A Comparative Study of Mobile

Operating Systems with Special

Emphasis on Android OS
 Aaditya Jain, S. Raj, B. Buksh
 Published 2016
 Computer Science
In today’s world, everybody from a lay man to an industrialist is using a mobile phone. Therefore, it
becomes a challenging factor for the mobile industries to provide best features and easy to use interface to
its customer. Due to rapid advancement of the technology, the mobile industry is also continuously
growing. There are many mobile phones operating systems available in the market but mobile phones with
android OS have now become domestic product which was once extravagant product. The reason towards
this change is attributed to its varied functionality, ease of use and utility. Increased usage of smart phone
has led towards higher concerns about security of userprivate data. Due to android as an open source
mobile platform, user can easily install third party applications from markets and even from unreliable
sources. Thus, Android devices are a soft target for privacy intrusion. Whenever the user wants to install
any application, firstly it’s the description and the application screenshots which provides an insight into
its utility. The user reviews the description as well as a list of permission requests before its installation. As
the types and rate of malicious attacks increases, the difficulty of examining in advance whether an app is
malicious or not through its descriptions has increased manifolds. In this paper we have reviewed and
examined android software stack and compared smart phone based operating system like Android, iOS,
Symbian, Windows phone, Blackberry. Keywords— Mobile OSs, Android, iOS, Symbian, Windows,
Blackberry. Collapse

PC Suite For All Android Mobile

Brands 2020 (Updated)
Looking for PC suite to manage all your media files or backup of android

data or android screen mirroring then this page will guide you. Let’s discuss.

Contents:

 What is PC Suite?

 Select your Android mobile brand

  Best Android PC Suite 2020

What is PC Suite?

PC Suite is a software that collects every information from your android

mobile and provides us in a single place. PC suite can access media, apps,

contacts, updates or rooting purposes with USB de-bugging mode enabled.

With PC Suite software for android mobile we can able to perform,

 Backup of data from android mobile

 Installing drivers for your android mobile

 Screen mirroring of your android mobile

 Perform one click root of your android  mobile

 Custom ringtone maker

 Free app market

 Screen capturing option

 Android notification to your desktop/laptop screen

IEEE 802.15
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

IEEE 802.15 is a working group of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers (IEEE) IEEE 802 standards committee which specifies wireless personal
area network (WPAN) standards. There are 10 major areas of development, not all
of which are active.
The number of Task Groups in IEEE 802.15 varies based on the number of active
projects. The current list of active projects can be found on the IEEE 802.15 web
site.

Contents

 1IEEE 802.15.1: WPAN / Bluetooth

 2IEEE 802.15.2: Coexistence
 3IEEE 802.15.3: High Rate WPAN
o 3.1IEEE 802.15.3-2003
o 3.2IEEE 802.15.3a
o 3.3IEEE 802.15.3b-2006
o 3.4IEEE 802.15.3c-2009
 4IEEE 802.15.4: Low Rate WPAN
o 4.1WPAN Low Rate Alternative PHY (4a)
o 4.2Revision and Enhancement (4b)
o 4.3PHY Amendment for China (4c)
o 4.4PHY and MAC Amendment for Japan (4d)
o 4.5MAC Amendment for Industrial Applications (4e)
o 4.6PHY and MAC Amendment for Active RFID (4f)
o 4.7PHY Amendment for Smart Utility Networks (4g)
o 4.8Enhanced Ultra Wideband (UWB) Physical Layers (PHYs) and Associated Ranging
Techniques (4z)
 5IEEE 802.15.5: Mesh Networking
 6IEEE 802.15.6: Body Area Networks
 7IEEE 802.15.7: Visible Light Communication
 8IEEE P802.15.8: Peer Aware Communications
 9IEEE P802.15.9: Key Management Protocol
 10IEEE P802.15.10: Layer 2 Routing
 11IEEE 802.15.13: Multi-Gigabit/s Optical Wireless Communications
 12Wireless Next Generation Standing Committee
 13See also
 14References
 15External links

IEEE 802.15.1: WPAN / Bluetooth[edit]

