civic life. In an ever increasingly technical
the evolutionary nature of change society, schools provide students with the skills and dispositions
acknowledges that conflict between groups exists, to work in such a society. Although schools teach students
functionalism believe that without a common bond to specific work skills, they also teach students how to learn so they
unite groups, society will integrate may adapt to new work roles and requirements.
Functionalism examines the social processes necessary to
the establishment and maintenance of social order, Functionalist and Conflict Theories have been criticized as being
(Ballantine & Spade in Vega, et al., 2015, p.8). highly abstract and whose emphases are on social structure and
processes which are at a macro-level. Critics of conflict and
Structural Functionalism functionalist theories argued that while those two levels of
Emphasizes social order and social stability and not social analysis helps us to understand education in the big picture or at
conflict a macro level, they hardly provide us with an interpretable
Explains that society is made up of different institutions or snapshot of what schools are like on a day-to-day basis, or what
organizations that work together in cooperation – to transpires in the classroom between teacher and students and
achieve their orderly relationship and to maintain social between students and students. Thus a theory which focuses on
order and social stability. The maintenance of society micro-level of analysis has emerged, (Vega, et al. 2015).
emanates from internal rules, norms, values, and
regulations of these various ordered institutions. Interactionist Theories

Modern Functionalist Theories of education have their origin in Interactionist Theories attempt to make the commonplace,
the work of Talcott Parsons (Ballantine & Spade in Vega, et al. strange by noticing, focusing their attention and observing the
2015). Parsons believe that education is a vital part of a modern everyday-taken-for-granted behaviors and interactions between
society. Schooling performs an important function in the students and students, and between teachers and students. It is
development and maintenance of a modern, democratic what conflict and functionalist theories do not notice, do not
society, especially with regard to equality of opportunity for all focus their attention to, do not question that is most problematic
citizens. In modern societies, education is the key institution in a to the interactionists.
meritocratic selection process.
Provide examples here.
Symbolic Interactionism
Interactionist Theory is traced back to the works of Principles of Symbolic Interactionism
sociologists George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley. They 1. Human beings, unlike lower animals, are endowed with a
examined the ways in which the individual is related to society capacity for thought.
through ongoing social interactions. This school of thought, known 2. The capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction.
as Social Interactionism, views the self as socially constructed in 3. In social interaction, people learn the meanings and
relation to social forces and structures and the product of ongoing symbols that allow them to exercise their distinct capacity
negotiations of meanings. Thus, the social self is an active product for human thought.
of human agency rather than a deterministic product of social 4. Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on
structure. The social self is a result of social interaction mediated by distinctively human action and interaction.
symbols, in particular, language. The distinctive attributes of human 5. People are able to modify or alter the meanings and
behavior is viewed as the result of individuals’ participation in symbols they use in action and interaction on the basis of
varying types of social structures which in turn is dependent on the their interpretation of the situation.
existence of language behavior. Symbolic Interactionism is not only 6. People are able to make these modifications and
interested in socialization but also in interaction. Interaction is alterations, because, in part, of their ability to interact
significant in terms of (a) development of one’s ability to think, and with themselves, which allows them to examine possible
(b) development of one’s ability to express what s/he thinks. All courses of action, assess their relative advantages and
types of interaction, not just interaction during socialization, refine disadvantages, and then choose one.
our ability to think which in turn shapes the interaction process. 7. The intertwined patterns of actions and interactions
make up groups and societies.

Social Interactions Ability to think Symbolic Interactionism is based on the following premises by
Mead:
1. People act toward the things they encounter on the basis
However, not all forms of social interactions require mental
of what those things mean to them. The word things
processing or will involve our ability to think. They are Non-Symbolic
refer not only to objects but to people, activities, and
Interaction or in the term used by George Herbert Mead, the
situations as well.
conversation of gestures which does not involve thinking. Blumer
made the differentiation between those two basic forms of social
2. We learn what things are by observing how other people
respond to them through social interaction.
interaction, namely (1) non-symbolic interaction which does not
involve thinking, and (2) symbolic interaction which require mental 3. As a result of ongoing interaction, the sounds (or words),
gestures, facial expressions, and body postures we use in
processing, (Vega, et al. 2015, p.11).
 dealing with others acquire symbolic meanings that are definition, on the basis of the words or actions of others towards
shared by people who belong to the same culture. Example: us. The looking glass self forwards the idea We see ourselves as
The handshake, a symbolic gesture which is not simply a others see us. A student may acquire the idea that s/he is smart
mutual grasping of hands, palms, fingers but conveys the or dumb, likeable or unlikeable, pretty or ugly from what others
symbolic gesture of greetings among Filipinos. tell him/her; or how others make him/her feel about
himself/herself. Cooley explained that we use other people as a
The importance of thinking to symbolic interactionists is reflected mirror into which we look to see what we are like, (Farley in
in their views on objects. According to Blumer, there are three Vega, et al., 2015, p.12).
ypes of objects:
1. Physical objects – chair, tree, Vans shoes Questions for Reflection:
2. Social objects – student, mother, boyfriend, 1. Who are you in the eyes and words of other people?
girlfriend a. Do you accept your own self-image as presented
3. Abstract objects – such as ideas or moral principles to you by others without question?
(All human beings are created by God and therefore b. Do you like what you see in the mirror?
everybody must be given equal rights and must be 2. What is your interpretation of the following and reflect
treated with respect and dignity.) on the effects of your interpretation on your behavior?
a. A kind-hearted teacher
Objects are seen simply as out there in the real word. What is b. A teacher known for failing students; or a teacher
important is the way they are defined or interpreted by the known for passing all students despite absences
individuals experiencing those objects. Such interpretations lead to and failing quizzes and exams
a relativistic view that objects may have different meanings for c. A classmate who is very active in class
different individuals. Example: a shoe for a shoemaker may be his d. A classmate who smokes and into
source of livelihood or an expression of his artistic talent; a shoe for fraternity/sorority
a poor kid may be a source of frustration for not owning a pair; a
shoe for a teenager may be a source of pride, a status symbol. From: Vega, V.A., Prieto, N.G. & Carreon, M.L. (2015). Social
Dimensions of Education. Q.C.: Lorimar Publishing,
Related to the idea of the self as a social construct is the concept Inc.
of the looking glass self put forward by early symbolic
interactionist theorist, Charles Horton Cooley. The concept of the Socio-Cultural Phenomenon Influencing Education
looking glass self suggests that we come to develop an
understanding of who we are and who we are not, a self- Multiculturalism
 2. Ideological-Normative when the word refers to the
Multiculturalism is the phenomenon of multiple groups of management and organization of governmental
cultures existing within one society largely due to the arrival of responses to ethnic diversity (assimilationism,
immigrants. The term is often used to describe societies, differentialism and its extreme forms of exclusion,
especially nations, which have many distinct cultural groups apartheid, ethnic cleansing, and genocide).
resulting from immigration. The presence of many cultural 3. Programmatic-Political when the word refers to the
groups in a society can lead to anxiety about the stability of specific policies developed to respond to and manage
national identity, but it can also lead to cultural exchanges that ethnic diversity.
can bring benefits to the cultural groups. When different cultural
groups collaborate with each other, they can accomplish many Multiculturalism and Multicultural Education
great works in literature, arts, philosophy, technology, fashion Multiculturalism refers to the evolution of cultural diversity
and all other human endeavors that celebrate the richness of the within a jurisdiction introduced by its selection policies and
talents and intelligence of humanity. institutionalized by its settlement policies. With the evolving and
growing presence of diverse cultural groups in a society, there
Multiculturalism is also defined as a policy that emphasizes the arise the need for Multicultural Education which is an emerging
unique characteristics of different cultures, especially as they discipline whose aim is to create equal educational opportunities
relate to one another in receiving nations. Multiculturalism is a from diverse racial, ethnic, social class and cultural groups. It
systematic and comprehensive response to cultural and ethnic supports the idea that students and their cultural backgrounds
diversity, with educational, linguistic, economic and social and experiences should be the center of their education and that
components, and specific institutional mechanisms. learning should occur in a familiar contact that attends to
Multiculturalism is viewed as a model of democratic-policy- multiple ways of thinking.
response to culture and ethnic diversity because it corresponds
to the ideal of culture of peace based on respect of diversity, as Multicultural education is a tool for establishing pride and
well as universally shared values and norms. confidence among students in their unique and special
backgrounds. This theory concentrates on the need of including
3 Interrelated Referents of Multiculturalism notions of race, class and diversity while teaching. According to
1. Demographic-Descriptive when the word multicultural James Banks (in Vega, et al. 2015), the goal of multicultural
refers to the existence of linguistically, culturally, and education is to transform the school so that male and female
ethnically diverse segments in the population of a society students, exceptional students, and students from diverse cultural,
or state. social class, racial and ethnic groups experience an equal
opportunity to learn. A key assumption of multicultural education
is that students are more likely to achieve when the total perspectives. Curriculum is changed, so that students see
classroom climate is more consistent with their diverse cultures the world from the different perspective of various groups.
and learning styles. 4. Social Action Approach. Going beyond transformation
approach, students not only learn to view issues from
Other goals of Multicultural Education: multiple perspectives but also become directly involved in
To help all students acquire knowledge, attitudes, and solving related problems; promotes decision-making and
skills needed to function effectively in pluralistic social action in order to achieve multicultural goals and a
democratic society and to interact, negotiate, and more vibrant democracy, (Sadker & Sadker in Vega, et al.
communicate with peoples from diverse groups in order 2015).
to create a civic and moral community that works for the
common good. Multicultural education is grounded on the ideals of social
To help students acquire the knowledge and justice, education equity, and a dedication to facilitating
commitments needed to make reflective decisions and to educational experiences in which all students reach their
take personal, social, civic action to promote democracy full potential as learners and as socially aware and active
and democratic living. beings, locally, nationally, and globally.
Related goal, is to help all students develop more positive Multicultural education acknowledges that schools are
attitudes towards different racial, ethnic, cultural, and essential to laying the foundation for the transformation
religious groups. of society and the elimination of oppression and injustice.
Multicultural education is a progressive approach for
4 Approaches to accomplish the goals of Multicultural Education transforming education that holistically critiques and
1. Contributions Approach. Ethnic heroes and holidays are addresses current shortcomings, failings and
included in the curriculum. Heroes, holidays, and food discriminatory practices in education.
become a special focus on a particular day; recognizing Interdisciplinary approach
the contributions of various groups.
2. Additive Approach. A unit or course in incorporated (a
unit on women in history), but no substantial change is Ideals Underpinning Multicultural Education
made to the curriculum as a whole. Special units and Every student must have an equal opportunity to achieve
topics about various groups are added to, but do not his/her full potential.
fundamentally alter the curriculum. Every student must be prepared to competently
3. Transformation Approach. Students are taught to view participate in an increasingly intercultural society.
events and issues from diverse ethnic and cultural
 Teachers must be prepared to effectively facilitate 3. Prejudice Reduction. It describes lessons and activities
learning for every individual student, no matter how used by teachers to help students develop positive
culturally similar or different form themselves. attitudes toward different racial, ethnic, and cultural
Schools must be active participants in ending oppression groups. Lessons, units and teaching materials that include
of all types, first, by ending oppression within their own content about different racial and ethnic groups can help
walls, then, by producing socially and critically active and students develop more positive intergroup attitudes if
aware students. certain conditions exist in the teaching situation. These
Education must become fully student-centered and conditions include positive images of the ethnic groups in
inclusive of the voices and experiences of the students. the materials and the use of the multiethnic materials in a
Educators, activists and others must take a more active consistent and sequential way.
role in reexamining all educational practices and how they
affect the learning of all students; testing methods, 4. Equity Pedagogy exists when teachers modify their
teaching approaches, evaluation and assessment, school teaching in ways that will facilitate the academic
psychology, and counseling. achievement of students from diverse racial, cultural, and
social class groups.
Dimensions of Multicultural Education, (Banks, 1997 in Vega, et
al. 2015) 5. Empowering School Culture and Social Structure. This is
1. Content Integration – deals with the extent to which created when the culture and organization of the school
teachers sue examples and content from a variety of are transformed in ways that enable students from
culture and groups to illustrate key concepts, diverse racial, ethnic, and gender groups to experience
generalizations, and issues within their subject area or equality and equal status.
disciplines.
Culturally-Responsive Teaching acknowledges cultural diversity
2. Knowledge Construction Process – describes how in classrooms and accommodates this diversity in instruction by:
teachers help students understand, investigate and (1) recognizing and accepting student diversity, it communicates
determine how the biases, frames of reference, and that all students are welcome and valued as human beings; (2)
perspectives within a discipline influence the ways in building on students’ cultural backgrounds, culturally-responsive
which knowledge is constructed within it. Students also teaching communicates positive images about the students’
learn how to build knowledge themselves in this home cultures; and (3) being responsive to different learning
dimension. styles, culturally-responsive teaching, builds on students’
strengths and uses these to help students learn.
Culturally-responsive instruction covers areas related to: Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and
1. Inclusive content in the curriculum that reflects the convergence of activities and forms of life among diverse cultures
diversity of society. Students from diverse backgrounds throughout the world. It is fundamentally the closer integration of
see themselves and their experiences in the curriculum. countries and peoples of the world which has been brought about
2. Students’ prior knowledge, including their culture and by the enormous reduction of costs of transportation and
language. communication and the breaking down of artificial barriers to the
3. The idea that culture is central to student learning flows of goods, services, capital knowledge, and (to a lesser extent)
because there is no strong evidence that culture practices people across countries, (Stiglitz in Vega, et al, 2015).
affect the thinking process.
International forces are fuelling globalization and driving
Culturally-responsive teaching encompasses the following tremendous developments in the world. It crystallizes (1) the
elements: hopes of that we will finally achieve a global society, and (2) the
1. Communication of high expectations fears of others that their lives and jobs are threatened by forces
2. Active teaching methods that promote student beyond their control, (Chronicle of Higher Education in Vega et
engagement al, 2015, p.117).
3. Teacher as facilitator
4. Positive perspectives on parents and families of culturally Globalization as a theory seeks to explain the integration of
and linguistically diverse students economies and societies around the world as they are knit
5. Cultural sensitivity together by travel, language, values and ideas, trade, labor and
6. Reshaping the curriculum so that it is culturally financial flows, communication and technology. It also addresses
responsive to the background of students the political interconnectedness of nations via global governance
7. Culturally mediated instruction that is characterized by arrangements and expanding cultural exchange via the internet,
the use of culturally mediated cognition, culturally mass media, travel, etc. As a process, globalization affects all
appropriate social situations for learning, and culturally countries, some more favorably than others in terms of
valued knowledge in curriculum content economic growth, national sovereignty, and cultural identity.
8. Small group instruction and academically-related
discourse Education Systems: Core of the Globalization Process

With the ever-increasing globalization, interconnected of peoples of

Globalization the world, education finds itself at the very center of it. Global
development as the direction of globalization, education has
become an inseparable tool. Rinne (in Vega, et al., 2015) Global Education aims to extend students’ awareness of the
emphasizes that educational policy has become an ever more world in which they live by opening to the diverse heritage of
important part of economic, trade, labor, and social policy in human thoughts and action, and creativity. It emphasizes the
western countries. One concrete global development is the changes in communication and relationships among people
development of mega-universities, university networks and throughout the world by highlighting issues like human conflict,
virtual universities that can offer competitive training programs economic systems, human rights, and social justice, human
for students recruited from all over the world. commonality and diversity, literatures and cultures, and the
impact of technological revolution. In analyzing and finding
Globalization of higher education is becoming increasingly solutions to global-human problems, global education employs
realized in the present times as credentials and proof of interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary approach.
competency are being based more on global standards. Countries
embrace globalization as a movement and prompted them to get Objectives of global education are to develop learners’:
organized to facilitate the flow of economic, political, as well as Ability to think critically and ethically
socio-cultural activities among them. Ability to effectively access, interpret, evaluate and apply
information
Global Education and Globalization o essential for facing a constantly changing work
Globalization demands an education that develops higher-order environment
cognitive and interpersonal skills required for problem-finding, o for continuing self-education
problem-solving, articulating arguments, and deploying verifiable o for participation as an ethical and responsible
facts or artifacts. Motivated by economic forces and driven by member of a global society.
digital technologies and communications, globalization links
individuals and institutions across the world with
interconnection. This resulted to democratization, intensification
of interdependence, and creates new forms of local reaction and
self-definition. However, some see globalization as resulting to a
universal economy and culture that is rooted in North American
and Western ideals and interests. (Conflict Theories will interpret
it as domination of the Americans and Westerners over others; or
a tool to subjugate weak economies by strong economies that
will further widen the gap between the rich and the poor).
 Information globalization refers to the increase in
Aspects of Globalization information flows between geographically remote
Industrial locations.
Trans-
nationalizati
Cultural globalization refers to the growth of cross-
on cultural contacts where people of the world get a better
understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity and
Informationa plurality.
Cultural
l Globalism refers to the universal, internationalist impulse
that the world is connected; refers to the connection
GLOBALIZATIO
among cultures, nations, and peoples. It embodies
N cultural diffusion, the desire to consume and enjoy
foreign products and ideas, adopt new technologies and
practices, and participate in “world culture.”
Financial Political

Implications of Global Information Society to Education

Globalism 1. Demand for widening the education access for all

2. Lifelong learning
3. Global versus local cultural developments
4. Creations of new educational networked organizations
Industrial globalization, Trans-nationalization refers to the (ex. Global virtual universities, virtual schools,
rise and expansion of multinational and transnational multinational educational consortiums)
enterprises. 5. Changing of educational management from hierarchical
Financial globalization refers to the emergence of institutions to equal distributions of network
worldwide financial markets and better access to external organizations, from commanding to negotiating
financing for corporate, national, and sub-national 6. Demand for more flexible and general skills (ex. Meta-
borrowers. skills like problem-solving, searching information, learning
Political globalization refers to the spread of political skills, etc.)
spheres of interests to the regions and countries outside
the neighborhood of political (state and non-state) actors Core Values for Global Education
and the potential formation of a global citizen movement. Peace and non-violence
 Social justice and human rights content of knowledge and the processes of
Economic well-being and educational transaction. Information processing
equity Cultural integrity technologies provide an efficient framework for the
Ecological balance storage, management, analysis and application of
Democratic participation information. In the process, education has adopted
what is called as computational paradigm, or the use
Core Skills and Competencies for Global Education of computer metaphors to understand how human
Self-worth and self-affirmation beings understand themselves and the world around
Affirmation of others, including cultural and racial them.
differences
Critical thinking Information technology forces the educational system for its
Effective communication skills (including active listening) continuous upgrading of the curriculum in order to introduce the
Non-violent conflict resolution and mediation latest developments relating to the various disciplines in the
Imagination (the ability to envision alternatives) curriculum. Alongside, pruning of the existing curriculum is a
Effective organizing necessary condition in order to remove obsolete and irrelevant
details.
Globalization and Its Impact on Education
Also, education should engender (bring about, stimulate, cause) a
The impact of globalization and the manner in which the system
new humanism that contains an essential ethical component and
should respond to the needs of globalization would require to be
studied under two broad heads: sets considerable store of knowledge of, and respect for the
culture and spiritual values of the different civilizations, as much
1. The needed reform within the educational system like
needed counterweight to a globalization that would otherwise be
content, equity, excellence, stc.
seen only in economical and technological terms. The sense of
2. The fall out of globalization will entail determining shared values as a common destiny is in fact the basis on which
strategies relating to the impending internationalization any scheme of international cooperation must be founded,
of education, finance-related issues, and privatization of
(Delors Commission, 1986 in Vega, et al. 2015, p.131).
secondary and higher education.