Task group one is based on Bluetooth technology. It defines physical layer (PHY)
and Media Access Control (MAC) specification for wireless connectivity with fixed,
portable and moving devices within or entering personal operating space. Standards
were issued in 2002 and 2005.[1][2]

IEEE 802.15.2: Coexistence[edit]

Task group two addresses the coexistence of wireless personal area networks
(WPAN) with other wireless devices operating in unlicensed frequency bands such
as wireless local area networks (WLAN). The IEEE 802.15.2-2003 standard was
published in 2003[3] and task group two went into "hibernation". [4]

IEEE 802.15.3: High Rate WPAN[edit]

IEEE 802.15.3-2003[edit]
IEEE 802.15.3-2003 is a MAC and PHY standard for high-rate (11 to 55 Mbit/s)
WPANs. The standard can be downloaded via the IEEE Get program, [5] which is
funded by IEEE 802 volunteers.
IEEE 802.15.3a[edit]
IEEE P802.15.3a was an attempt to provide a higher speed ultra-wideband PHY
enhancement amendment to IEEE 802.15.3 for applications which involve imaging
and multimedia. The members of the task group were not able to come to an
agreement choosing between two technology proposals, Multi-band Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (MB-OFDM) and Direct Sequence UWB (DS-UWB),
backed by two different industry alliances and was withdrawn in January 2006.
[6]
 Documents related to the development of IEEE 802.15.3a are archived on the
IEEE document server.[7]
See also: UWB Forum and WiMedia Alliance

IEEE 802.15.3b-2006[edit]
IEEE 802.15.3b-2005 amendment was released on May 5, 2006. It enhanced
802.15.3 to improve implementation and interoperability of the MAC. This
amendment include many optimizations, corrected errors, clarified ambiguities, and
added editorial clarifications while preserving backward compatibility. Among other
changes, the amendment defined the following new features: [8]

 a new MAC layer management entity (MLME) service access point (SAP)

 implied acknowledgment policy that allow polling
 logical link control/subnetwork access protocol (LLC/SNAP) headers
 multicast address assignment
 multiple contention periods in a superfame
 a method for relinquishing channel time to another device in the PAN
 faster network recover in the case when the piconet coordinator (PNC) abruptly
disconnects
 a method for a device to return information about signal quality of a received packet.
IEEE 802.15.3c-2009[edit]
IEEE 802.15.3c-2009 was published on September 11, 2009. The task group TG3c
developed a millimeter-wave-based alternative physical layer (PHY) for the existing
802.15.3 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) Standard 802.15.3-2003. The
IEEE 802.15.3 Task Group 3c (TG3c) was formed in March 2005. This mmWave
WPAN is defined to operate in the 57–66 GHz range. Depending on the
geographical region, anywhere from 2 to 9 GHz of bandwidth is available (for
example, 57–64 GHz is available as unlicensed band defined by FCC 47 CFR
15.255 in North America). The millimeter-wave WPAN allows very high data rate,
short range (10 m) for applications including high speed internet access, streaming
content download (video on demand, HDTV, home theater, etc.), real time streaming
and wireless data bus for cable replacement. A total of three PHY modes were
defined in the standard:[9]

 Single carrier (SC) mode (up to 5.3 Gbit/s)

 High speed interface (HSI) mode (single carrier, up to 5 Gbit/s)
 Audio/visual (AV) mode (OFDM, up to 3.8 Gbit/s).
IEEE 802.15.4: Low Rate WPAN[edit]

Protocol stack for 802.15.4

Main article: IEEE 802.15.4

IEEE 802.15.4-2003 (Low Rate WPAN) deals with low data rate but very long battery
life (months or even years) and very low complexity. The standard defines both the
physical (Layer 1) and data-link (Layer 2) layers of the OSI model. The first edition of
the 802.15.4 standard was released in May 2003. Several standardized and
proprietary networks (or mesh) layer protocols run over 802.15.4-based networks,
including IEEE 802.15.5, ZigBee, Thread, 6LoWPAN, WirelessHART,
and ISA100.11a.
WPAN Low Rate Alternative PHY (4a)[edit]
Main article: IEEE 802.15.4a

IEEE 802.15.4a (formally called IEEE 802.15.4a-2007) is an amendment to IEEE

802.15.4 specifying additional physical layers (PHYs) to the original standard. The
principal interest was in providing higher precision ranging and localization capability
(1 meter accuracy and better), higher aggregate throughput, adding scalability to
data rates, longer range, and lower power consumption and cost. The selected
baselines are two optional PHYs consisting of a UWB Pulse Radio (operating in
unlicensed UWB spectrum) and a Chirp Spread Spectrum (operating in unlicensed
2.4 GHz spectrum). The Pulsed UWB Radio is based on Continuous Pulsed UWB
technology (see C-UWB) and will be able to deliver communications and high
precision ranging.[10]
Revision and Enhancement (4b)[edit]
IEEE 802.15.4b was approved in June 2006 and was published in September 2006
as IEEE 802.15.4-2006. The IEEE 802.15 task group 4b was chartered to create a
project for specific enhancements and clarifications to the IEEE 802.15.4-2003
standard, such as resolving ambiguities, reducing unnecessary complexity,
increasing flexibility in security key usage, considerations for newly available
frequency allocations, and others.
PHY Amendment for China (4c)[edit]
IEEE 802.15.4c was approved in 2008 and was published in January 2009. This
defines a PHY amendment adds new rf spectrum specifications to address the
Chinese regulatory changes which have opened the 314-316 MHz, 430-434 MHz,
and 779-787 MHz bands for Wireless PAN use within China.
PHY and MAC Amendment for Japan (4d)[edit]
The IEEE 802.15 Task Group 4d was chartered to define an amendment to the
802.15.4-2006 standard. The amendment defines a new PHY and such changes to
the MAC as are necessary to support a new frequency allocation (950 MHz -
956 MHz) in Japan while coexisting with passive tag systems in the band.
MAC Amendment for Industrial Applications (4e)[edit]
The IEEE 802.15 Task Group 4e is chartered to define a MAC amendment to the
existing standard 802.15.4-2006. The intent of this amendment is to enhance and
add functionality to the 802.15.4-2006 MAC to a) better support the industrial
markets and b) permit compatibility with modifications being proposed within the
Chinese WPAN. Specific enhancements were made to add channel hopping and a
variable time slot option compatible with ISA100.11a. These changes were approved
in 2011.
PHY and MAC Amendment for Active RFID (4f)[edit]
The IEEE 802.15.4f Active RFID System Task Group is chartered to define new
wireless Physical (PHY) layer(s) and enhancements to the 802.15.4-2006 standard
MAC layer which are required to support new PHY(s) for active RFID system bi-
directional and location determination applications.
PHY Amendment for Smart Utility Networks (4g)[edit]
IEEE 802.15.4g Smart Utility Networks (SUN) Task Group is chartered to create a
PHY amendment to 802.15.4 to provide a standard that facilitates very large scale
process control applications such as the utility smart grid network capable of
supporting large, geographically diverse networks with minimal infrastructure, with
potentially millions of fixed endpoints. In 2012 they released the 802.15.4g radio
standard.[11] The Telecommunications Industry Association TR-51 committee
develops standards for similar applications.[12]
Enhanced Ultra Wideband (UWB) Physical Layers (PHYs) and
Associated Ranging Techniques (4z)[edit]
Approved in 2020,[13] amendment to the UWB PHYs (e.g. with coding options) to
increase accuracy and exchange ranging related information between the
participating devices.

IEEE 802.15.5: Mesh Networking[edit]

IEEE 802.15.5 provides the architectural framework enabling WPAN devices to
promote interoperable, stable, and scalable wireless mesh networking. This standard
is composed of two parts: low-rate WPAN mesh and high-rate WPAN mesh
networks. The low-rate mesh is built on IEEE 802.15.4-2006 MAC, while the high
rate mesh utilizes IEEE 802.15.3/3b MAC. The common features of both meshes
include network initialization, addressing, and multihop unicasting. In addition, the
low-rate mesh supports multicasting, reliable broadcasting, portability support, trace
route and energy saving function, and the high rate mesh supports multihop time-
guaranteed service.
Mesh networking for IEEE 802.15.1 networks is beyond scope of IEEE 802.15.5 and
is carried within the Bluetooth mesh working group.