Needed Reforms in Education b. Productivity orientation. The basic objective of globalization is to

enhance productivity and to make the educational system an
1. Content of Education
instrument in preparing students who can compete in the world
a. Curriculum Up-gradation. Advances in information markets as productive members of society. This would necessitate
technology have revolutionized among others the
making skill training as an integral part of the curriculum besides public, and the industrial and commercial organizations,
making attitudinal changes so that students do not consider which should be allowed to set up, manage and finance
working with their hands as an unattractive option. institutions of post elementary education.

An important feature of globalization in relation to education is the

need for producing higher quality manpower that can successfully Education as a service industry is part of globalization
face competition in the world markets. This implies selecting the best process under the umbrella of the General Agreement on
human material and giving them education of highest quality. Trade and Services (GATS). There is however a distinct
possibility that thus might force countries with quite
2. The Fall Out of Globalization different academic needs and resources to conform to
a. Internationalization of Education. Implicit in the system of structures inevitably designed to service the interest of
globalization is the inevitability of internationalization of the most powerful academic systems and corporate
the educational system, particularly at the higher educational providers breeding inequality and
education stage. It is assumed that education will improve dependence, (Altbach in Vega, et al 2015). World Bank
it is internationalized and healthy competition will take Task Force Report expressed the fear that Globalization
place. It will provide global opportunities, promote good can lead to unregulated and poor quality higher
will, and will encourage exchange of scholars. education with the worldwide marketing of fraudulent
degrees or other so-called higher education credentials.
b. Finance-related issues. In order to be part of global
configuration, the requirement of funds for social services
including education will increase manifold. For this ASEAN INTEGRATION
purpose, it is necessary to augment government funding
for education. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

c. Privatization of secondary and higher education. As a The Member Countries

corollary to the suggestions about reducing public 1. Brunei Darussalam,
investment in secondary and higher education, plea has 2. the Kingdom of Cambodia,
been made to hand over these sectors to private 3. the Republic of Indonesia,
institutions. It has also been suggested that institutions 4. the Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
beyond primary basic education should increasingly 5. Malaysia,
depend upon tuition fees, the philanthropy of the general 6. the Union of Myanmar,
7. the Republic of the Philippines,
 8. the Republic of Singapore transportation and communication facilities and the
9. the Kingdom of Thailand raising of the living standards of their peoples;
10. the Socialist Republic of Vietnam 6. To promote Southeast Asian Studies, and
7. To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing
ASEAN was created as an organization in 1967 with the aim of international and regional organizations with similar aims
helping to bring about a Southeast Asian region of peace, and purposes, and explore all avenues for even closer
freedom, and prosperity for their peoples. cooperation among themselves.

ASEAN Fundamental Principles (Contained in the 1976 Treaty of

Amity and Cooperation)
Aims and Purposes:
1. To accelerate the economic growth, social progress, and 1. Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty,
cultural development in the region through joint equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of all
endeavors in the spirit of equality and partnership in nations;
order to strengthen the foundation for a prosperous and 2. The right of every State to lead its national existence free
peaceful community of Southeast Asian Nations; from external interference, subversion, and coercion;
2. To promote regional peace and stability through abiding 3. Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;
respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship 4. Settlement of differences by peaceful manner;
among countries of the region and adherence to the 5. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
principles of the United Nations Charter; 6. Effective cooperation among themselves.
3. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on
matters of common interest in the economic, social,
cultural, technical, scientific and administrative fields;
4. To provide assistance to each other in the form of training
and research facilities in the educational, professional,
technical, and administrative spheres;
5. To collaborate more effectively for the greater utilization
of their agriculture and industries, the expansion of their
trade, including the study of the problems of international
commodity trade, the improvement of their
 Year Occasion Action economic competitiveness and attractiveness to investors, in
Aug 8, First convergence of Establishment of the Association particular, during economic downturn.
1967 five SEA Nations of Southeast Asian Nations
(Indonesia, Malaysia, (ASEAN) as a regional block The integration is a tripartite course of action highlighting
Philippines, Singapore, economic progress, political security, and socio-cultural
and Thailand) in community. This is known as the three pillars of the ASEAN
Bangkok, Thailand Community, namely:
1976 1976 Treaty of Amity Adoption of Fundamental 1. ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)
and Cooperation in Principles Governing ASEAN 2. ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC)
Southeast Asia (TAC) 3. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC)
th
1997 ASEAN’s 30 The Signing of ASEAN Vision
The First Pillar: ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)
Anniversary 2020 A Shared vision of ASEAN
as outward looking, living in ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) is a blueprint, a vision
peace, bonded together in towards integrating the ASEAN resource markets. This AEC
primarily targets the creation of a single market and production
partnership in dynamic
base, which allows the free flow of goods, services, investments,
development in a community of
and skilled labor, and the freer movement of capital across the
caring societies.
th region. This means less restrictions and qualifications on imports
2003 9 ASEAN Summit State/Government Leaders and skilled workers.
established a common goal to
turn the organization into ONE
This global movement of capital and employment is expected to
UNIFIED ASEAN COMMUNITY to
intensify competition in both labor and product markets. Since
be inaugurated in 2020
th workers all over South East Asia can now be employed within the
2007 12 ASEAN Summit Fastracking the 2020 ASEAN region having less rules and regulations to comply with, our local
Integration to 2015 labor force ought to have more job opportunities but may
7. ASEAN Historical Events likewise face a much sterner competition.

The Pillars of ASEAN Community For Reflection:

Implications for Education in the Philippines. . .
The ASEAN Heads of States indicate that the member states
acknowledge that an integrated , stable, knowledgeable and The Second Pillar: ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC)
caring community will help ASEAN nations to strengthen their
The ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) oversees that the simultaneously providing better opportunities to the vulnerable
ASEAN community continues to live in peace, stability, resilience, groups including children and the elderly who are the most
and in concord. Through the APSC, the member countries have prone to be victims of abuse and discrimination. They are to be
established a rule-based community of mutually shared norms provided with special care and privileges.
and values.
Finally, the environment must be protected to ensure that our
With APSC, all ASEAN member countries agree to rely exclusively natural resources are well managed to sustain development and
on scholarly and peaceful processes of settling intra-regional also to serve as our legacy for the future generations.
conflicts about matters of security and cultural differences. APSC
has the following components: Information and Communication Technology
1. Political development Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in education
2. Shaping and sharing of norms consists of the hardware, software, network media for the
3. Conflict prevention collection, storage, processing, transmission, and presentation of
4. Conflict resolution information (via text and images) as well as related services,
5. Post-conflict peace building (World Bank).
6. Implementing mechanisms
ICT has become a personalized commodity, and the environment
The Third Pillar: ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) we are operating is becoming more and more based on
The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) aims to promote a information and communication technology. The
caring and sharing society which stems from the fact that all commercialization of the Internet through the World Wide Web
actions undertaken by the ASEAN are to uplift the lives of its (www) service has the advantages of bringing ICT to the ordinary
people and make living in the region a more fulfilling experience. people and to education. This affordability and availability has
triggered the new generation’s techno-economic innovations in
ASCC seeks to provide fair access to opportunities without our society, (Castells, 1996).
prejudice to religion, race, gender, and cultural background. By
doing this, human potential can be maximized and nurtured to ICT is a driving force in globalization. While ICT enables the
the fullest through allowing all individuals to take part in a interconnectedness of peoples and societies and levels the playing
competitive world that respects human welfare and dignity. fields in access to information, it also highlights the division in the
world between haves and the have-nots, between the information
The ASCC is also concerned with virtues of social justice which is rich and the information poor. The digital divide is not only dividing
upheld by addressing issues of poverty and equity while the people in terms of the availability of ICT but also in
terms of the availability of education and wealth. Given this Teach Effective teaching all but disappears. Good
scenario, education is at the forefront of minimizing the gap if more teaching requires a personal connection
not totally closing the gap. effectively
(teacher-student). Internet is unmonitored,
filled with erroneous information, political
Farrel (119) expressed the view that ICT in education is propaganda, and phony research
concerned with issues like: Reach and The Digital world remains divided.
equity of access (educational policy), teach Technology amplifies economic disparities,
curriculum relevance in technology (technology more awarding clear advantage to children from
education as a subject), students wealthy high tech homes attending
methodological development in technology (ICT and wealthy high-tech schools.
learning), and Make the Students risk becoming anti-social. Many
cultural sensitivity (cultural globalization) world our youngsters surf the internet, but are
classroom unable to form personal connections. The
ICT and Education Initiatives, and Their Contributions to Internet is home to many countless
Millenium Development Goals narrow-interest groups that fragment
1. increasing access through distance learning society instead of unifying it.
2. Enabling a knowledge network for students Turn Computers are a health risk. Computer use
3. Training teachers latchkey is associated with increased eye strain,
4. Broadening the availability of quality education materials kids into repetitive motion injury, and the obesity
5. Enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of educational connected that comes from a sedentary lifestyle.
administration and policy kids

Internauts a term use to apply to students and teachers Get ready Fundamental skills are sidelined. As
exploring the internet’s educational possibilities. for the spelling and grammar tools correct student
future writing nd computer skills replace
engagement with books, real learning is
compromised. Tomorrow’s workers may
become powerless automatons.
Computers in Computers in education disable us Though computers have little to show in the way of educational
education enable because: effectiveness, support for technology in schools remain high.
Most parents and business leaders believe that computers offer
us to:
essential workplace skills – an important, if not academic goal. Teachers’ roles will tend to shift from the sage on the
The public also believes that computers and Internet provide a stage to the guide on the side. Instead of conveying
window on the latest information, and that somehow computers information, they will help learners make use of new
make education more efficient and more enjoyable. information tools to find, analyze, and synthesize
information to solve problems, to think creatively, and to
Lewis Perelman (in Vega, et al. 2015): There is a strong case of construct their own understanding.
education transformation. Knowledge acquisition is no longer Education will become a lifelong process, important and
something that happens only in school. Now it occurs everywhere accessible to all, and schools will become centers of
and is lifelong. With the growth of hypermedia and networking, learning – not just for children, but for all members of the
learning can happen anytime, anywhere. Schools are no longer community.
needed and they are getting in the way of the truly necessary The artificial divisions of grade levels will disappear.
changes. Education will increasingly focus on authentic
performance-based forms of assessment. Student will be
We see a future where teachers and learners continue to judged by their ability to find out and use information to
embrace and integrate educational technology and use it to solve genuine problems,
improve teaching and learning. The following are some of the The boundaries separating schools from each other and
possible outcomes of the process of change: the community will blur or disappear. Using distance
Multimedia learning resources available via information learning technologies, including the Internet, students
networks will proliferate and become an essential feature will learn from teachers at other locations and
of education. collaborate with students at other locations. Teachers will
Learners and teachers alike will have access to powerful learn alongside students. Students will learn from other
portable computing devices that will be wirelessly students or from other members of the community.
connected to network resources. Communities will change as technology enables
Learning will increasingly take place in authentic contexts collaboration over distances.
and focus on authentic tasks. Students will work on real
problems, finding their own answers. Technology will be
on tool in that process. Gender and Development
Students will become active learners, collaborating with
one another and with more experienced members of Gender is one of the universal dimensions on which status
society, to seek out information and gain knowledge. difference are based. The term gender is often mistakenly
interchanged with the term sex. Sex is a biological concept, while
gender is a social construct specifying the socially-culturally- imagine, and ever closer to the use of symbols (language). A sub-
prescribed roles that men and women are to follow. stage is called Symbolic Sub-stage where children show progress
in their cognitive abilities by being able to draw objects that are
Gender shapes the lives of all people in all societies. It influences not present because of the dramatic increase in their language
all aspects of our lives, the schooling we receive, the social roles and make-believe play. This is also termed as symbolic function
we play, and the power and authority we command. Population of the child’s ability to represent objects and events through
processes – where women and men live, how they bear and rear symbols. Kohlberg used this description of children during this
children, and how they die – are shaped by gender as well, (Riley stage as a background for the speculation on how gender or
in Vega, et al. 2015). understanding of his/her role in a social context is developed. For
Kohlberg, this is the beginning of the process of acquiring
Theories of Gender Development gender-appropriate behavior.

Social Learning Theory believes that parents, as distributors of Gender Schema Theory explains gender development based on a
reinforcement, reinforce appropriate gender role behaviors. By schema. A schema, in general, is a mental blueprint for organizing
their choice of toys, by urging “boy” or “girl” behavior, and by information. A gender schema is a blueprint for organizing
reinforcing such behavior, parents encourage their children to information about the different social roles men and women play,
engage in gender-appropriate behavior. If the parents have good and information about what society expects of men and women.
relationships with their children, they become models for their Such a schema helps a child to develop gender identity and
children to imitate, encouraging them to acquire gender-related formulate an appropriate gender role. Consequently, children
behavior. Thus, children are reinforced or punished for different develop an integrated schema or picture of what gender is and
kinds of behavior. They also learn appropriate gender behavior should be, (Elliott et al., 1996 in Vega et al. 2015).
from other male or female models.

Cognitive-Developmental Theory explains gender development in Gender Stereotyping

conjunction with the cognitive development of children as
speculated by Lawrence Kohlberg based on the original theory of Gender roles are primarily socialized in the family and reinforced by
Jean Piaget about how children develop their ability to think and other social institutions. Gender stereotyping is defined as the
reason. Piaget theorized that from about two-seven years old beliefs humans hold about the characteristics associated with
(corresponding to preschool years), children’s intelligence is males and females. From an early age, people form ideas about
intuitive in nature. This is the Pre-Operational Stage. At this stage, what and how males and females are or should be. Based on their
children can make mental representations and is able to pretend, formed ideas about males and females, they assign labels, develop
attitudes, and expectations that could either be favorable or Gender and Equality
unfavorable; facilitates or hinders the development of full human
potentials of any of the two categories. Problems occur when Gender equality gives women and men the same entitlements to
beliefs, attitudes, and expectations associated with a particular all aspects of human development – economic, social, cultural,
gender has a negative image; when an individual (based on civil and political rights. It also gives the same level of respect,
gender) is assumed to have all the characteristics associated with the same opportunities to make choices and the same level of
his/her gender. For example: Girls are good in English. Boys are power to shape the outcomes of their choices.
good in Math. Girls are emotional and indecisive. Boys don’t cry,
they are brave, strong, and can be depended on. Schools may Research from around the world has shown that gender
also be responsible in promoting gender stereotyping when they inequality tends to slow down economic growth and make the
treat boys and girls differently. rise from poverty more difficult. To understand the link between
gender inequality and difficulty to rise from poverty, we have the
Attitude towards men’s and women’s role is referred to as following:
gender ideologies. Half of the world’s population is female
Research show that women and girls tend to work
3 gender ideologies harder than men
Women are more likely to invest their earnings in
1. A traditional gender ideology maintains that men’s sphere their children
is work and women’s sphere is the home. The implicit Women are major consumers as well as consumers
assumption is that men have greater power then women. Women shoulder critical, life-sustaining
2. Egalitarian gender ideology maintains that power is responsibilities without which men and boys could
distributed equally between men and women and that not survive, much less enjoy high levels of
each group identifies equally with the same spheres. productivity
3. Transitional gender ideology believes that it is acceptable
for women to devote energy both to work and family Given the data, women empowerment is particularly important
domains, but they should hold proportionally more for determining a country’s demographic trends which affect its
responsibility for the home and men should focus their economic success and environmental sustainability,
energy more proportionally on work. (worldbank.org/gender).