IEEE 802.15.6: Body Area Networks[edit]

Main article: IEEE 802.15.6

In December 2011, the IEEE 802.15.6 task group approved a draft of a standard

for Body Area Network (BAN) technologies. The draft was approved on 22 July 2011
by Letter Ballot to start the Sponsor Ballot process. [14] Task Group 6 was formed in
November 2007 to focus on a low-power and short-range wireless standard to be
optimized for devices and operation on, in, or around the human body (but not
limited to humans) to serve a variety of applications including medical, consumer
electronics, and personal entertainment.

IEEE 802.15.7: Visible Light Communication[edit]

The inaugural meeting for Task Group 7 was held during January 2009, where it was
chartered to write standards for free-space optical communication using visible light.
[15]
 The 802.15.7-2011 Standard was published in September 2011. In 2015, a new
task group was launched to revise the 802.15.7 standard, with several new PHY
layers and MAC routines to support optical camera communications (OCC) and light
fidelity (LiFi). As the new draft became too large, in March 2017, the 802.15 Working
Group decided to continue 802.15.7 with OCC only, which is broadcast only, and to
create a new task group 802.15.13 to work on a new standard for LiFi, which
obviously needed a significantly revised MAC layer, besides new PHYs. The revision
of 802.15.7-2018 was published in April 2019. In September 2020, a new PAR was
approved, and a new task group started to work on a first amendment P802.15.7a
aiming at increased data rate and longer range for OCC.

IEEE P802.15.8: Peer Aware Communications[edit]

IEEE P802.15.8 received IEEE Standards Board approval on 29 March 2012 to form
a Task Group to develop a standard for Peer Aware Communications (PAC)
optimized for peer to peer and infrastructureless communications with fully
distributed coordination operating in bands below 11 GHz. The proposed standard is
targeting data rates greater than 100 kbit/s with scalable data rates up to 10 Mbit/s.
Features of the proposed include:

 discovery for peer information without association

 discovery of the number of devices in the network
 group communications with simultaneous membership in multiple groups (typically up to
10)
 relative positioning
 multi-hop relay
 security
The draft standard is under development, more information can be found on
the IEEE 802.15 Task Group 8 web page.

IEEE P802.15.9: Key Management Protocol[edit]

IEEE P802.15.9 received IEEE Standards Board approval on 7 December 2011 to
form a Task Group to develop a recommended practice for the transport of Key
Management Protocol (KMP) datagrams. The recommended practice will define a
message framework based on Information Elements as a transport method for key
management protocol (KMP) datagrams and guidelines for the use of some existing
KMPs with IEEE Std 802.15.4. The recommended practice will not create a new
KMP.[16]
While IEEE Std 802.15.4 has always supported datagram security, it has not
provided a mechanism for establishing the keys used by this feature. Lack of key
management support in IEEE Std 802.15.4 can result in weak keys, which is a
common avenue for attacking the security system. Adding KMP support is critical to
a proper security framework. Some of the existing KMPs that it may address are
IETF's PANA, HIP, IKEv2, IEEE Std 802.1X, and 4-Way-Handshake.
The draft recommended practice is under development, more information can be
found on the IEEE 802.15 web page.

IEEE P802.15.10: Layer 2 Routing[edit]

IEEE P802.15.10 received IEEE Standards Board approval on 23 August 2013 to
form a Task Group to develop a recommended practice for routing packets in
dynamically changing 802.15.4 wireless networks (changes on the order of a minute
time frame), with minimal impact to route handling. The goal is to extend the
coverage area as the number of nodes increase. [17] The route related capabilities that
the recommended practice will provide include the following:

 Route establishment
 Dynamic route reconfiguration
 Discovery and addition of new nodes
 Breaking of established routes
 Loss and recurrence of routes
 Real time gathering of link status
 Allowing for single hop appearance at the networking layer (not breaking standard L3
mechanisms)
 Support for broadcast
 Support for multicast
 Effective frame forwarding
The draft recommended practice is under development; more information can be
found on the IEEE 802.15.10 web page.