Throughout the world, women play a critical role in the national

economic growth and development. Their contributions have a
 st
lasting impact on households and communities, and it is the The Teacher in the 21 Century Society
women who most directly influence family nutrition and the
health and education of their children. Giving women equal The buzzword in education is lifelong learning. The term evolved
rights and opportunities can only serve to enhance this from a human society that is becoming even more complex
contribution and bring us closer to the goal of eliminating characterized by technological innovations, free movement of
poverty, hunger, and disease. people, goods, and services, and an information-driven-society. It
assumes that with the right knowledge, skills and attitudes, one
Reducing gender inequality in the labor market will increase will successfully adapt to such an environment without being
women’s economic security and contribute to economic growth and dependent on formal schools and teachers. Lifelong learning is a
development. Ensuring women’s equal right to property and access continuous process by which one equips oneself to seize learning
to resources is fundamental to the fight against poverty. The full opportunities throughout life, and through which s/he broadens
participation of women at all levels of decision-making is a basic his/her knowledge, skills and attitudes, and enables him/her
human right, one that is critical to peace and development. adapt to a changing, complex, interdependent world, (Learning
the Treasure Within, International Commission on Education.
Points for Reflection: UNESCO, 1996 in Vega, et al., 2015).
1. Gender is the costume, a mask, a straitjacket in
which men and women dance their unequal
dance, (Lerner, G. in the Creation of Patriarchy).
2. Of all the ways that one group has systematically The International Commission on Education envisions education
st
mistreated one another, none is more deeply in the 21 Century as anchored on the Four Pillars:
rooted than the way men have subordinated 1. Learning to Know
women. All other subordination pale by contrast, 2. Learning to Do
(Wolfe A. in The Gender Question). 3. Learning to Live Together
3. What are the implications of gender inequality? 4. Learning to Be
4. The role of schools in promoting gender equality.
Learning to know implies learning how to learn by developing
one’s concentration, memory skills and ability to think. It
For Research: includes the development of the faculties of
1. Peace Education: A Transformative Response to Major 1. Memory
Societal Changes 2. Imagination
2. The Need for Education for Sustainable Development 3. Reasoning
 4. Problem solving 3. A taste for learning throughout life
5. Ability to think in a coherent and critical 4. Critical thinking
way. 5. Tools and processes for understanding
6. Intellectual curiosity
When individuals know how to learn on their own, it is assumed
that they will develop knowledge and skills needed to function With those acquired skills, learners are expected to be
st
productively in the 21 Century. Learning how to learn transformed which means that they become more enlightened,
presupposes the following learn-to-learn skills: more empowered, and more enriched. They in turn will be able
1. Learning to read with comprehension to transform their own family and the society in general.
2. Listening Learning is not simply the acquisition of things learners need to
3. Observing know but more importantly is that they are able to do something
4. Asking questions useful with what they know. Here comes the second pillar of
5. Data gathering education which is Learning to Do. It implies the application of
6. Note-taking what learners have learned or known into practice. This is closely
7. Accessing, processing, and selecting related to technical-vocational education and work skills training.
information It emphasizes how one’s knowledge acquired in school can be
applied and practiced in the world of work. Zhou (2006 in Vega,
The focus on students’ ability to learn how to learn has shifted the et al. 2015) points out that learning to do involve the acquisition
role of teachers from provider of knowledge and information to of skills that enables individuals to effectively participate in the
being a facilitator by which students are able to learn on their own global economy and society.
because the teacher has successfully empowered students with the
necessary skills. We may use here the analogy of a beggar asking for This pillar also includes the development of competence, life
food. If you give the beggar a fish, you only feed him/her for a day. skills, personal qualities, aptitudes and attitudes. Learning to do
But if you teach him/her how to fish, you feed him/her for a can no longer have the simple meaning of preparing someone for
st
lifetime. That is exactly the role of a teacher in the 21 century – a clearly defined task and can no longer be regarded as simple
teaching students how to learn. If teachers are able to do that, then transmission of a more or less routine practice. The pillar brings
they are able to teach them for a lifetime. To be able to do that, to the fore the need for personal competence which employers
teachers must facilitate the development of: seek in their applicants. Personal competence may mean a mix of
1. Values and skills for searching for skills in an individual, a social behavior which enables an
knowledge and wisdom individual to work together in teams, ability to collaborate and
2. Learn how to learn readiness to take risks.
 7. Attitudes
Focus of Education in relation to Learning to Do is the launching of
learners into a lifelong continuum of knowledge, values, attitudes, It is only within the context of peace that one will be able to put
competencies and skills; and the development of new knowledge into practice what one is able to know. It is only within the context
and skills that are required by the changing work environment. The of a peaceful society that one will become productive in all spheres
need for the development of new knowledge and skills is an of his/her life. Thus the pillar of Learning to Live Together is the
st
offshoot of the increasing globalization and free trade which next anchor or education in the 21 Century. Learning to live
resulted to new economic pressures for business organizations and together involves the development of social skills and values, such
individuals to upgrade their knowledge and skills to maintain their as respect and concern for others, social and interpersonal skills and
competitive edge or at least be at par with their competitors. the appreciation of diversity among people.

Given the nature of a competitive world, individuals need to It is a dynamic, holistic and lifelong process through which
remain competitive in terms of their knowledge and skills. This mutual respect, understanding, caring and sharing, compassion,
raises the obvious concern of equitable access to learning social responsibility, solidarity, acceptance and tolerance of
opportunities and meaningful work for all to maintain and diversity among individuals and groups (ethnic, social, cultural,
advance human dignity and worth. Technical-vocational religious, national and regional groups) are internalized and
education must not only focus on the development of new practiced together to solve problems and to work towards a just
knowledge and skills but also on the need for values in education and free peaceful and democratic society.
and training associated with life skills; the development of one’s
ability to manage his/her life and time effectively; capacity for It involves developing, broadening or changing perceptions and
teamwork; responsible corporate and global citizenship and attitudes toward ourselves and others, and consequently the
democracy. way we behave in our daily encounters and interactions with
others. Connected with the Learning to Do, it demonstrates that
In summary, learning to do involves putting innovatively what in order to learn to live and work together productively and
one knows into practice through: harmoniously, we must first find peace within ourselves, expand
1. Skills development our acceptance and understanding of others, and continually
2. Practical know-how strives towards living the values which enables us to contribute
3. Development of competence more fully to the development of a peaceful and just society.
4. Life skills
5. Personal qualities The Role of the Teacher in relation to Learning to Live Together
6. Aptitudes
1. Helps the students to develop an understanding of other people The Commission further defines Learning to Be as a dialectical
and appreciation of interdependence; process, which starts with knowing oneself and then opens
2. Helps students realize the value of being able to live together relationships with others. In that sense, education is above all an
with others; inner journey whose stages correspond to those of the
3. Provides a safe and accepting learning environment; continuous maturing personality. It is thus a very individualized
4. Helps students develop life and career skills, social and cross- process and a process of constructing social interaction. That
cultural skills, flexibility, and adaptability; definition is anchored on a Humanistic Philosophy of Education
5. Helps students develop self-awareness, self-esteem, empathy, whose aim is the overall development of the human person as an
respect for others, active citizenship, local and global identity, individual and as a member of society. It takes into account all
and appreciation of diversity. the powers, faculties and innate potentials within the human
The fourth pillar of education is geared towards the person, respecting the dignity and worth of each individual. It
development of the whole person, an integrated, holistic underscores the humanistic dimensions in education,
individual, the Learning to Be. That is the dominant theme of highlighting the role of values and attitudes towards a holistic
Edgar Faure’s Report: Learning to Be: The World of Education and integrated approach to education.
Today and Tomorrow published by UNESCO. The pillar aims to
the development of all the dimensions of the complete person or Faure’s Report refers to the individual as unfinished, divided, and
the integration of the physical, intellectual, emotional, and incomplete. Education must therefore be directed towards the
ethical dimensions into a complete human being. This is one of development of the complete man. The physical, intellectual,
the fundamental principles of the International Commission on emotional, and ethical integration of the individual into a
st
Education for the 21 Century which states that: complete man is a broad definition of the fundamental aim of
education. The humanistic aim of education towards the
Education must contribute to the all- development of the complete man is reflected in Paulo Freire’s
around development of each individual –
view that man’s ultimate vocation and destiny is man’s
mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity,
aesthetic sense, personal responsibility, humanization which can be accomplished through
and spiritual values. It describes Learning conscientization. Conscientization is the process of becoming
to Be as the complete fulfillment of aware of the contradictions existing within oneself and in society
man/woman in all the richness of his/her and of gradually being able to bring about personal and social
personality, the complexity of his/her transformation. The process of conscientization begins when the
forms of expression and his/her various
commitment – as individual member of a
individual becomes fully conscious of his own creative potential
family and of a community, citizen and and aims at becoming fully human.
producer, inventor of techniques and
creative dreamer, (in Vega et al. p. 21).
Universal Aim of Education (Faure Report) among the physical, intellectual, ethical, emotional and
1. Towards a scientific humanism based on scientific and spiritual components of personality.
technological training. Command of specific thought and
language has become indispensable in today’s world. Learning to Be operates on the fundamental principle that
Objective knowledge must be directed towards action and education must contribute to the total development of the
primarily in the service of humankind. Science becomes a whole person – body and soul, mind and spirit, intelligence and
science with a conscience, and science at the service of emotion, creativity and sensitivity, personal autonomy and
development. Citizens of the new millennium must learn to responsibility, social conscience and commitment, human,
become scientific humanists. ethical, cultural and spiritual values. A definition and explanation
2. Creativity means preserving each individual’s originality and of these fundamental and dominant values serve as basic
creative ingenuity along with realism. Creativity means guidelines for a holistic approach to learning, utilizing a valuing
transmitting culture without stifling the individual. It is about process which takes into consideration the cognitive, affective
encouraging the use of one’s gifts, aptitude and personal and behavioral powers of the learner.
forms of expression without cultivating egoism and paying
attention to individual’s specific traits without overlooking Related Social-Philosophical Views
collective activity and welfare. This is possible when there is
respect for the creativity of others and other cultures or Pragmatism is a world philosophy which is based on change,
creative diversity. process, and relativity. It conceived of knowledge as a process in
3. Social Commitment consists of preparing the individual for which reality is constantly changing. It assumes that learning
life in society, moving him/her into a coherent moral, occurs as the person engages in problem-solving which is
intellectual and affective universe composed of sets of transferable to a wide variety of subjects and situations. Both the
values, interpretations of the past and conceptions of the learners and the environment are constantly changing.
future. An individual comes into full realization of his/her
own social dimension through active participation in the Pragmatists reject the idea of unchanging universal truths. Truth
functioning of social structures and a personal commitment is relative and knowledge must be the result of testing and
to reform when necessary. In essence, that is the practice in verification. To them, teaching should focus on critical thinking,
a democratic society. teaching is exploratory rather than explanatory and method is
4. Compelete Man respects the many sidedness of personality more important than subject matter .
as essential in education if the individual is to develop for
himself/herself as well as for others. It calls for balance Progressivism is an educational philosophy whose main
philosophical base is found in Pragmatism. For Progressivism, the
aim of education is to promote democratic social living. It identified inequities. For Freire (in Maningas, 2016), education is
believes that knowledge must lead to growth and development; a tool by which people could learn more about their capacity as
it is a living-learning process. Knowledge must focus on active human beings – to enhance the knowledge that they already
and relevant learning. The role of the teacher is guide for have, (p.218).
problem-solving and scientific inquiry. Its curriculum is based on
students’ interests; addresses human problems and affairs; Jurgen Habermas’ Philosophy. Emphasizes that education’s goal is
interdisciplinary subject matter; and on activities and projects. emancipation of the awareness, competencies, and attitudes that
people need to take control of their lives. In this view educated
John Dewey, the great educational pragmatist and a major people do not follow social conventions without reflection.
proponent of progressivism, viewed education as a process for
improving human condition. He saw schools as specialized Theodore Brameld argued that social reconstructionists were
environments within the larger social environment. Curriculum is committed to facilitating the emergence of a new culture;
based on a child’s experiences and interests and prepared the believed that schools should help students develop into social
child for life’s affairs. Subject matter was inter-disciplinary. beings dedicated to the common good.
Dewey emphasized problem-solving and scientific method. George Counts believed that society must be totally reorganized
to promote the common good.
Social Reconstructionism’s aim is to improve and reconstruct
society. Education is for change and social reforms. Knowledge Harold Rugg believed that schools should engage children in
focus on skills and subjects needed to identify and ameliorate critical analysis of society in order to improve it.
society’s problems. It requires active learning that is concerned
with contemporary and future society. The role of the teacher is Alvin Toffler (1970, in Llagas, Corpuz, & Bilbao, 2016, p.1)
to serve as an agent of change and reform. Teachers help predicted in his book Future Shock that the prime objective of
students become aware of problems confronting humankind. The education must be to increase the individuals’ cope-ability – the
curriculum is focused on social sciences and social research speed and economy with which individuals can adapt to
methods, the examination of social-economic and political continual change. In 1980, he surmised in the Third Wave that
problems. the electronic cottage will become the norm of the future…there
will be a transformation of our technological system and our
Paolo Freire’s Philosophy. The Pedagogy of the Oppressed. energy base into a new techno sphere.
Believed that education should enlighten the masses about their
st
oppression, prompt them to feel dissatisfied with their condition In the 21 Century, the most basic of all raw materials will be
and give them the competencies necessary for correcting the knowledge and that education will require a proliferation of new
channels and an emerging connection between education and CHAPTER II
global competitiveness. There will be a universalization of access School as a Social Institution and as an Organization
to computer, information technology, and advanced media,
(Toffler, in Llagas, et.al., 2016, p.1). School as a Social Institution

John Naisbitt The basic purpose of education is the transmission of knowledge.

The trends shaping the 80’s are shifts from industrial to While before, education was a family responsibility, along with
information society, from national economy to world economy, the community and the church, industrialization changed it
from hierarchies to networking, and from centralization to dramatically. Schools became necessary when cultural
decentralization. In Megatrends 2000, Naisbitt described the year complexity created a need for specialized knowledge and skills
as “…operating like a powerful magnet on humanity, reaching which could not be easily acquired in the family, community and
down into the 1990’s and intensifying the decade. It is simplifying church. The complexity of the modern life has not diminished the
emotions, accelerating change, heightening awareness and function of the family, but it has added the need for many types
compelling us to reexamine ourselves, our values, and our of instruction which require specialized educational agencies like
institutions. the school, college or university.

Llagas, A., Corpuz, B. & Bilbao, P. (2016). Becoming 21 st Century Educational Functions of Schools
Leader. Q.C.: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Seifert, E.H. and Vornberg, J.A. (2002). The new school leader for the 21 st Schools is first and foremost a social institution, an established
century: The principal. organization having an identifiable structure and a set of functions
Lanham: The Scrarecrow Press, Inc. meant to preserve and extend social order, (McNergney & Hebert
In Vega, et al. 2015, p.87). Its primary function is to move young
people in the mainstream of society. The curricula, teaching process
of evaluation and relationships among people reinforce a public
image to which young people are expected to aspire. It is concerned
with preserving our heritage, adapting to social change and making
change happen where it is needed.

The school is a place for contemplation of reality, and out task as

teachers is to show this reality to students. At home, the family
teaches children this reality in personal, informal, and
unstructured way. In school, we teach reality in professional,
formal and structured way. Hence in school there is a set of The Economic Purposes of Schooling:
curriculum which includes knowledge subjects, skills subjects, To prepare students for their later occupational roles
and enabling subjects. There are also teachers who facilitate To select, train and allocate individuals into the division of
learning, who teach children and youth certain types of labor
acceptable behavior, and see to it that children develop in all
aspects – physically, emotionally, socially, and academically. The Multiple School Functions (Yin Cheong Cheng In Vega, et al.
2015, p.88)
The Intellectual Purposes of Schooling: 1. Technical/Economic
To teach basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing, 2. Human/Social
and mathematics 3. Political
To transmit specific knowledge (in literature, history and 4. Cultural
the sciences) 5. Educational
To help students acquire higher order thinking skills such
as analysis, evaluation, and synthesis Technical/Economic Functions. They refer to the contributions
The Political Purposes of Schooling: of schools to the technical or economic development and needs
To inculcate allegiance to the existing political order of individuals, the institution, the local community, the society
(patriotism) and the international community.
To prepare citizens who will participate in the political At the individual level, schools can help students acquire
order knowledge and skills necessary to survival and to
To help assimilate diverse cultural groups into a common compete in a modern society or a competitive economy
political order and provide job training and opportunity.
To teach children the basic laws of society At the institutional level, schools are service organizations
The Social Purposes of Schooling: providing quality service. They serve as life place or work
To socialize children into various roles, behaviors, and place of society for clients, employers, and all those
values of society (socialization); a key ingredient in the concerned.
stability of society; enables members to help solve social At the community and society levels, schools serve the
problems economic or instrumental needs of the local community,
o By participating in the socialization of children, supply quality labor forces to the economic system,
schools work along with other social institutions modify or shape economic behaviors of students (future
such as the family and the church to ensure social customers and citizens), contribute to the development
cohesion and stability of the manpower structure of the economy.
 At the international level, school education supplies the students for international harmony, social
high quality forces necessary in international cooperation, global human relationship, and
competitions, economic cooperation, earth protection, elimination of national, regional, racial, and
and technology and information exchange. gender biases at the international level.