IEEE 802.15.13: Multi-Gigabit/s Optical Wireless Communications [edit]

The first meeting of Task Group 13 was held during March 2017, aiming at a new
standard on light fidelity (LiFi), i.e. mobile communications by using the light. The
aim is to address industrial applications, i.e. ultra-reliable, low-latency connectivity
with negligible jitter for next-generation IoT. Compared to 802.15.7, the group
decided to rewrite the standard entirely, based on existing and new contributions, to
meet those targets. The group first worked on a low-power pulsed modulation PHY
(PM-PHY) using On-Off-Keying (OOK) with frequency-domain equalization (FDE)
and also a high-bandwidth PHY (HB-PHY) based on orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM) adopted from ITU-T G.9991. The group also decided to
implement mobility by considering access points in the infrastructure and mobile
users in the service area as inputs and outputs of a distributed multiple-input
multiple-output (D-MIMO) link. 802.15.13 supports D-MIMO natively with a
minimalistic design, suitable for specialty applications. It is implementable on low-
cost FPGAs and off-the-shelf computing hardware. The Working Group letter ballot
and the IEEE SA Ballot were started in November 2019 and November 2020,
respectively. Publication is expected mid of 2022.

Wireless Next Generation Standing Committee[edit]

The IEEE P802.15 Wireless Next Generation Standing Committee (SCwng) is
chartered to facilitate and stimulate presentations and discussions on new wireless
related technologies that may be subject for new 802.15 standardization projects or
to address the whole 802.15 work group with issues or concerns with techniques or
technologies.[18]

See also[edit]

 IEEE 802.11 – Specifications for Wi-Fi wireless networks

 IEEE 802.15.4 – IEEE standard for low-rate wireless personal area networks
 IEEE 802.15.6
 Bluetooth – Short-range wireless technology standard
 DASH7
 Energy harvesting – Collecting energy from external sources
 EnOcean – Energy harvesting wireless technology
 List of device bandwidths
 Sun SPOT
 Ultra wideband (UWB)
 UWB Forum
 Bluetooth low energy
 WiMedia Alliance
 WirelessHD
 Wireless USB – Wireless radio communication protocol
 ZigBee
 6LoWPAN – IETF working group

Bluetooth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
For the Danish king, see Harald Bluetooth.
 Bluetooth

Developed by Bluetooth Special Interest Group

Introduced 7 May 1998; 24 years ago

Industry Personal area networks

Personal computers
Compatible
Smartphones
hardware
Gaming consoles

Audio devices

Physical range Typically less than 10 m (33 ft), up to 100 m

(330 ft).

Bluetooth 5.0: 40–400 m (100–1,000 ft)[1][2]

Website www.bluetooth.com

Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for exchanging

data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances and building personal
area networks (PANs). It employs UHF radio waves in the ISM bands, from
2.402 GHz to 2.48 GHz.[3] It is mainly used as an alternative to wire connections, to
exchange files between nearby portable devices and connect cell phones and music
players with wireless headphones. In the most widely used mode, transmission
power is limited to 2.5 milliwatts, giving it a very short range of up to 10 metres
(33 ft).
Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has
more than 35,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing,
networking, and consumer electronics. The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE
802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees
development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and protects
the trademarks.[4] A manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as
a Bluetooth device.[5] A network of patents apply to the technology, which are
licensed to individual qualifying devices. As of 2009, Bluetooth integrated
circuit chips ship approximately 920 million units annually.[6] By 2017, there were 3.6
billion Bluetooth devices being shipped annually and the shipments were expected to
continue increasing at about 12% a year.[7] In 2021, shipments reached 4.7 billion
units, with 9% growth forecast. [8]
Etymology[edit]
The name "Bluetooth" was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach of Intel, one of the founders of the
Bluetooth SIG. The name was inspired by a conversation with Sven Mattisson who related
Scandinavian history through tales from Frans G. Bengtsson's The Long Ships, a historical novel
about Vikings and the 10th-century Danish king Harald Bluetooth. Upon discovering a picture of
the runestone of Harald Bluetooth[9] in the book A History of the Vikings by Gwyn Jones, Jim
proposed Bluetooth as the codename for the short-range wireless program which is now called
Bluetooth.[10][11][12]
According to Bluetooth's official website,
Bluetooth was only intended as a placeholder until marketing could come up with something
really cool.
Later, when it came time to select a serious name, Bluetooth was to be replaced with either
RadioWire or PAN (Personal Area Networking). PAN was the front runner, but an exhaustive
search discovered it already had tens of thousands of hits throughout the internet.
A full trademark search on RadioWire couldn't be completed in time for launch, making Bluetooth
the only choice. The name caught on fast and before it could be changed, it spread throughout
the industry, becoming synonymous with short-range wireless technology. [13]
Bluetooth is the Anglicised version of the Scandinavian Blåtand/Blåtann (or in Old
Norse blátǫnn). It was the epithet of King Harald Bluetooth, who united the disparate Danish
tribes into a single kingdom; Kardach chose the name to imply that Bluetooth similarly unites
communication protocols.[14]