Human/Social Functions. They refer to the contributions of Political Functions. They refer to the contribution of schools to
schools to human development and social relationships at the political development at different levels of society.
different levels of society. At the individual level, schools help students to develop
At the individual level, schools help individuals develop positive civic attitudes and skills to exercise the rights and
themselves, psychologically, socially, and physically, and responsibilities of citizenship.
help them develop their potential as fully as possible. At the community and society levels, schools serve the
At the institutional level, a school is a social entity or political needs of the local community, maintain the
social system composed of different social relationships. stability of the political structure, promote awareness and
The quality of social climate and relationships in it often movement of democracy, and facilitate the planned
determines the quality of work life and learning life for political development and changes.
teachers and students. Therefore, one of the important At the international level, schools act as a place for
functions is to provide environment of quality. systematically socializing students into a set of political
At the community and society levels. According to norms, values, and beliefs, or for critically discussing and
Functionalism, schools serve the social needs or functions reflecting on the existing political events. Schools often
of the local community, support social integration of become a political coalition of teachers, parents, and
multiple and diverse constituencies of society, facilitate students that can contribute to the stability of the
the social mobility within the existing social class political power structure.
structure, reinforce social equality for all people of o The growing awareness of international
different backgrounds, select and allocate competent dependence reinforces the needs for the
people to appropriate roles and positions, and contribute contribution of school education to international
to social change and development in the long run. understanding, global common interest,
o From the Conflict perspective, it is possible that international coalitions, peace movements against
schools reproduce the existing social class war, and eliminations of conflicts between regions
structure and perpetuate social inequality and nations.
o Due to growing global consciousness, schools are
expected to play an important role in preparing
Cultural Functions. They refer to the contributions of schools to At the individual level, it is important for schools to help
the cultural transmission and development at different levels of students to learn how to learn and help teacher to learn
society. how to teach. Facilitating teachers’ professional
At the individual level, schools help students to develop development is one of the key functions of education at
their creativity and aesthetic awareness and to be this level.
socialized with the successful norms, values, and beliefs At the institutional level, schools serve as a systematic
of society. place for systematic learning, teaching and disseminating
At the institutional level, schools act as a place for knowledge, and as a center for systematically
systematic cultural transmission to and reproduction of experimenting and implementing educational changes
the next generation, cultural integration among the and development.
multiple and diverse constituencies, and cultural At the community and society levels, schools provide
revitalization of the outdated poor traditions. service for different educational needs of the local
At the community and society levels, schools serve as a community, facilitate development of education
cultural unit carrying the explicit norms and expectations professions and education structures, disseminate
of the local community, transmit all the important values knowledge and information to the next generation, and
and artifacts of society to students, integrate the diverse contribute to the formation of a learning society.
subcultures from different backgrounds, and revitalize the At the international level, schools help promote mutual
strengths of the existing culture such that the society can understanding among nations and build up a global family
reduce internal conflicts and wastage, an build up a for the younger generation. Schools can contribute to the
unifying force for the nation. development of global education and international
At the international level, schools can encourage education exchange and cooperation.
appreciation of cultural diversity, and acceptance of
different norms, traditions, values, and beliefs in different The Manifest and Latent Functions of Education
countries and regions, and finally contribute to the Manifest functions of education are the open and intended goals
development of global culture through integration of or consequences of activities within an organization or
different cultures. institution. The latent functions are the hidden, unstated, and
sometimes unintended consequences of activities within schools.
Education functions. They refer to the contributions of schools
to the development and maintenance of education at different The Manifest Functions:
levels of society. 1. Social Control. Schools are responsible for teaching values
such as discipline, respect, obedience, punctuality, and
 perseverance. Schools teach conformity by encouraging and the arts. All these are preserved for future
young people to be good students, conscientious future generations.
workers and law-abiding citizens. 2. Instructional Functions. The main concern of the school is
2. Socialization. From kindergarten through college, schools to pass on the accumulated experiences of the past
teach students their various roles in their family, school, generations to the incoming generations. This is
and society in general. Students are also taught specific performed by teachers, mentors, instructors, or
subject matters. professors. Some call such instruction as enculturation,
3. Social Placement. Schools are responsible for identifying when things of the local culture are taught to the
the most qualified people to fill available positions in students. In the performance of this function, school is
society. expected to produce leaders in all fields of endeavor-
4. Transmitting Culture. As a social institution, schools politics, education, trade, science, medicine, etc.
perform a conservative function of transmitting the 3. Research Function. The school conducts research to
dominant culture. Young people are exposed to the improve the old ways of doing things or to discover
existing beliefs, norms and values of the society. unknown facts or systems that will improve the quality of
5. Promoting Social and Political Integration. human life.
6. Agent of Change 4. Social Service Function. One justification for the existence
of schools is for them to perform social service in the
The Latent Functions: locality where they are located. This can be done through
1. Restricting some activities various forms of community service depending on the
2. Matchmaking and production of social networks need of the community and the available expertise of the
3. Creation of generation gap school.

School as an Organization
Functions of Schools by Calderon (1998 in Vega, et al. 2015)
1. Conservation Function. The school conserves and Organization is a collection of people who work together to
preserves through its libraries and other devices recorded attain specified objectives. There are two types:
experiences of the past generations such as knowledge, 1. Formal organization. It is formal when two or more
inventions, mathematics-scientific-historical facts, skills, persons come together to accomplish a common
customs, traditions, language, literature, music, writings objective, and they follow a formal relationship. They are
governed by established rules and policies for compliance
 and there exists a system of authority. The formation of relationship of members. Instead, it is a set of social norms,
such an organization is deliberate by the top level connections, and interactions.
management. The basic objective of the establishment of
an organization is the attainment of the organization’s Forces affecting the nature of organization
goal. For this purpose, work is assigned, and authorities 1. People
are delegated to each member. The concept of division of People make up the internal social system of the organization.
labor and specialization of workers are applied. The work The system consists of individuals and groups (large groups,
is assigned on the basis of their capabilities. The job of small groups, formal, informal). Groups are dynamic, they
each member is fixed. Roles, responsibilities, authority form, change and disband.
and accountability associated with the job are clearly 2. Structure
defined. The hierarchical structure determines the logical Defines the formal relationship and use of people in
authority relationship and follows a chain of command. organizations creating complex problems of cooperation,
The communication between two members is only negotiation, and decision-making.
through planned channels. 3. Technology
Provides the resources with which people work and affect
2. Informal organization. It is formed within the formal the tasks they perform.
organization and is a system of interpersonal relationship 4. Environment
between individuals. It is created spontaneously out of All organizations operate within an internal and external
socio-psychological needs and urge of people to talk. environment. An organization does not exist alone. It is part
Informal organization is characterized by mutual aid and of a larger system that contains many other elements or
cooperation, and companionship between and among social institutions.
members. Informal organization may also be formed
outside the formal organization through social media Characteristics of People that can affect how people behave at
networks like Facebook, Viber, WhatsApp and others. work:
1. Individual Difference or the belief that each person is
In an informal organization, there are no defined channels of different from all others. The headings under which
communication and so members can interact with other personal characteristics can vary have been classified as
members freely. They work together in their individual follows:
capacities and in their formal or professional capacities. There a. Competencies or abilities and skills
are no defined set of rules and regulations that govern the b. Constructs or the conceptual framework which
governs how people perceive their environment
 c. Expectations or what people have learned to
expect about their own and others’ behavior Influence of Background. Individual differences may be a
d. Values or what people believe to be important function of people’s background which will include the
e. Self-Regulatory Plans or the goals people set for environment and culture in which they have been brought up
themselves and the plans they make to achieve and now exist. Levinson (1978) suggested that “individual life
those goals. structure” is shaped by 3 types of external events:
1. Socio-cultural environment
Individual differences interact with Environmental or 2. Roles that they play and the relationships they have
situational variables include the type of work individuals carry out, 3. Opportunities and constraints that enable or inhibit them
the culture, climate and management style in the organization, the to express and develop their personality
social group within which individuals work, and the reference
groups that individuals use for comparative purposes. Attitude is a settled mode of thinking. It is evaluative in nature for it
contains an assessment of whether the object to which it refers is
Ability is the quality that makes an action possible. Overriding all liked or disliked. Within organizations, attitudes are affected by:
abilities is the general intelligence factor which accounts for cultural factors like values and norms
most variations in performance. the behavior of management (management style)
policies such as those concerned with pay, recognition,
Intelligence or the capacity to solve problems, apply principles, promotion, and the quality of working life and the
make inferences and perceive relationships. influence of reference group (group with whom people
The capacity for abstract thinking and reasoning identify)
with a range of different contents and media
The capacity to process information
Behavior at work is dependent on both the personal
Related to specific aspects of reasoning, inference, characteristics of individuals (personality and attitudes) and the
cognition (knowing, conceiving) and perception situation in which they are working. These factors interact.
(understanding, recognition) Behavior will be influenced by the perceptions of individuals
about the situation they are in. The psychological climate or
Personality is the relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals’ perception of the situation gives it psychological
individuals that distinguish them from other people. It is all- significance and meaning. The key environmental variables are:
embracing in terms of the individual’s behavior and the way it is role characteristics such as role ambiguity and conflict
organized and coordinated when s/he interacts with the job characteristics such as autonomy and challenge
environment.
 leader behaviors including goal emphasis and work 6. Value of the Person. Employees’ value and dignity as
facilitation human beings dictate that they be treated differently
work group characteristics including cooperation and from other factors (within the context of schools,
friendliness teachers and students must be treated differently from
organizational policies that directly affect individuals such factors like technology, financial resources, school
as reward system building, class schedule, academic and teaching tasks)

A general understanding about the nature of people or the 6 The Nature of Organizations
basic concepts with which we need to view people: Organizations are social systems whose behaviors are governed
1. Individual differences by social laws and psychological laws. People in the organizations
2. Perception. People look at the world and see things have psychological needs that need to be fulfilled, and they also
differently. It is the unique way in which each person have social roles that they need to fulfill as well as status that
sees, organizes and interprets things based on their they need to maintain or improve. As social system,
personalities, needs, demographic factors, and past organizations are dynamic.
experiences. People tend to act on the basis of their
perception. They may have selective perception causing Organizations and individuals have mutual interests,
misunderstanding, problems, and conflicts in organizations need people and people need organizations.
organizations. Organization are formed and maintained based on mutuality of
3. A Whole Person. Organizations employ not just the brain interest which provides super-ordinate goals that can only be
of the person or his skills but the whole person. Skills do attained through the integrated efforts of individuals.
not exist apart from background and knowledge, homelife
is not totally separable from worklife, emotional In order to attract and retain valuable employees, ethical
conditions are not separate from physical conditions. treatment is necessary. When the organization’s goals and
4. Motivated Behavior. Human behavior is always driven, actions are ethical, mutuality creates a triple reward system –
triggered, or energized by their needs, desires, or wants individual objectives, organizational objectives, and social
whether or not they are conscious or unconscious of them. objectives).
5. Desire for Involvement. People are actively seeking
opportunities at work to become involved in relevant How Organizations Function?
decisions, contributing to the organization’s success, thus The two factors that determine how an organization functions in
the need to involve them, to empower them. relation to its internal and external environment are its structure
and processes that operate within it. Organizations are also
affected by the culture they develop, the values and norms that 7. Interaction and networking
affect behavior. 8. Communication

Organization Structure Group Behavior. Organizations consist of groups of people

Organization structure consists of all the tangible and regularly working together. Interactions take place within and between
occurring features which help to shape its members’ behavior. groups and the degree to which these processes are formalized
Structures incorporate a network of roles and relationships and variy according to the organizational context.
are there to help in the process of ensuring that collective effort Formal groups
is explicitly organized to achieve specified ends. Informal groups
Channels of communication
The organization structure identifies and ensures the division of o Wheel Network. This is the most centralized form of
the overall management task into a variety of activities. It communication network wherein all the information
allocates these activities to the different parts of the organization flows from one central person, typically the leader.
and establishes means of controlling, coordinating, and The other members have little or no communication
integrating them. The structure consists of units, divisions, and link with each other. The leader deliberately controls
departments. It indicates who is responsible for what at each the line of communications and make sure that the
level of the organization. Organization structure is usually information reaches all in the group.
described in the form of Organization Chart. o Chain Network. Under the chain pattern, the
information flows either up or down the line. Each
Organizational Processes person gets the information from his immediate
superior and then passes it to their immediate
The structure of the organization as described in an organizational subordinates. Likewise, the chain gets created, and all
chart does not give any real indication of how it functions. To members get connected to a single person, typically
understand this, it is necessary to consider the various processes the leader. This network is suitable when the
that take place within the structural framework, namely: information to be passed is legally correct.
1. Group behavior o Circle Network. The network is one of the
2. Teamwork decentralized forms of communication network
3. Leadership wherein the information is shared equally among all
4. Power members. Each person gives and receives information
5. Politics from two or more persons in the network. Under this
6. Conflict
 pattern, each member has the equal chance to respect for the leader diminishes and the group does not
participate. function so effectively.
o Free Flow Network. Under this pattern, everyone is
connected to each other, and the information can flow
freely from anywhere in the organization. It is the most Group Ideology. In the course of interacting and carrying out
decentralized form of formal communication. The task and maintenance functions, the group develops an
distinct feature of this communication pattern is that all ideology which affects the attitudes and actions of its members
persons in the group are linked to each other and and the degree of satisfaction which they feel.
can freely communicate with anyone they want.
o Inverted ‘V’ Communication. In this network the Group Cohesion. If the group ideology is strong and individual
subordinate is allowed to communicate with his/her members identify closely with the group, it will become
immediate superior as well as with the superior’s increasingly cohesive. Group norms or implicit rules will evolve
superior. However, the communication between the which define what is acceptable behavior and which is not.
subordinate and the superior’s superior is limited.

Task and Maintenance Functions. The following o Cohesive group of individuals, sharing common fate, exerts a
functions need to be carried out in groups: strong pressure towards conformity. It may lead to group
o Task – initiating, information-seeking, diagnosing, think which describes the exaggeration of irrational
opinion-seeking, evaluating, decision-making tendencies that appears to occur in groups and that a group
setting can magnify the weakness of judgment.
o Maintenance – encouraging, compromising, peace-
keeping, clarifying, summarizing, standard-setting Reference Group. It consists of the group of people with
whom the individual identifies. This means that the group’s norms
It is the job of the group leader to ensure that these functions are accepted and if in doubt about what to say or do, references
operate effectively. Leaderless groups can work, but only in are made to these norms or to other group members before action
special circumstances. A leader is essential. The style adopted by is taken. Most people in organization belong to a reference group
the leader affects the way the group operates. If the leader is and this can significantly affect the ways in which they behave. The
respected, this will increase group cohesiveness and its ability to reference group will also affect individual behavior. This may be
get things done. An inappropriately authoritarian style creates through overt pressure to conform or by more subtle processes.
tension and resentment. An over-permissive style means that Acceptance of group norms commonly goes through 2 stages: (1)
compliance, and (2) internalization. Pressure on members to Teamwork
conform can cause problems when,
 Team
There is incompatibility between a member’s
personal goal and those of the group A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who

There is no sense of pride from being a member of the are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and
group approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.

The member is not fully integrated with the group

The price of conformity is too high Characteristics of effective teams:
1. Teams are the basic units of performance for the
organizations. They join together the skills, experiences,
Group Development. 4 stages of group development and insights of several people.
I. Forming. Starts when there is anxiety, dependence on 2. Teamwork applies to the whole organization as well as
the leader and feeling to find out the nature of the specific teams. It represents a set of values that encourage
situation and the task, and what is acceptable behavior. behaviors such as listening and responding cooperatively to
II. Storming, where there is conflict, emotional resistance to points of views expressed by others, giving others the
the demands of the task, resistance to control and even benefit of the doubt, providing support to those who need it
rebellion against the leader. and recognizing the interest and achievement of others.
III. Norming, when group cohesion is developed, norms 3. Teams are created and energized by significant
emerge, views are exchanged openly, mutual support and performance challenges.
cooperation increase and the group acquires a sense 4. Teams outperform individuals acting alone in large
of identity. organizational groupings especially when performance
IV. Performing, when interpersonal problems are resolved, requires multiple skills, judgments and experiences.
roles are flexible and functional, there are constructive 5. Teams are flexible and responsive to changing events and
attempts to complete tasks and energy is available for demands. They can adjust their approach to new
effective work. information and challenges with greater speed, accuracy
and effectiveness.
Identification. Individuals will identify with their groups if they 6. High performances teams invest much time and effort
like other members, approve of the purpose and work of the exploring, shaping and agreeing on purpose that belongs
group and wish to be associated with the standing of the to them, both collectively and individually. They are
group in the organization. Identification will be more complex characterized by a deep sense of commitment to their
if the standing of the group is good. growth and success.
 Leadership, Power, Politics, and Conflicts
Dysfunctional Teams
1. The atmosphere can be strained and formalized. Leadership is the ability to persuade others willingly to behave
2. Either there is too much discussion that gets nowhere or differently. The function of the team leaders is to achieve the
discussion is inhibited by dominant members of the team. task set for them with the help of the group. Leaders have 2
3. Team members do not really understand what they are main roles: (1) they must achieve the task, and (2) they have to
there to do and the objectives or standards they are maintain effective relationships between themselves and the
expected to achieve. group and the individuals in it. In fulfilling their roles, leaders
4. People don’t listen to one another. have to satisfy the following:
5. Disagreements are frequent and often relate to 1. Task needs. The group exists to achieve a common
personalities and differences of opinion rather than a purpose or task. The leader’s role is to ensure that this
reasoned discussion of alternative points of view. purpose is fulfilled. If it is not, they will lose the
6. Decisions are not made jointly by team members. confidence of the group and the result will be frustration,
7. There is evidence of open personal attacks or hidden disenchantment, criticism, and possible the ultimate
personal animosities. disintegration of the group.
8. People do not feel free to express their opinions. 2. Group maintenance needs. To achieve its objectives, the
9. Individual team members opt out or are allowed to opt group needs to be held together. The leader’s job is to
out, leaving the others to do the work. build up and maintain team spirit and morale.
10. There is little flexibility in the way in which team members 3. Individual needs. Individuals have their own needs which
operate – people tend to use a limited range of skills or they expect to be satisfied at work. The leader’s task is to
specific tasks, and there is little evidence of multi-tasking. aware of these needs so that where necessary, they can
11. The team leader dominates the team; more attention is take steps to harmonize them with the needs of the task
given to who takes control rather than to getting the and the group.
work done.
12. The team determines its own standards and norms which
may not be in accord with the standards and norms of
the organization. Power
Organizations exist to get things done and in the process, people
or groups exercise power. Power is the capacity to secure the
dominance of one’s goals or values over others. There are four
different types:
 1. Reward power. It is derived from the belief of individuals Interactions between people criss-cross the organization creating
that compliance brings rewards. The ability to distribute networks for getting things done and exchanging information
rewards contributes considerably to the executive power. which is not catered for in the formal structure. Networking is an
2. Coercive power. This power makes it plain that non- increasingly important process in flexible and delayered
compliance will bring punishment. organization where more fluid interaction across the structure
3. Expert power. It is exercised by people who are popular and are required between individuals and teams. Individuals can
admired and with whom the less popular can identify. often get much more done by networking than by going through
It can also be a power emanating from one’s expertise or the formal channels. People also get things done In organizations
superior knowledge. by creating alliances – getting agreement on a course of action
4. Legitimized power. It is a power conferred by the with other people and joining forces to get things done.
position in an organization held by an executive.
Communication
Politics The communication processes used in organizations have marked
Power and politics are inextricably mixed and in many effect on how they function especially if they take place though
organizations there will inevitably people who want to achieve networks which can turn into the ‘grapevine.’ E-mails in intranets
their satisfaction by acquiring power, legitimately or encourage the instant flow of information(and sometimes produce
illegitimately. Politics is a process of influencing individuals and information overload) but may inhibit face-to-face interactions
groups of people to your point of view where you cannot rely on which are often the best way of getting things done.
authority. Effective management is the process of harmonizing
individual endeavor and ambition to the common good. Formal communication (Refer to p.________)

Conflict Informal Communication

Conflict is inevitable in organizations because they function by The communication which does not follow any pre-defined
means of adjustments and compromises among competitive channel for the transmission of information. There are 4 general
elements in their structure and membership. Conflict also arises types: (1) grapevine, (2) rumor, (3) small talk, and (4) gossip.
when there is change because it may be seen as a threat to be
challenged or resisted or when there is frustration, this may Grapevine is an informal, unofficial and personal
produce aggressive reaction, fight rather than flight. communication channel or system that takes place within
the organization as a result of rumor and gossip. It is a
Interaction and Networking complex web of oral information flow linking all members
of the organization.
 Rumor is a statement or claim of questionable accuracy, 1. Physical barriers have to do with poor or out-dated
from no known reliable source, usually spread by word of equipment used during communications, background
mouth. noise, poor lighting, temperatures that are too hot or too
Small talk is an informal type of discourse that does not cold.
cover any functional topics of conversation or any 2. Attitudes also known as emotional noise. Emotions like
transactions that need to be addressed. Small talk is sadness or anger can taint objectivity. Also being
conversation for its own sake. extremely nervous, having a personal agenda, or
Gossip is revealing personal information about others. A “needing to be right no matter what” can make
friend who passes on the secret of other friends, but asks communications less than effective.
you not to tell is an example of gossip. Gossip is defined 3. Language. Even people speaking the same language can
as the private information about others shared in have difficulty understanding each other if they are from
conversation or print. different generations or different regions of the same
country.
Characteristics of informal Communication 4. Physiological barriers. Poor health condition, poor
Formation through social relations eyesight or hearing difficulties, physical pain
Uncertain path 5. Cultural noise. People sometimes make stereotypical
Possibility of rumor and assumptions about others based on their cultural
distortion Quick relay background.
6. Problems with Structure Design. Companies or institutions
Advantages of Informal Communication can have organization structures that are not clear, which
Fast and effective can make communications difficult. Also to blame for faulty
Free environment communication are bad information systems and lack of
Better human relations supervision or training of the people involved.
Easy solution of the difficult problems 7. Lack of Common Experience pertains to that of the
Satisfying the social needs of the workers sender and receiver of information. Sharing a story on the
part of the speaker to make a point may not be
successfully received and understood by the audience if
Limitations
they do not have the same experience.
Unsystematic
Unreliable 8. Ambiguity and Abstractions Overuse. Leaving things half-
said, using too many generalizations, proverbs or sayings
Most Common Barriers to Effective Communication
 can all lead to communications that are not clear and that The Significance of Culture
can lead themselves to misinterpretations. Culture represents the social glue and generates a we feeling
9. Information Overload. It takes time to process a lot of thus counteracting processes offers a shared system of meanings
information and too many details can overwhelm and which is the basis for communication and mutual understanding.
distract the audience from the important topics. Keep It If these functions are not fulfilled in a satisfactory way, culture
Simple. may significantly reduce the efficiency of an organization.
10. Assumptions and Jumping to Conclusions. This can make
someone reach a decision about something before How Organizational Culture Develops. The values and norms are
listening to all the facts. the basis of culture and are formed in four ways:
1. Culture is formed by the leaders in the organization,
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE especially those who have shaped it in the past.
2. Culture is formed around critical incidents – important
Organizational culture refers to pattern of values, norms, beliefs, events from which lessons are learned about desirable or
attitudes and assumptions that may not have been articulated undesirable behavior.
but shape the ways in which people behave and things get done. 3. Culture develops from the need to maintain effective
Values refer to what is believed to be important working relationships among organization members and
about how people and organizations behave this establishes values and expectations.
Norms are the unwritten rules of behavior 4. Culture is influenced by the organization’s environment.

The culture of an organization refers to the unique configuration of Culture is learned over a period of time. There are 2 ways in
norms, values, beliefs and ways of behaving that characterize the which learning takes place:
manner in which groups and individuals combine to get things done. 1. The Trauma Model in which members of the organization
Culture is a system of informal rules that spells out how people are learn to cope with some threat by employing defense
to behave most of the time. Culture is the commonly held beliefs, mechanism.
attitudes, and values that exist in an organization. 2. The Positive Reinforcement Model where values, beliefs,
and norms of the organization are learned by the use of
Organizational Climate refers to those aspects of the reward system. Over the years, things that seem to work
environment that are consciously perceived by organizational become embedded ad entrenched.
members. A climate is a perception and is descriptive. Where culture has developed over long periods of time and has
become firmly embedded, it may be difficult to change quickly, if
at all, unless a traumatic even occurs.
Components of Culture: if they are violated. They can exert very powerful pressure on
1. Values behavior because of these reactions. We control others by the
2. Norms way we react to them.
3. Artefacts
4. Leadership or Management Style Within the context of schools, norms may refer to such aspects
of behavior as:
Values help to determine what we think is right or wrong, what is How principals treat their teachers and how teachers
important and what is desirable. Values are belief in what is best relate to them
or good for the organization and what should or ought to The prevailing work ethic in school (work hard, play hard;
happen. Some of the areas in which values can be expressed come in early, stay late, if you cannot finish your work
implicitly or explicitly are: during business hours, you are inefficient, look busy at all
Performance times or look relaxed at all times)
Competence Status, how much import is attached to it; the existence
Competitiveness of lack of obvious status symbols
Innovation Ambition, naked ambition is expected and approved of;
Quality or a more subtle approach is the norm
Customer service (service to student) Performance, exacting performance standards are
Teamwork general; the highest praise that can be given in an
Care and consideration for people (community and organization is to be referred to as very professional
country) Power recognized as a way of life, executed by political
means, dependent on expertise and ability rather than
Values are translated into reality (enacted) through norms and position, concentrated at the top, shared at different
artefacts. They may also be expressed through the media of levels in different parts of the organization
language (organizational jargon), rituals, stories and myths. Politics rampant throughout the organization and treated
as normal behavior; not accepted as overt behavior
Norms are the unwritten rules of behavior. They are the rules of the Loyalty expected, a cradle to grave approach to careers,
game that provide informal guidelines on how to behave. Norms tell discounted, the emphasis is on results and contribution in
people what they are supposed to be doing, believing, even the short term
wearing. They are not expressed in writing – if they were, they Anger openly expressed, hidden but expressed through
would be policies or procedures. They are passed on by word of other means possibly political means
mouth or behavior and can be enforced by reactions of people
 Approachability, managers (principals, department situation. However, unduly coercive tactics are not part of
heads) are expected to be approachable and visible, or leadership. If influence is not exerted, then leadership is not
everything happens behind closed doors exerted. An employee who performs satisfactorily with almost
Formality, a cool formal approach is the norm, or given no boss contact is not being led.
name, surname nickname are allowed or not allowed at
all levels, there are unwritten but clearly understood rules Leadership, Management Supervision. Leadership is one
about dress component of management, working with and through individuals
and groups to accomplish organizational goals. Management
Artefacts includes the major activities of planning, organizing, controlling,
They are the visible and tangible aspects of the organization that and leading. The non-leadership aspects of a manager’s job are
people hear, see, touch, feel. They include such things as working sometimes referred to as administrative work, while the
environment, the tone and language used in letters or interpersonal aspects involve leadership. Leadership is regarded as
memoranda; the manner in which people address each other at a force that inspires and energizes people and brings about
meetings, over the telephone, the welcome or lack of it given to change. The other aspects of management deal more with status
visitors, etc. quo. Among the leadership aspects of a manager’s job described in
this context are motivation, communication and conflict resolution.
Both good management and effective leadership are important for
an organization to run well. Supervision is first-level management
Leadership (Leading and Influencing Others) or overseeing of workers. Supervisors plan, organize, control, and
This part from definition of Leadership to The Leaders’ Role in Encouraging lead as do other managers. However, supervisors spend more time
Others is from Dubrin, A.J. (1994). Applying Psychology, Individual and in direct leadership activities than do higher-level managers.
th
Organizational Effectiveness. 4 Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Effective leadership has been evaluated as the most important How Leaders Use Power to Achieve Goals
factor in moving organizations forward in a complex and
Leaders influence others to achieve goals through the use of power
competitive world. To achieve such ends, effective leadership is
– the ability to control resources, to influence important decisions,
needed at all levels from supervisors to top executive.
and to get other people to do things. When power stems from the
formal position you occupy, it is referred to as position power.
The reason leadership is so important can be found in its definition. When it stems from your personal characteristics and skills, it is
Leadership is a process of influencing others to achieve certain referred to as personal power. If you want to be an
objectives. Leadership involves influencing the activities of an
individual or group in efforts toward reaching a goal in a given
effective leader, you must be able to use power in an intelligent necessary because coercion is likely to create resentment
and sensitive manner. and undermine their personal power. Yet, if skillfully
used, coercion can get some people to comply with rules,
Position power can be divided into three sub-types: regulations, and orders.
1. Legitimate power is the ability to influence others that
directly stems from the leader’ position. It is the easiest Personal power has two sub-types
type of power to understand and accept. People at higher 1. Expert power is the ability to control others through
levels in an organization have more power than the knowledge relevant to the job as perceived by
people below them. However, the culture of an subordinates. You can also exercise expert power when
organization helps decide the limits to anybody’s power. you do not have a formal leadership position (but
Although employees generally accept their boss’ right to perceived as having specialized knowledge or skill). To
make requests, they do not like to be given orders in a accumulate expert power, a leader should cultivate an
way that implies they are not as good as the leader. image of experience and competence. Credibility must be
Effective leaders therefore exercise authority by making preserved by avoiding careless statements and rash
polite requests, rather than arrogant demands. decisions. It is also important to remain cool. A leader
who appears confused, vacillates, or obviously panicked
2. Reward power refers to the leader’s control over rewards will quickly lose expert power.
valued by the subordinates. For example, if a principal or 2. Referent power is the ability to control based on loyalty to
a department head can directly reward teachers with the leader and subordinates’ desire to please that person.
cash bonuses for good performance, then that principal The charisma (personal charm and magnetism) of the
or department head has the power to exert control over person is the basis of referent power. Some of the loyalty
the teachers who value cash or financial rewards. to the leader is based on identification with the leader’s
Effective leaders do not use rewards as bribes for getting personality traits and personal characteristics and
employees to do what they want. Instead, rewards are charisma, and therefore referent power, are both based
used to reinforce desirable behavior after it has already on the subjective perception of the leader’s traits and
taken place. characteristics. Although both position and personal
power are important, effective leaders rely heavily on
3. Coercive power refers to the leader’s control over personal power to get work done.
punishments. It is based on fear and thus may create
anxiety and defensiveness. Effective leaders generally
avoid the use of coercive power except when absolutely
Influence Tactics Used by Leaders 5. Exchange is the use of reciprocal favors in order to
1. Leading by example is simple but effective way of influence others. Leaders with limited personal and
influencing members. The ideal approach to leading by position power tend to emphasize exchanging favors with
example is to be “Do as I Say and Do manager. This type group members.
of manager shows consistency between actions and 6. Upward Appeal means asking for help from a higher
words. Also actions and words confirm, support, and authority. The leader exerts influence by getting a more
often clarify each other. For example, if the firm has a powerful person to carry out the influence act. More than
dress code and the supervisor explains the code and occasional use of upward appeal weakens the manager’s
dresses accordingly, a role model has been provided that stature in the eyes of subordinates and superiors and
is consistent in words and actions. The action of following erodes effectiveness as a leader.
the dress code provides an example that supports and 7. Blocking refers to work slowdowns or the threat thereof,
clarifies the words used to describe the dress code. thus being used primarily to exert upward rather than
2. Assertiveness refers to being forthright with your downward influence. However, a leader sometimes use
demands, expressing both the specifics of what you want blocking in ways such as: “ I ignored him until he came
done and the feelings surrounding the demands. An around to my way of thinking” or “I stopped being
assertive leader might say, “I’m worried about the friendly until she started listening to me.”
backlog of paper works, and late submission of Report of 8. Joking and Kidding can be used to influence others.
Grades, I want all paper works done and on my desk by Good-natured ribbing is especially effective when a
Thursday at 4:00 in the afternoon. A leader might also be straightforward statement might be interpreted as harsh
assertive by checking frequently on subordinates. criticism.
3. Ingratiation refers to getting somebody else to like you, 9. Charm and appearance. Being charming and creating a
often using political behaviors. Two specific ingratiating positive appearance can influence others to accomplish a
behaviors: Acted in a friendly manner prior to asking for task.
what I wanted” and ”Praised the subordinate just before
asking for what I wanted.” Strong leaders tend not to rely Traits, Motives, and Characteristics of Effective Leaders
heavily on ingratiating tactics. Past studies on leadership focused on the traits, motives and
4. Rationality is appealing to reason and logic. It is an characteristics of leaders. Trait approach to understanding
influence tactic used frequently by effective leaders. leadership has been downplayed because the emerging belief now
Pointing out the facts of a situation to a group member in is that leadership can be best understood when the leader, the
order to prompt that person to act is an example of group members, and the situation in which they are placed.
rationality. Effective leadership is not solely and exclusively attributable to the
personal traits and characteristics of the leader. A realistic view is
that certain traits and behaviors contribute to effective Cognitive Ability. Effective leaders have good problem-solving
leadership in a wide variety of situations. ability. Cognitive Resource Theory posits that “intelligent and
competent leaders make more effective plans, decisions and action
The following is a sampling of key leadership traits, motives, and strategies than do leaders with less intelligence or competence.”
characteristics. However, those are not sufficient to lead However, an advanced cognitive ability can also be
effectively. The leader also has to possess key skills and take disadvantageous. John D. Greary ( in Dubrin, A., 2004) comments:
certain actions. Traits and motives presented below illustrate in
which leaders differ from non-leaders. Note that these are only Sometimes a less than top IQ is an
some of the many traits, motives, and characteristics. advantage because that person does
not see all the problems. S/he sees the
big problem and gets on and gets it
Power Motive. Effective leaders have a strong need to control
solved. But the extremely bright
resources. Leaders with high power drives have 3 dominant
person can see so many problems that
characteristics:
he or she never gets around to solving
1. They act with vigor and determination to exert their power any of them.
2. They invest much time in thinking about ways to alter the
behavior and thinking of others, and
Self-confidence. In every setting, it is important for the leader to
3. They care about their personal standing with those be self-confident. A leader who is self-assured without being
around them overbearing instills confidence in subordinates. Aside from being
The strong need for power is important because it means that a psychological trait, self-confidence or self-assurance refers to
the leader is influencing others. The power needed to satisfy the the behavior exhibited by the person in a number of situations. It
power motive can be obtained through acquiring the right is like being cool under pressure.
position or through developing personal power.
Courage. Study of 200 US and Japanese managers indicate that
Drive and Achievement Motive. Leaders are noted for high level courage is an important leadership attribute in revitalizing an
of effort in achieving work goals. Drive refers to such aspects of organization. Managerial courage involves a manager giving
behavior as ambition, energy, tenacity, initiative, and above all voice to ideas that deviate from current thinking because the
achievement motivation. The achievement motive is reflected in manager believes they will produce improved benefits for the
finding joy in accomplishment for its own sake. High achievers organization. Sometimes, the ideas recommend change, at other
find satisfaction in completing challenging tasks, attaining high times the ideas advocate maintaining the status quo.
standards, and developing better ways of doing things.
Internal Locus of Control. Effective leaders believe they are the sensitive to people’s feelings. The reason is that such a leader
primary causes of events happening to them. A study has shown makes a careful assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of
that supervisory leaders with an internal locus of control are group members. Another advantage of being insightful is that
favored by group members. Part of the reason is that an internal the leader can size up the situation and adapt his or her
person is perceived as more powerful than an external because leadership approach accordingly.
that person takes responsibility for things happening.
Maintaining High Standards. Effective leaders consistently hold
Behaviors and Skills of Effective Leaders group members to high standards of performance which raises
productivity. Setting high expectations for others becomes self-
Technical Competence refers to the knowledge of the business. fulfilling prophecy. Workers tend to live up to the expectations
An effective leader has to be technically competent in some set for them by supervisors (the Pygmalion Effect). Setting high
discipline, particularly when leading a group of specialists. It is expectations might take the form of encouraging team members
difficult to establish rapport with group members when the to establish difficult goals.
leader does not understand their work. Group members also
have to respect the leader’s technical skill. At a minimum, the Stability Under Pressure. Effective leaders are steady performers
manager of specialists has to be snowproof (not readily bluffed even under heavy workloads and uncertain conditions.
about technical matters by group members). Remaining steady under uncertain conditions contributes to
effectiveness because it helps subordinates cope with the
Credibility and Integrity. Studies show that honesty is the most situation. When the leader remains calm, group members are
sought after leadership traits. Group members however measure reassured that things will work out satisfactorily.
honesty by the deeds (behavior) of leaders. Leaders are
considered honest when they follow through on promises. In a Recovery Quickly from Setbacks. Effective leaders are resilient,
related study, it was found that of all the behaviors describing they bounce back quickly from setbacks. They do not even think
leadership the most essential was the leader’s display of trust of about failure and they don’t even use the word. Instead, they
others. use the word, glitch, mistake, bugle, and setback. In practice, this
means that the leader sets an example for subordinates by not
Insight into People and Situation. Insight is a depth of crumbling when something goes wrong. Instead the leader tries
understanding that requires intuition and common sense. It is a skill to conduct business as usual.
associated with cognitive ability and could be classified as a trait or
behavior. A leader with good insight is able to make better work Supportiveness. Supportive behavior towards the subordinates is
assignments, do a better job of training members, and be frequently associated with leadership effectiveness. A supportive
leader is one who gives praise and encouragement to
subordinates increasing morale and productivity. Supportive Although authoritarian (a synonym for autocratic) style of
leadership also contributes to preventing burnout among group leadership is not in vogue, many successful leaders are
members. autocratic. This style of leadership works best in situations where
decisions or when group opinion is not needed.
Power Sharing. A dominant trend in workplace is for managers
to share authority and power with team members. power A participative leader is one who shares decision-making
sharing is the basis of empowerment, a manager sharing power authority with the group. Although the participative style is
with team members to help them achieve greater confidence in usually associated with a strong people orientation, one
their abilities. observes that the participative leader can be tough-minded. This
type of leadership has 3 sub-types”
1. Consultative leaders. A consultative leader solicits
3 Key Leadership Styles opinion from the group before making a decision
A leadership style is a leader’s characteristic way of behaving in yet does not feel obliged to accept the group
most situations. The leadership continuum, or classical approach thinking. Leaders of this type make it clear they
to understanding leaders, classifies leaders according to how alone have the authority to make the final
much authority they retain for themselves versus how much is decisions. A standard way to practice consultative
turned over to the group. Three points on the continuum are leadership would be to call a group meeting and
autocratic, participative, ad free-rein leaders. discuss an issue before making a decision.
2. Consensual Leaders. A consensual leader
Autocratic Participative encourages group discussion about an issue then
Free-rein makes a decision that reflects the consensus of
Consultative Consensus Democratic group members. Consensus leaders thus turn over
more authority to the group than do consultative
Autocratic Leader attempts to retain most of the authority leaders. The consensus style results in long delays
granted to the group. Autocratic leaders make all the major in decision-making because every party involved
decisions and assume subordinates will comply without has to agree.
question. Leaders who use this style give minimum consideration 3. Democratic Leaders. A democratic leader confers
to what group members are likely to think about an order or final authority on the group. He or she functions as a
decision. An autocrat is sometimes seen as rigid and demanding collector of opinion and takes a vote before making
by have to be made rapidly or when group members. a decision. Democratic leaders turn over so
 much authority to the group that they are transactions with group members. (Transactional leaders trade
sometimes called free-rein leaders. The group money, jobs, and security for compliance.)
usually achieves its goals when working under a
democratic leader. Democratic leadership has The transformational leader is adept at turning around failing
more relevance for community activities than for situations, but can also move an organization to performing
most work settings. adequately to a much higher levels of achievement.