Logo[edit]

The Bluetooth logo   is a bind rune merging the Younger Futhark runes   (ᚼ, Hagall) and   
(ᛒ, Bjarkan), Harald's initials.[15][16]

History[edit]

Ericsson Bluetooth module PBA 313 01/2S R2A manufactured in week 22, 2001.

The development of the "short-link" radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in
1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson Mobile in Lund, Sweden. The purpose was to develop
wireless headsets, according to two inventions by Johan Ullman, SE 8902098-6, issued 1989-06-
12 and SE 9202239, issued 1992-07-24. Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and
Dutchman Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson with developing.[17] Both were working for Ericsson
in Lund.[18] Principal design and development began in 1994 and by 1997 the team had a
workable solution.[19] From 1997 Örjan Johansson became the project leader and propelled the
technology and standardization.[20][21][22][23]
In 1997, Adalio Sanchez, then head of IBM ThinkPad product R&D, approached Nils Rydbeck
about collaborating on integrating a mobile phone into a ThinkPad notebook. The two assigned
engineers from Ericsson and IBM to study the idea. The conclusion was that power consumption
on cellphone technology at that time was too high to allow viable integration into a notebook and
still achieve adequate battery life. Instead, the two companies agreed to integrate Ericsson's
short-link technology on both a ThinkPad notebook and an Ericsson phone to accomplish the
goal. Since neither IBM ThinkPad notebooks nor Ericsson phones were the market share leaders
in their respective markets at that time, Adalio Sanchez and Nils Rydbeck agreed to make the
short-link technology an open industry standard to permit each player maximum market access.
Ericsson contributed the short-link radio technology, and IBM contributed patents around the
logical layer. Adalio Sanchez of IBM then recruited Stephen Nachtsheim of Intel to join and then
Intel also recruited Toshiba and Nokia. In May 1998, the Bluetooth SIG was launched with IBM
and Ericsson as the founding signatories and a total of five members: Ericsson, Intel, Nokia,
Toshiba and IBM.
The first consumer Bluetooth device was launched in 1999. It was a hands-free mobile headset
that earned the "Best of show Technology Award" at COMDEX. The first Bluetooth mobile phone
was the Ericsson T36 but it was the revised T39 model that actually made it to store shelves in
2001. In parallel, IBM introduced the IBM ThinkPad A30 in October 2001 which was the first
notebook with integrated Bluetooth.
Bluetooth's early incorporation into consumer electronics products continued at Vosi
Technologies in Costa Mesa, California, USA, initially overseen by founding members Bejan
Amini and Tom Davidson. Vosi Technologies had been created by real estate developer Ivano
Stegmenga, with United States Patent 608507, for communication between a cellular phone and
a vehicle's audio system. At the time, Sony/Ericsson had only a minor market share in the
cellular phone market, which was dominated in the US by Nokia and Motorola. Due to ongoing
negotiations for an intended licensing agreement with Motorola beginning in the late 1990s, Vosi
could not publicly disclose the intention, integration and initial development of other enabled
devices which were to be the first "Smart Home" internet connected devices.
Vosi needed a means for the system to communicate without a wired connection from the vehicle
to the other devices in the network. Bluetooth was chosen, since Wi-Fi was not yet readily
available or supported in the public market. Vosi had begun to develop the Vosi Cello integrated
vehicular system and some other internet connected devices, one of which was intended to be a
table-top device named the Vosi Symphony, networked with Bluetooth. Through the negotiations
with Motorola, Vosi introduced and disclosed its intent to integrate Bluetooth in its devices. In the
early 2000s a legal battle ensued between Vosi and Motorola, which indefinitely suspended
release of the devices. Later, Motorola implemented it in their devices which initiated the
significant propagation of Bluetooth in the public market due to its large market share at the time.
In 2012, Jaap Haartsen was nominated by the European Patent Office for the European Inventor
Award.[19]