Free-rein Leadership (The Subordinate-Centered Styles) How Transformations Take Place Transformation
A free-rein leader is one who turns over virtually all authority to takes place in one or three ways:
the group. The free-rein style leadership style is also referred to 1. Transformational leader raises people’s awareness of the
as laizzes-faire (allow them to do). They issue general goals and importance and value of certain rewards and how to
guidelines to the group and then do not get involved again unless achieve them. The leader might point out the pride
requested. The only limits directly imposed on the group are workers would experience if the firm became number
those specified by the leader’s boss. Such extreme degree of one in its field and the financial rewards associated with
group freedom is rarely encountered in a work organization. such success.
2. The transformational leader gets people to look beyond
A real problem with free-rein leadership in practice is that it their self-interests for the sake of the group and the
frustrates many subordinates. Most people feel a leader is paid organization.
to give direction and advice. People often characterize a free-rein 3. The transformational leader helps people to go beyond a
leader as weak and ineffective. focus on minor satisfaction as a quest for self-fulfillment.
In this way, people are urged to move to a higher point
Transformational and Charismatic Leadership on the need hierarchy.
An important development in understanding leaders and leadership
is the emphasis on the type of leader who, through charm and The Link between Charisma and Transformational Leadership
talent, captivates the imagination of others. The transformational Transformational leaders have charisma, the ability to lead
leader is one who helps organization and people make positive others based on personal charm, magnetism, inspiration, and emotion.
changes. Transformational leadership is a combination of charisma, Charisma is the basis of referent power. To label a leader as charismatic does
not mean that everybody grants him or her referent power. The best a
inspirational leadership, and intellectual stimulation. The
charismatic leader can hope for is that the majority of people in the
transformational leader exerts more influence on people than a organization grant him/her referent
transactional leader, who mainly conducts
 Unethical Charismatic Leader Ethical Charismatic Leader
Uses personal power only Uses power
3. Charismatic leaders inspire trust. People believe so
for personal gain or impact strongly in the integrity of the charismatic leaders that
Promotes own personal Aligns vision with followers’ they will risk their careers to pursue the chief’s vision.
vision needs and aspirations 4. Charismatic leaders help group members feel capable.
Censures critical or Considers and learns from The charismatic leader recognizes the importance of
opposing views criticisms effort-to-performance expectancies. One technique used
Demands own decisions be Stimulates followers to think to help people feel more competent is to let them
accepted without question independently and to achieve success on relatively easy projects.
question the leader’s view 5. Charismatic leaders have energy and an action-oriented
One-way communication Open, two-way leadership style. Most charismatic leaders are energetic
communication and serve as a model for getting things done on time.
Insensitive to followers’ Coaches, develops, and Qualities and Practices of Ethical Versus Unethical Charismatic
needs supports followers; shares Leaders
recognition with others
Relies on convenient Relies on internal moral
external moral standards standards to satisfy
to satisfy self-interests organizational and societal Superleadership: Leading Others to Lead Themselves
interests
An important goal for leaders is to become Superleader, one who
power. The following are some significant qualities and actions of leads others to lead themselves. When people are self-directing,
charismatic leaders: they require a minimum of external control. A superleader leads
1. Charismatic leaders have vision. A major requirement of a others to lead themselves by acting as a teacher and a coach and
charismatic leader is that the person offers the not as a director.
organization an exciting image of where the organization
is headed and how to get there. A vision is more than a The key aspect of Superleadership deals with learning the right
forecast. It describes an ideal version of the future thought patterns. The Superleadership Theory contends that the
organization or an organizational unit. A sense of vision leader must teach team members how to develop productive
inspires an organization to perform well. thinking. The purpose of productive or constructive thinking is to
2. Charismatic leaders are masterful communicators. To enable workers to gain control over their own behavior. A central
inspire people, the charismatic leaders use colorful part of Superleadership is the leader serving as a model of
language and exciting metaphors and analogies. constructive thought patterns.
French, W. & Bell, Jr., C.H. (1995). Organization Development, The term school culture generally refers to the beliefs,
Behavioral Science Interventions for Organization perceptions, relationships, attitudes, and written and unwritten
th
Development, 5 ed. N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc. rules that shape and influence every aspect of how a school
functions. The term also encompasses more concrete issues such
as the physical and emotional safety of students, the orderliness
School Culture of the classrooms and public spaces, or he degree to which the
school embraces and celebrates, racial, ethnic, linguistic, or
School culture has been and can be defined in many ways and in cultural diversity.
some cases it is described as school climate, ethos or saga, (Seifert
& Vornberg, 2002). In this discussion, school culture is defined as Like the larger social culture, a school culture results from both
that which refers to the interaction among the following factors: conscious and unconscious perspectives, values, interactions,
1. Attitudes and beliefs held by stakeholders and practices and it is heavily shaped by a school’s particular
inside and outside the organization institutional history. Students, parents, teachers, administrators,
2. Cultural norms of the school and other staff members all contribute to their school’s culture
3. Relationships among individuals in the as do other influences such as the community in which the
school school is located, the policies that govern how it operates, or the
principles upon which the school was founded.
School culture is composed of traditions, values, and beliefs that
are held in common by the students, teachers, and principals. Generally, school culture is divided into two basic forms:
Schools are direct reflection of the society from which the 1. Positive cultures
students come. As teachers and principals, are fully aware, many 2. Negative cultures
of the conflicts, problems, and concerns that find their way into
the schools are deeply rooted in the community. Students bring Positive school cultures are conducive to professional satisfaction,
to school the conflicts that are occurring where they reside, morale, and effectiveness, as well as to student learning, fulfillment,
whether that be with parents, siblings, or another student. Many and well-being. Below is a representative list of the characteristics
times, these conflicts are manifested outside the school doors commonly associated with positive school culture:
only to be brought inside the school in terms of arguments, 1. The individual successes of teachers and students are
fights, harassment, and violence. recognized and celebrated;
2. Relationships and interactions are characterized by
School Culture (from www.educationreform, Last Updated, 11- openness, trust, respect, and appreciation;
25-13)
 3. Staff relationships are collegial, collaborative and culture is generally dysfunctional (if interpersonal tensions and
productive and all staff members are held to high distrust are common, problems are rarely addressed or resolved,
professional standards; or staff members tend to argue more than they collaborate or
4. Students and staff members feel emotionally and engage in productive professional discussion), it is likely that
physically safe, and the school’s policies and facilities these cultural factors will significantly complicate or hinder any
promote students’ safety; attempt to change how the school operates. The simple example
5. School leaders, teachers and staff members model illustrates why school culture has become the object of so many
positive, healthy behaviors for students; research studies and reform efforts. Without a school culture
6. Mistakes not punished as failures, but they are seen as that is conducive to improvement, reform becomes
opportunities to learn and grow for both students and exponentially more difficult.
educators;
7. Students are held consistently to high academic The following describe a few representative examples of common
expectations and a majority of students meet or exceed ways that schools may attempt to improve their culture:
those expectations; 1. Establishing Professional Learning Communities that
8. Important leadership decisions are made collaboratively encourages teachers to communicate, share expertise, and
with input from staff members, students and parents; work together more collegially and productively;
9. Criticisms, when voice, is constructive and well- 2. Providing presentations, seminars and learning experiences
intentioned, not antagonistic or self-serving; designed to educate staff and students about bullying and
10. Educational resources and learning opportunities are reduce instances of bullying;
equitably distributed to all students including minorities 3. Creating events and educational experiences that honor and
and students with disabilities; celebrate the racial, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of the
11. All students have access to the academic support and student body, such as hosting cultural events and festivals,
services they may need to succeed. exhibiting culturally relevant materials throughout the
school, inviting local cultural leaders to present to students,
School Reforms or making explicit connections between the diverse cultural
School culture has become a central concept in many efforts backgrounds of students and what is being taught in History,
to change how schools operate and improve educational results. Social Studies, and Literature courses;
While a school culture is heavily influenced by its institutional 4. Establishing an advisory or assigning an adult advisor to
history, culture also shapes social patterns, habits, and dynamics strengthen adult-student relationships and ensure that
that influence future behaviors which could become an obstacle to students are well-known and supported by at least one
reform and improvement. For example, if a faculty adult in the school;
 5. Surveying students, parents, and teachers about their school culture may become a flashpoint in larger debates about
experiences in the school, and hosting community forums specific school-reform policies and strategies. Because all school
that invite participants to share their opinions about and cultures are unique, it is important to investigate and develop an
recommendations for the school and its programs; understanding of the underlying causes of ay debates, including
6. Creating a leadership team comprising a representative the preexisting cultural conditions that may be contributing to
cross-section of school administrators, teachers, students, the debates.
parents and community members that oversees and leads
school improvement initiatives. From the Glossary of Education Reform by Great School
Partnership, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-
Debate NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Since most members of a school community will benefit
from a more positive culture, and cultural factors tend to What Makes a Good School Culture (Leah Shafer, 23 July 2018,
contribute significantly to emotional states such as happiness www.gse.harvard.edu.)
and unhappiness or fulfillment and dissatisfaction, the concept of
a more positive culture, is rarely in itself controversial. For this
reason, debates tend to arise (if they arise at all) in response to “A good school cultures starts with connections- strong and
specific reform proposals rather than to the general goal of overlapping interactions among all members of the school
improving a school culture. community.”

Given that organizational dysfunction is, by nature, an Most principals have an instinctive awareness that organizational
entrenched pattern of often unconscious behaviors, attitudes, culture is a key element of school success. They might say that
and beliefs that tend to obstruct organizational change and their school has a “good culture” when teachers express a shared
improvement – and because human beings can become deeply vision and students are succeeding – or that they need to work
attached to emotions and behaviors that may make them less on school culture when several teachers resign or student
happy, fulfilled, productive or successful – attempts to reform discipline rates rise.
school cultures are likely to encounter resistance, criticisms, or
controversy in schools that are most in need of cultural reforms. But like many organizational leaders, principals may get stymied
(blocked, thwarted, hindered) when they actually try to describe
In recent years, problems related to school culture are being cited the elements that create a positive culture. It is tricky to define, and
as reasons for why schools should be closed or why a significant identifying its components can be challenging. Amid the midst for
percentage of the teaching faculty should be fired. In these cases, tangible outcomes like higher test scores and graduation rates,
it can be tempting to think that school culture is just too vague or communications are limited and there are fewer connections.
soft to prioritize. That would be a mistake according to Ebony For example, if certain teachers never hear directly from their
Bridwell-Mitchell, an expert in educational leadership and principal, an administrator is continually excluded from
management. Bridwell-Mitchell explained that those who studied communications, or any groups of staff members are operating
culture have tracked and demonstrated a strong and significant in isolation from others, it will be difficult for messages about
correlation between organizational culture and an organization’s shared beliefs and commitments to spread.
performance. Once principals understand what constitutes
culture – once they learn to see it not as a hazy mass of Within that weak or strong structure, what exactly people
intangibles, but as something that can be pinpointed ad designed believe and how they act depends on the messages – both direct
– they can start to execute a cultural vision. and indirect – that the leaders and others in the organization
send. A good culture arises
Bridwell-Mitchell identified the building blocks of an from messages that Fundamental
beliefs and Shared values
organization’s character and fundamentally how it feels to work promote traits like assumptions
there. collaboration,
honesty and hard
Culture Is Connections work.

A culture will be strong or weak depending on the Culture is shaped by

Tangible
interactions between people in the organization. In a strong culture, five interwoven evidence
norms
there are many, overlapping, and cohesive interactions, so that elements, each of
knowledge about the organization’s distinctive character – and what which principals
it takes to thrive in it – is widely spread. In a weak culture, sparse have the power to
Patterns and
interactions make it difficult for people to learn the organization’s influence. behaviors
culture, so its character is barely noticeable and the 1. Fundamental
commitment is scarce or sporadic. beliefs and assumptions, or the things that people at your
school consider as true. For example, “All students have the
Beliefs, values, and actions will spread the farthest and be tightly potential to succeed.” Or “Teaching is a team sport.”
reinforced when everyone is communicating with everyone else. 2. Shared values, or the judgments people at your school
In a strong school culture, leaders communicate directly with make about those beliefs and assumptions – whether
teachers, administrators, counselors, and families, who also they are right or wrong, good or bad, just or unjust. For
communicate directly with each other. A culture is weaker when example, “It is wrong that some of our students may not
 have the same opportunity to graduate from college.” Or “It School safety
is not just for teachers not to teach well for they deprive Poverty. Most schools (particularly, public schools here in the
students the opportunity to learn and improve their lives.” Philippines) have children that live in economic poverty. Most
3. Norms or how members believe they should act and children in the public school systems come from economically
behave, or what they think is expected of them. For disadvantaged families. Reeves (1998 in Seifert & Vornberg, 2002,
example, “We should talk often and early to parents of p.87) claimed that the more poverty-level students a school has, the
our students about what it will take for their children to more likely a child is to fail because poverty level appears to be the
graduate from college.” best predictor of student achievement. Teacher expectations for
4. Patterns and behaviors or the way people actually act and students living in poverty may play a role in how the student feels
behave in your school. about his/her academic well-being. It is inherent that students,
5. Tangible evidence, or the physical, visual, auditory or other regardless of their financial circumstances, expect the highest
sensory signs that demonstrate the behaviors of the people quality instruction from all teachers.
in your school. For example, prominently displayed posters
showcasing the school’s enrollment or a full parking lot an Changing Family Patterns
hour before school or class sessions start. One of the most dramatic changes in society that has impacted
the school is changing family patterns. What used to be
Each of these components influences and drives the others, considered as the atypical family, a single parent family has over
forming a circle of reinforcing beliefs and actions. Bridwell- the years become the norm in the US. The traditional family with
Mitchell says, strong connections among every member of the a father, mother, and children has continued to decline and
school community reinforce the circle at every point. single-mother families continue to rise. (In the Philippines, the
trend of single-parent family is increasing.)
According to the 1998 Survey conducted by the US Census
School Culture and the Changing Nature of School and Society Bureau (in Seinfert & Vornberg, 2002):
There were 2.1 Million father-child households
There were 9.8 Million mother-child households
In order to create a school culture that is conducive to student
learning, instruction, and discipline, principals (and teachers) o 42.2% of those women had never been married
need to have an understanding of the social and economic 25% of married couples with children were 18 years of
context of where the school is located. Some issues surrounding age or under
the context are: o A factor that affects school and has direct
Poverty implication to the schooling of children
Changing family patterns
 o Teenage parents tend to be less interested in their 2. When can a teacher say that s/he has done everything
children because they have yet to fulfill their she could, and that his/her conscience is clear?
personal needs, socially, academically, or in their 3. What are the same things that teachers and principals
work life. must stop doing; and new things that teachers and
principals must start doing?
Based on the study:
Single-parent families have greater tendencies to live in
poverty and the children are less successful in school; The Issue on Safety and Security of Students, Teachers,
Children living in single-parent families are more likely to Administrators
be unsuccessful in school and are more likely to be living
in poverty; !997 Survey by the National Center for Educational Statistics.
(Note: this may be a US experience but may also be reflective of
Seinfert & Vornberg (2002) expressed the view that the Filipino learners’ experience)
traditional families continue to disintegrate. The family structure 47% of survey-respondents had experienced some type
is in flux and the future families are uncertain, but the tragedy in of child-directed violence in their school; types of
society is compounded on the children. The question for schools, student-on-student violence:
teachers and principals: o Intimidation
o Verbal and written threats
What can we do as a school to ameliorate the impact of single o Theft
parents (or disintegrated families) on the child’s educational o Vandalism
experience? o Fights
o Assaults with weapon
The answer to this question is one of conscience and effort, not 10% of the principals reported assaults against persons in
one of citing the cause and continuing to do the same things, the form of:
(Seinfert & Vornberg, 2002, p.89). o Rape
o Robbery
Points for Reflection: o Attacks involving weapons
1. What constitutes effort to address the needs of your Student suicide, while not considered an act of violence
students coming from poor families, single-parent against another person, is a concern for mental health
families, teen-aged parents? workers and need school attention.
Questions: To understand the role of a school leader in the community, one
1. Why have these tragedies occurred? What can schools do must understand the concept that school is a part of a large
to stop violence? What can schools do to create a safe social system and the school is also a system within itself. Social-
and secured schools and society? Cultural changes happening outside and the changes brought-in
2. Is the school setting the best place to solve issues such as by the school participants impact the school. The school is a
poverty, single-parent families, violence and diversity? community of learners and it is a community for learners.
3. Do teachers and principals have the education and Everyone is a learner in the
training to help children solve those societal issues? community and School leader,
teachers,
no one is immune students, parents
from learning.
The more one community
The School Leader in the Community learns, the more
each member is
larger society
The technological and cultural changes in society affect schools able to contribute
tremendously and its role within it. As more technological and to the
industrial development materialized and the society’s populations development of
become increasingly diversified in ethnic, religious, and cultural the school – the
backgrounds, the work of the school as the foundation to the better the
community has become increasingly complex and highlighted. community
becomes.
Societal changes have become even more difficult because of the
liberalization of beliefs and actions from outside the institution
such as family values and tremendous impact on students of School Culture
mass media’s messages in the form of entertainment, they also
include the changes that are brought into the school by the Discussion of leadership starts with considering the culture where
participants – teachers, students, parents, and the principal. the leadership activity takes place. Organization’s culture or
school’s culture is made up of the beliefs and values which school
participants hold to be meaningful in the actual operation of the
system. These values are manifested in things such as rituals, roles,
mores, traditions, and significant artifacts that represent these
values. School culture plays a major influence in the
leadership that is provided by the principal because the beliefs
that are present in the school’s culture, actions, of the principal, politics/
teachers, students are somewhat circumscribed by expectations government
for the goals of the school.
religion economy
The Principal as a Steward

The principal, as the formal leader, becomes a steward of

the system and the mission of the school as well as those
individuals who are part of the school, (Senge in Seifert &
Vornberg, 2002, p.20). S/he protects the system from being
family School mass media
undermined by outside forces that will injure the community and
its purpose. The school leader is also expected to examine the
beliefs and values of the system, weighing them carefully for
their impact on the purpose of the school, and then determining
those that need to be changed to best meet the challenges of the Expectation for the leadership of
larger community in which the school participates. the principal
TODAY’S EXPECTATIONS OF
The school contributes to the development of society by LEADERS
extending the education of its participants. But the school is very OLD MODEL
To meet all challenges in
much an institution that is itself a participant in a larger Director of other everyday operations
environment – that of social institutions. As such, the school is teachers To move the entire school
influenced and changed by all of the other social institutions that
Coordinator of toward accomplishment
participate in this society – family, religion, economy,
politics/government, mass media. educational of the established mission
resources Leadership though
collaborative efforts of all
Leadership using stakeholders
somewhat To encourage and
authoritarian style empower all participants
and often done in to analyze their situation
charismatic and improve their actions
manner by to meet the goals
established by the
directing all players
stakeholders as a group.
While model of leadership has changed from being authoritarian 1. Schools have the capacity to improve themselves, if the
to being collaborative, principals must also step into a more conditions are right. A major responsibility of those outside the
directive role when the situation calls for immediate action and school is to help provide and support these conditions for
ensure that measures are accomplished to protect the those inside.
educational participants and the overall mission of the school. 2. When the need the and purpose is there and when the
The charismatic leader generally appears at times of stress and conditions are right, adults and students alike learn while
the state of mind of followers is a powerful ingredient in energizing and contributing to the learning of each other.
explaining. The risk of a school following the charismatic leader is 3. What needs to be improved about schools is their culture, the
to depend on one individual to have all of the ideas and to deal quality of interpersonal relationships, and the nature and
with all threats. quality of learning experiences.
4. School improvement is an effort to determine and provide,
st from actions inside and outside the school, conditions under
In the 21 Century-environment, leaders are no longer viewed as
individuals who think the organization’s way through the which the adults and youngsters who inhabit school will
problems and assign tasks to those on the front lines in the promote and sustain learning among participants.
classrooms. Senge, (in Seifert & Vornberg, 2002, p.21) refers to
the new model as learning organizations – that which
incorporates integrating thinking and acting at all levels. This School Culture and the Hidden Curriculum
requires not only adaptive learning in schools to cope with new
challenges, but also focus on generative learning, or creating Hidden curriculum is a type of curriculum that is not
new strategies for unknown contingencies and ensuring that deliberately planned but has a great impact on the behavior of
processes exist that continually improve those strategies. Leaders learners. Peer influence, school environment, media, parental
in learning organizations influence their colleagues to focus not pressure or total absence of it, societal changes, cultural
on events that occurred (reactive), but to the systemic structure practices that students experience, see, and interpret may
of what is occurring (generative). influence students’ behavior, academic motivation, values,
beliefs, attitudes, and many others.
Real question to ask by learning communities and educational The following is an excerpt from the dissertation of Maningas, G.
leaders: (Barth, in Seifert * Vornberg, 2002, p. 22). Under what (2016). It is a reflection on an issue echoed by the participants in
conditions, will principal, teachers, and students become his study.
serious, committed, sustained, lifelong, cooperative learners?

Barth’s Assumption about School Change:

 Creeping Hidden Curriculum. . . A Threat to Students’
Academic and Personal Development Through the tacit ways by which hidden curriculum facilitates
the construction of knowledge and behavior, negative beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviors are strengthened or the positive
Papasa ako kahit hindi ako magaral masyado. Wala naming beliefs, attitudes and behaviors are modified in the process.
bumabagsak. Sabi nila mahihina kami pero ipinapasa naman Such is the power of hidden curriculum that when left
nila kami. undetected threatens the intent of the written, official and
intended curriculum. The hidden curriculum finds a powerful
That is the voice of one of the participants that compels us to medium in the teachers and classmates in the classroom.
look into. Over the years of their schooling, there are negative Through their verbal and non-verbal communications transmit
beliefs and values that students developed. They may be the message consciously or unconsciously. However, not all by-
considered as unintended outcomes of the curriculum. Through products of the hidden curriculum are bad or negative because
the lack of professional and ethical competence of some we have also seen in the narratives of the participants, that
teachers, some students have acquired undesirable thoughts, through the verbal and non-verbal communications of their
feelings, and actions that threaten their academic development teachers, they have acquired a sense of hope and belief in the
and the formation of the character of the learners as envisioned potential to succeed in life. Through their teachers’
by education. McLaren (2003) defines hidden curriculum as encouraging and supporting words and gestures, they found
unintended outcomes of the schooling process. Critical educators the motivation and inspiration to strive harder. And we need
recognize that schools shape students both through standardized to find more of them in our classrooms so that the true nature
learning situations and through other agendas, including rules of of education will be materialized in the lives of our students. As
conduct, classroom organization, and the informal pedagogical Freire (2005) said: “Education is a tool by which people could
procedures used by the teacher. learn more about their capacity as human beings – to enhance
the knowledge that they already have.”
Coming to the fore through the participants’ narrative is the
sneaky influence of hidden curriculum in the behavior of For students to succeed through education, it must be based ad
students. The participants’ belief that they are going to pass weaved around the Ethics of Justice and Ethics of Care and
even if they do not study because no one fails anyway, or implemented within the context of the Ethical Classroom. Justice
teachers simply guess the grades of their students are is about fairness which implies that we give our students what is
transmitted to students by the total physical and instructional due them and that is nothing but the best education we can offer
environment, governance structures, teacher expectations, them. Care is about concern and sensitivity to their needs and
and grading procedures. feelings. They become particularly important for
students from the economically-disadvantaged families who The existing problem in the classroom is one of being petiks.
see education as their only means by which they can liberate Other participants use the term hayahay, chill-chill lang, all
themselves from the complex web of their poverty. Anything describing a general condition of complacency. Participants
less than that is an injustice committed against them. enter into a context of learners who are lacking in academic
motivation. They observe their classmates’ behavior, they see
The de-motivating elements due to lack or absence of personal and observe its consequences and in seeing them, they decide
and professional traits among some teachers, when viewed in whether it is worth imitating or not. In their observed
relation to the personal goals of students to help their family is consequence, they see that it is favorable to them – hindi
elevated to ethical and moral discussion. The lives of the nahihirapan. For students who are lacking in academic interest
students and their poor families are intertwined with and motivation, petiks behavior is an attractive possibility for
curriculum, instruction, teachers, school administrators, peers, them, thus they imitate. This situation also poses dangers for
classmates and all available resources in the society. Denying those who are with high academic motivation. In the long run,
poor students to improve their human condition in life through they will imitate the behavior of being petiks or hayahay.
the lack f competence and dedication to their learning and Continuing with their high academic motivation in a class of
development can be viewed as a violation of the ethics of petiks and hayahay is like going against the tide, paddling
justice and ethics of care, setting the condition for structural against the current of the river. It is just a matter of time
violence in the classrooms. Thus there is a need to establish a before they become hayahay too.
Culture of Justice, a Culture of Care, and a Culture of Ethics in
our schools, in our classrooms. Over the years of exposure to the culture of petiks and
hayahay in the classroom, mediocrity becomes the norm thus a
culture of petiks, hayahay, chill-chill lang. As Bandura (1991)
The Culture of Petiks, Hayahay, and Chill-chiil lang in the argued, our behavior is purposive and regulated by
Classroom forethought. We form beliefs from what we think as desirable
or not on the basis of what we see. From our observation on
the actions of others and its ensuing consequences, we see
Kasi po nakikita ko sa mga kamag-aaral ko noong high school possible behaviors. The culture of petiks and hayahay may also
na sapat lang ang kanilang ginagawa at hindi sila masyadong be seen as a micro representation of what James Fallow (in
nahihirapan. Kaya ayun, naging kapareho na din nila ako na Teodoro, 2009) see as damaged culture or Jocanos’ (in De
petiks lang. Nakita ko sa mga classmates ko na petiks lang sila. Leon, 2011) view as reflection of pwede na yan mentality.
 The emerging tendencies of participants to be mediocre (sakto School Culture
lang, petiks, hayahay, chill-chill lang), tendencies to avoid
being at the bottom of the class but not wanting to go above Successful schools emerge from the direction of the
the average level of academic performance is in stark contrast principals who see the school organization from a holistic
with Singaporean students who are among the top performing point of view. Seeing the big picture is what principals do
students in the world along with students from Canada, when they understand and are able to communicate and
Finland, Japan, and South Korea in the Program for shape the values, beliefs and attitudes of faculty and
International Student on Assessment (Mehta, 2014). In students. This allows them to give guidance to the future
explaining how Singaporean students pursue learning, Tan and of the organization.
Yates (2007) asserted that the influence of Confucian Culture Culture can affect what teachers discuss in their
pervade the beliefs and values of Singaporeans. The Confucian classroom, in the faculty room, etc.
culture encourages hard work and effort in the pursuit of Cultural beliefs and attitudes impact school improvement
learning so much so that students work by the motto: No pain, to the point that teachers and students internalize those
No gain. The importance of education and diligence is stressed beliefs and make them personal values.
by the parents and children. Therefore the willingness to work People new to the school must learn the culture or face
hard especially in academics is extremely important to sanctions employed by the school.
students, (Tan & Yates, 2007, p.471). Students and teachers must not become totally socialized
to the culture or else the organization will run the risk of
stagnation.
A deterrent to a positive school culture is teacher and
Maningas, G.M. (2016). The phenomenon of sakto lang academic principal mobility. The loss of key members of any
performance: a grounded theory of incongruent low academic organization always impacts on the improvement of the
outcome and high academic self-concept. Doctoral Dissertation. organization.
Philippine Normal University. It is the principal’s responsibility to provide direction so
that the school culture becomes a positive force in
allowing the school to become the best it can be.
o Principals interested in modifying or changing their
school culture must identify and understand the
current culture. Cultural change must be done
carefully and with some hesitation.
 o Principals must understand that actions support form the elements of the school culture as they are
deeply held beliefs. It is important that they exchanged among all the faculty members. Should this
address the beliefs of all the stakeholders is school fail to occur, there will be an absence of school culture.
improvement is to occur. Teachers working in isolation have no way of solving
o Principals must be open to constructive criticisms school-related problems.
and the willingness to confront their own beliefs. The factors that cause schools to improve academically
and culturally:
Changing the school culture for school improvement 1. Teacher efficacy. It is about the value teachers place on
must be the target, not change for change’s sake. schooling and the level to which they will work to
At any point in time, the image of the future will evolve and accomplish the goals of the organization. The teachers’
the principal that can adapt to internal and/or external values are given credence by their participation in the
threats is the person capable of creating a dynamic school school community.
culture, (Senge, in Seinfert & Vornberg, 2002, p.95). 2. Collegiality. It is concerned with and among teachers’
interpersonal relationships and their need for
Bosworth’s Strategies for Changing School Culture (For the empowerment. With collegiality comes support from
School Leaders) principals and other teachers which in turn provide
1. Establish a program of rewards for positive behavior educational confidence in the teaching and learning
2. Communicate core values by modeling appropriate process. With this confidence, teachers become willing
behavior participants in classroom research and innovation. Most of
3. Celebrate staff, student, and community accomplishments all, they trust each other and the principal to help with
4. Use staff development for teachers and students that problems and listen when mistakes occur.
allows for giving and receiving praise 3. Collaboration. Focuses on teacher-to-teacher discourse in
5. Assure that teachers and students learn to optimize the the formal setting of the school organization. This aspect
opportunities to demonstrate respectful behavior of school culture provides the consistency in instruction
6. Communicate expectations in clear and concise manner that students must have to be successful. Moving from
7. Provide development in conflict and negotiation skills. class-to-class and teacher-to-teacher, students’ learning
experiences are enhanced by a unified curriculum and a
The School Improvement Model of School Culture (Cavanaugh & variety of instructional strategies.
Dellar, 1997) 4. Shared planning. Assumes that teachers know and
The nucleus of the model is composed of the values and understand the school vision and their willingness to
norms held by individual teachers. These values and norms participate and implement the school’s targets. This type of
 planning provides a unity of purpose for all stakeholders. CHAPTER III
Teacher participation in decision-making mandates that EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
teachers know and understand school policies,
procedures, and most of all the school’s future direction. This Chapter is taken from Llagas A.T., Corpuz, B.B. and Bilbao, P.P.
Being equal partners in decision making provides the (2016). Becoming a 21st Century Educational Leader. Q.C.: Lorimar
motivation for teachers to pull their share of the load. Publishing, Inc.
5. Transformational leadership. Focuses on the principal’s
willingness and capacity to support teachers and
programs. Principals must be willing to divest themselves From Administration and Supervision to Instructional Leadership
of some leadership responsibilities to focus on the school Studies on the quality of education here in the country and abroad
and community. This does not mean an abdication of brought to the fore renewed interest in supervision coupled with
responsibility by the principal, but it does mean a sharing quality monitoring. Goddard and Richards (in Llagas, Corpuz, &
of that responsibility with the entire school community. Bilbao, 2016, p.28) describes the renewed interest.
Sharing of responsibility should cause individuals in the
school to develop leadership skills by capturing the energy Supervision has been a neglected area of
and expertise of the professionals in the organization. education management for a long time.
During the 1970’s, the word inspector or
6. Emphasis on learning even supervisor had a negative
connotation and even became a taboo
term in some countries. Inspection was
seen as an old-fashioned, non-democratic
institution as a few countries got rid not
only of the terminology but also the
supervision service itself. Since the
beginning of the 1990’s, there have been
renewed interest in issues of quality and
therefore in quality monitoring and
supervision.

Weber (in Llagas, et al., 2016) pointed out that instructional

leadership includes both management and supervision. He
underscored that “beyond the direct contact with teachers
(supervision) and the control of support services for instruction
(management) leadership duties include some overarching
concerns such as defining school goals, setting standards, and The instructional leader is expected to be familiar with all levels of
influencing learning climate. It includes both the tone and the instruction in the school. S/he is likened to a conductor who knows
substance of a leader’s relationship with faculty, students, and the qualities of each instrument in the orchestra. The instructional
community. leader relies on collaborative planning with teachers, parents,
internal and external stakeholders. S/he is focused on two domains:
Leadership is authority invested in a trusted person and thus (1) curriculum management and (2) staff development.
qualifies as a kind of moral and transformational power over the
organization, (Weber, in Llagas, et al. 2016). The leadership process Hiring, supervising, and evaluating are interactive functions and
is interpersonal and dynamic with the following functions: concerns of instructional leadership. Hence, the instructional
1. Setting school academic goals leader is expected to possess competence to observe teachers,
2. Maximizing effects of instructional organization to offer advice as needed, listen to the problems encountered,
3. Hiring, supervising, evaluating teachers and make formative as well as summative evaluation of teacher
4. Protecting instructional time and programs performance.
5. Setting standards for achievement/setting tone for
learning climate Monitoring achievement levels and evaluating program is a
6. Monitoring achievement levels/evaluating programs challenge to instructional leaders. Setting high expectations for
students is a challenge to teachers and instructional leaders. The
instructional leader is a ‘physician’ of the instructional program,
Mm keeping a finger on the pulse of the process, by knowing the
program objectives, looking for symptoms of health or problems,
and prescribing remedies for weak or troubled areas.

Re-conceptualization of Supervision to Instructional Leadership

Supervision was re-conceptualized to instructional leadership in
the late 90’s. Supervision services became part of quality
monitoring in the educational system.

Monitoring can be defined as an internal management process of

continuous control of inputs, processes, and outputs in order to
identify strengths and weaknesses, formulate practical proposals
for action to be taken and take the necessary steps to reach the Does not impose, but who respects the specificity of the
expected results. Monitoring system is classified into: school and is willing to listen
1. Compliance monitoring Knows how to guide, with human relations and empathy
2. Diagnostic monitoring Concentrates on the daily school processes in a systematic
3. Performance monitoring and integrated way
Develops support networks
Typology of monitoring systems by focus Takes into account the know-how of the teacher and
stimulates his/her professional development

Type A new paradigm shift of instructional leadership has emerged in

Characteristic the early 90’s. Administrative structures tend to decentralize
Compliance Diagnostic Performance gradually moving from bureaucratic to hierarchical structure. The
Theoretical Bureaucratic Pedagogical Market educational administrator/supervisor is now an instructional
Reference Organization Theory Competition leader. S/he is an active listener, a creative problem-solver, a
Theory Theory resource provider, a team player, has trust, encourages and
Goal Ensure Ensure Promote supports the people in the organization. S/he keeps the
standardized efficient academic communication channels in a two-way direction.
formal quality learning achievement
Focus Inputs Teaching- Academic Davis (in Llagas, et al., 2016) defines leadership as the ability to
learning achievement persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is
process the human factor that binds a group together and motivates it
Key Inspectorate Advisory Standardized toward goals. The instructional leader is a key element in helping
Monitoring and self- services and testing and new teachers develop their potentials and motivate experience
Device reporting self- league tables teachers to be teacher-leaders, mentors and coaches and
assessment becoming instructional leaders in the future.

3 dimensions of the principal as a leader (Referee Report for

Behaviors of a good supervisor according to a focus group Accredited Membership of the Australian Principal Centre (APC):
discussion in Chile: 1. Educational Leadership. The ability to lead in crafting a
Helps assists and indicates possible errors without waiting shared school vision including the development of
for them to occur in order to be able to sanction them curriculum policies and practices;
 2. People Leadership. The ability to work with various 2. Creating an environment within the school that is
stakeholders. Misfire the respect and cooperation of conducive to teaching and learning;
people and promote the development and effectiveness 3. Implementing the school curriculum and being
of people within the organization. accountable for higher learning outcomes;
3. Strategic Leadership. The ability to explore complex 4. Developing the school education program and school
issues from global perspective, to manage and improvement plan;
educational enterprise, to focus resources and motivate 5. Offering educational programs, projects, and services
people in the realization of the shared school vision. which provide equitable opportunities for all learners in
the community;
Reinventing the Principalship 6. Introducing new and innovative modes of instruction to
achieve higher learning outcomes;
This is a review of the functions and competencies of school 7. Administering and managing all personnel, physical and
leaders in basic education: the principal/school head, head fiscal resources of the school;
teachers/department heads, and teachers-in-charge. 8. Recommending the staffing complement of the school
based on its needs;
9. Encouraging staff development;
Under the umbrella of educational leadership, the school
head/principal is on the frontline. S/he is a leader in a learning 10. Establishing school and community network and
organization as designer, steward and teacher. As a designer, the encouraging the active participation of teachers’
principal encourages building a shared vision/mission on how to organizations, non-academic personnel of public schools,
deal with critical issues. As a steward, the principal is committed and parents-teachers-community associations;
to and responsible for the vision, manages it over self-interest. As 11. Accepting donations, gifts, bequest and grants for the
a teacher, the principal fosters learning for everyone in the purpose of upgrading teachers/learning facilitators’
organization. As a leader, the principal is a team player, fosters competencies, improving and expanding school facilities
team learning and collaborative problem-solving as the school and providing instructional materials and equipment. Such
culture develops trust, supports innovation and creativity, donations or grants must be reported to the appropriate
(Senge, P. in Llagas, et al. 2016). district supervisors and division superintendent; and
12. Performing such other functions as may be assigned by
Functions, Responsibility and Accountability of School Heads (RA proper authorities.
9155 of 2001, Governing Act of Basic Education):
st
1. Setting the mission, vision, goals and objectives of the Promulgated at the start of the 21 century, policy makers believe
school; that the enumerated functions and responsibilities need to be
reviewed. New perspectives of transformative leadership are Selznick (in Llagas, et al. 2016, p.43) explains organization turning
emerging aimed to reinvent/reshape school leadership. into institution as:

Sergiovanni (in Llagas, et al. 2016) proposes a reflective practice Organizations become institutions as they
are infused with value, that is, prized not
perspective initiating that administering which includes the
as tools alone but as sources of direct
principalship is a moral craft with three dimensions: (1) heart, (2) personal gratification and vehicles of
head, and (3) hand. group integrity. This infusion produces a
distinct identity for the organization.
The Heart, Head, and Hand of Leadership Where institutionalization is well-
advanced, distinctive outlooks, habits and
other commitments are unified, coloring
The heart of leadership has to do with what a person believes, all aspects of organizational life and
values, dreams about, and is committed to or that person’s lending it social integration that goes well
personal vision. The head of leadership has to do with the beyond formal coordination and
theories of practice each of us has developed over time and our command.
ability to reflect on the situations we face in light of these
theories. The process of reflection combined with our personal Institutional Culture
vision becomes the basis for our strategies and actions. The hand Selznick’s conception of institution is similar to the more familiar
of leadership has to do with the actions we take, the decisions conception of school as learning community. To become wither,
we make, the leadership and management behaviors we use as the school must move beyond concerns for goals and roles to the
our strategies become institutionalized in the form of school task of building purposes into its structure and embodying these
programs, policies, and procedures. purposes in everything that it does with the effect of
transforming school members from neutral participants to
Blumberg (in Llagas, et al. 2016) emphasized that bringing committed followers. The embodiment of purpose and the
together head, heart and hand in practice would result to development of followership are inescapably moral.
transforming the school from being an organization into an
institutional culture. Institutionalization happens in an Reinventing principalship accepts the assumption that leadership
organization over time, reflecting the organization’s distinctive is not a right but a responsibility. The test of moral leadership is
history, the people who create and embody interest in when the followers and other stakeholders believe in the
developing its own culture. competence, and well-being of the leader who encourages and
support empowerment of the followers for the benefit of the
school.
Sergiovanni (in Llagas, et al. 2016) differentiates a follower from a as discussed above that places every subordinate to a set
subordinate. Subordinates respond to bureaucratic authority and of ideas, ideals, and shared values and asks them to
sometimes to personal authority. Followers by contrast, respond to respond morally by doing their duty, meeting their
ideas. You can’t be a follower unless you have something to follow. obligations, and accepting their responsibilities.
Zalenick suggests that subordinate may cooperate with the
management system but are rarely committed to it. By contrast, All are important, but the art of leadership is balancing the four
one of the hallmarks of being a follower is commitment. Kelly competing sources of authority in such a way that moral and
suggests that followers are committed to the organization, to a professional authority flourish without neglecting bureaucratic
purpose or principle. They build their competence and focus their and personal authority.
efforts for maximum impact. Subordinates do what they are
supposed to do, and they do not tend to do more. In the principalship, the challenge of leadership is anchored on
competing imperatives, the management and the moral
What may a principal do to develop and help emerge imperative. If schools are to survive, they have to be managed
followership? To do these, principals may have to draw from the effectively and efficiently. Policies are implemented, resources
4 sources of authority as described by Sergiovanni. should be available, the school should be child-friendly. More
1. Bureaucratic Authority. When principals use bureaucratic than these imperatives, the school must transform into an
authority, they rely on rules, mandates, and regulations in institution, a learning community. Institutionalization is the
efforts to direct thought and action. moral imprerative principals face. Leadership values are
2. Personal Authority. When principals use personal internalized such as empowerment, balance of professional and
authority, they rely on their own interpersonal style, moral sources of authority making the professional manager
cleverness, guile, political know-how and other forms of conception of the principalship.
managerial and psychological skills in order to direct
thought and action. The challenge of leadership would lead to institutionalizing a
3. Professional Authority. When principals rely on school culture. Culture influences what is thought of and done in
professional authority, they appeal to expertise, the school by the principal possessing cultural leadership. The
expecting everyone to be subordinates to a form of challenge of cultural with moral leadership in schools is for the
technical rationality that is presumably validated by craft principals to engage in the process of decision-making without
notions of what constitutes best educational practice or thought to self-interest.
scientific findings from educational research.
4. Moral Authority. When principals rely on moral authority, The principal leads in developing a school culture that:
they bring to the forefront a form of normative rationality Affects how individuals treat and relate to one another
 Develops slowly and is remarkably resistant to change by highlighting and protecting the values of the school. The
Is shaped by the behavior of everyone in the organization principal as minister is one who is devoted to a cause, mission or
– administration, learners, faculty, staff and parents set of ideas and accepts the duty and obligation to serve this
Shapes teachers’ feeling optimistic and positive about cause. Ultimately, his/her success is known by the quality of the
their work and not frustrated that their expertise and followership that emerges. Quality of followership is a barometer
efforts are not being used to best advantage that indicates the extent to which moral authority has replaced
Shapes the tone of the organization; a positive culture bureaucratic and psychological authority. When moral authority
inspires optimism and hope; a negative culture promotes drives leadership practice, the principal is at the same time a
cynicism and defeatism leader of leaders, follower of ideas, minister of values, and
Enhances respect toward learners which does not happen servant to the followership.
by itself; it must be cultivated
Promotes interpersonal relationship with respect, both The Principal and Accountability to the State, Community and
personal and professional Stakeholders
Promotes student culture of hard work, responsibility and School Heads or Principals are responsible for transforming
success schools to nurseries of the citizens of the state, (Article II, Section
Enhances ongoing learning and professional inquiry which 1, Code of Ethics). They are accountable to deliver quality
are regarded as hallmarks of a profession education and report such educational outcomes, not just
Ensures the quality of the initiatives undertaken by the outputs of the teaching-learning process periodically. This is their
administration, faculty, staff, students, parents and personal accountability to the state, the community and
community (LGUs and NGOs) stakeholders. As they perform their role, functions and
Culminates Total Quality Management (TQM) and Total responsibilities, they are guided by the Ethical Standards in the
Quality Education (TQE) Code of Ethic of Professional Teachers and the provisions of RA
6713 Establishing a Code of Conduct ad Ethical Standards for
Public Officials and Employees to uphold the time-honored
principle of “public office being a public trust.
The Principal and the Servant Leadership
Principals are responsible for ministering to the needs of the
schools they serve. The needs are defined by the shared values As an instructional/curriculum leader, the school head has the
and purposes of the school’s covenant. They minister by overall responsibility in setting up an efficient and effective
furnishing help and being of service to parents, teachers, and instructional system at the classroom level. Instructional
students. They minister by providing leadership in a way that leadership will enhance the creation of a school environment
encourages others to be leaders in their own right. They minister conducive to learning and develop a synergy in the school
community. With the responsibility as an instructional leader goes Use of clinical supervision was premised on the principle
the accountability of the school head to the school community and that teaching could be improved by a prescribed formal
other stakeholders, (SBM-TEEP, 2000 in Llagas, et al, 2016). process of collaboration between teacher and
instructional leader.
Instructional Leadership and Supervision Models Incorporated the cycle of supervision which consisted of
Model 1. Supervision as Inspection (Pre-1900) as pre-conference, observation and post-conference.
Supervision of teachers was duly the function of Supervision embraced the concepts of being
administrators as managerial routines. developmental (professional growth plans), teacher
The supervisor’s function is to instruct poorly prepared empowerment, peer supervision, transformational
teachers to conform to standard practice in the instructional leadership.
organizational administration.
The focus of supervision through the school masters who Model 4. Standard-Based Supervision (2000 - )
have unlimited powers to establish criteria for effective Emergence of standard-based reforms to raise academic
instruction. achievement, new curriculum standards, teacher
standards, school heads standards and high stake tests.
Model 2. Democracy in Supervision (1900-1960) Supervision focused on teaching-learning standards for
This model used scientific means of supervision. improvement of teaching-learning outcomes.
Supervisors were specialists and must have the ability to Changed the view of supervision from inspection to
analyze teaching situations. participation, from bureaucratic to democratic and from
The use of data-gathering devices and tools was evaluation to support.
introduced.
Teachers must possess certain skills to develop new With the standard-based supervision, the main goal is to improve
methods and materials for instruction. both teaching and learner performance. School heads act as
The influence of John Dewey was very prominent during collaborative, supportive instructional leaders that continue to
this period. evaluate teacher performance and mentor teachers to reflect
and improve instruction. Thus, the ultimate goal of supervision is
Model 3. Supervision as Leadership (1960 to early 1990) the improvement of teaching-learning, thus, school teachers also
Leadership was guiding organization. become teacher leaders.
Supervision to lead mutually accepted goals, extending
democratic methods, improving classroom instruction, Instructional leadership is a joint responsibility of both the school
promoting research and professional leadership. heads and the school teachers. While the school head is
responsible of this role over the school teachers and staff, the
The Core Principle
teachers assume this role among their peers and students. To
address these responsibilities, the Department of Education School heads are competent, committed and accountable in
providing access to quality and relevant education for all through
(DepEd) developed the National Competency-Based Standards transformational leadership
for School Heads (NCBS-SH) and the National Competency-Based
Standards for Teachers (NCBTS). These two documents are the
foundations upon which the instructional supervision roles of the
school heads and classroom teachers are anchored. 4. Create a culture of continuous learning for adults
connected to student learning.
Perspectives for School Heads as Instructional Leaders 5. Use multiple sources of data as diagnostic tool to assess,
Instructional leadership embraces actions that the principal or identify, and apply instructional improvement.
school head makes or delegates to others to promote growth in 6. Actively engage the community to create shared
students’ learning which include (a) the clear statement of responsibilities for student and school success.
school’s vision, mission, and goals, (b) support for learning
resources, (c) support for professional development of teachers, Instructional Leadership is driven by the National Competency-
and (d) creation of a Professional Learning Community (PLC). As Based Standards for School Heads (NCBS-SH). DepEd in 2012
instructional or curriculum leaders, their major tasks include: through the Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda (BESRA)
1. Ensuring curriculum quality and applicability developed the NCBS-SH as the common standards for all school
2. Integrating and aligning the curriculum heads. The development was guided by the following basic
3. Implementing the curriculum efficiently and effectively principles.
4. Regularly evaluating, enriching and updating the 1. Function-based. The competencies are based on school
curriculum head functions as stated in RA 9155 or An Act Instituting
a Framework of Governance for Basic Education,
6 Fundamental standards that define what principals should do, Establishing Authority and Accountability, Renaming the
(United States of America National Association of Elementary Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) as
School Principals, 2001): the Department of Education (DepEd), related laws and
1. Lead schools to place student learning at the center. DepEd policies.
2. Set high expectations and standards for the academic 2. Responsive. Competencies are applicable in any range of
performance of learners and adults. context: big or small school, city or rural school,
3. Demand content and instruction that ensure student culturally divergent groups.
achievement on agreed upon academic achievement.
 3. Impartial. These are applicable to any school head,
regardless of position item, gender, age, experience and Competencies Indicators
other personal circumstances. Assessment for -manages the processes and procedures
4. Coherent. These are clear and logical. Learning in monitoring student achievement
5. Valid. All performance indicators are research-and- -ensures utilization of a range of
experience-based. assessment processes to assess student
performance
-assesses the effectiveness of
curricular/co-curricular programs and/or
instructional strategies
-utilizes assessment results to improve
The National Competency-Based Standards for School Heads learning
(NCBS-SH) Domains and Descriptions -creates and manages a school process
to ensure students’ progress is conveyed
National Competency-Based Standards for School to students/parents/guardians regularly
Heads(NCBS-SH) Developing and -develops/adopts research-based school
Domain 1 School Leadership using programs
Domain 2 Instructional Leadership programs/adopting -assists in implementing an existing
Domain 3 Creating Student-Centered Learning Climate existing programs coherent and responsive school-wide
Domain 4 HR Management and Professional curriculum
Development -addresses deficiencies ad sustains
Domain 5 Parent Involvement and Community successes of current programs in
Partnership collaboration with teachers and learners
Domain 6 School Management and Operations Develops a culture of functional literacy
Domain 7 Personal and Professional Attributes and Implementing -manages the introduction of curriculum
Interpersonal Effectiveness programs for initiatives in line with DepEd policies
instructional -works with teachers in curriculum
Competencies and Behavioral Indicators under Domain 2: improvement review
Instructional Leadership -enriches curricular offerings based on
local needs
 Manages curriculum innovations and
enrichment with the use of technology
-organizes teams to champion National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS)
instructional innovation programs Domain 1 Social Regard for Learning
towards curricular responsiveness Domain 2 The Learning Environment
Instructional -prepares and implements an Domain 3 The Diversity of Learners
supervision instructional supervisory plan Domain 4 Curriculum
-conducts instructional supervision using Domain 5 Planning, Assessing and Reporting
appropriate strategy Domain 6 Community Linkages
-Evaluates lesson plans as well as Domain 7 Personal Growth and Professional
classroom learning management Development
-provides in a collegial manner timely,
accurate and specific feedback to Teacher Leaders perform the following roles:
teachers regarding their performance
1. Instructional Leader. As an instructional specialist,
-provides expert technical assistance and
teacher and master teachers help colleague use effective
instructional support to teachers teaching strategies. They assist their peers in various
aspects of teaching like assessment in learning,
development of instructional materials or doing action
Perspectives for Classroom Teachers as Instructional Leaders The research. They become mentors to novice teachers.
new view of instructional leadership is no longer limited to the 2. Curriculum Leader. As a curriculum specialist, teacher
function of school heads. Those who remain to be in the classroom leaders understand
as classroom teachers or master teachers are also considered as 3. Classroom Leader
instructional leaders. Sometimes they are also referred to as 4. Learning Leader
teacher leaders and more specifically, instructional leaders. 5. Peer Leader
6. School Leader
Teacher teaching behavior and student learning outcomes are
the two main foci of school heads’ instructional leadership. Ideal
teaching is defined by a set of standards contained in the
National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS).
The Teacher as Leader

The Principal as Leader of Leaders

The Principal and Instructional Leadership

Instructional Leadership Defined
Instructional Delivery Systems
o Inquiry Instructional System
o Cooperative Instructional System
o Problem-Based Instructional System
o Concept Attainment Instructional System
o Classroom Discussion Instructional System
Instructional Collaboration
Evaluation of Instruction
o Two-Hat Theory of Instructional Evaluation
o Results-Based Supervision as a Model for
Instructional Evaluation
o Democratic Supervision as a Model
for Instructional Evaluation

Integrity and Ethics for School Leadership

Ethical Conduct
Core Values and Ethical Decision
Making Ethical Leadership

====================== God Bless! =====================