Implementation[edit]
Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2.402 and 2.480 GHz, or 2.400 and 2.4835 GHz,
including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the bottom end and 3.5 MHz wide at the top.[24] This is in
the globally unlicensed (but not unregulated) industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz
short-range radio frequency band. Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping
spread spectrum. Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on
one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually
performs 1600 hops per second, with adaptive frequency-hopping (AFH) enabled.[24] Bluetooth
Low Energy uses 2 MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels.[25]
Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only modulation scheme
available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK (differential quadrature
phase-shift keying) and 8-DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices.
Devices functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate (BR) mode, where an
instantaneous bit rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) is used to
describe π/4-DPSK (EDR2) and 8-DPSK (EDR3) schemes, each giving 2 and 3 Mbit/s
respectively. The combination of these (BR and EDR) modes in Bluetooth radio technology is
classified as a BR/EDR radio.
In 2019, Apple published an extension called HDR which supports data rates of 4 (HDR4) and 8
(HDR8) Mbit/s using π/4-DQPSK modulation on 4 MHz channels with forward error correction
(FEC).[26]
Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a main/follower architecture. One main may
communicate with up to seven followers in a piconet. All devices within a given piconet use the
clock provided by the master as the base for packet exchange. The master clock ticks with a
period of 312.5 μs, two clock ticks then make up a slot of 625 µs, and two slots make up a slot
pair of 1250 µs. In the simple case of single-slot packets, the main transmits in even slots and
receives in odd slots. The follower, conversely, receives in even slots and transmits in odd slots.
Packets may be 1, 3, or 5 slots long, but in all cases, the main's transmission begins in even
slots and the follower's in odd slots.
The above excludes Bluetooth Low Energy, introduced in the 4.0 specification, [27] which uses the
same spectrum but somewhat differently.

Communication and connection[edit]

A main BR/EDR Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices in a
piconet (an ad hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices reach
this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the follower can become the
main (for example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone necessarily begins as main—as
an initiator of the connection—but may subsequently operate as the follower).
The Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form
a scatternet, in which certain devices simultaneously play the main/leader role in one piconet and
the follower role in another.
At any given time, data can be transferred between the main and one other device (except for
the little-used broadcast mode). The main chooses which follower device to address; typically, it
switches rapidly from one device to another in a round-robin fashion. Since it is the main that
chooses which follower to address, whereas a follower is (in theory) supposed to listen in each
receive slot, being a main is a lighter burden than being a follower. Being a master of seven
followers is possible; being a follower of more than one main is possible. The specification is
vague as to required behavior in scatternets.[28]

Uses[edit]
Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily designed for low
power consumption, with a short range based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device.
[29]
 Because the devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system, they do not have to be
in visual line of sight of each other; however, a quasi optical wireless path must be viable.[30]

Bluetooth Classes and power use[edit]

Bluetooth device power by class

Max. permitted power
Class
(mW) (dBm)

1 10 — 100 +10 — +20

1.5* 2.5 — 10 +4 — +10

2 1 — 2.5 0 — +4
 3 0.01 — 1 -20 — 0

* Class 1.5 included in class 1 for BR/EDR

Source:BT 5.3 Vol 6 Part A Sect 3 and V2 PA S3, Bluetooth Technology Website

Historically, the Bluetooth range was defined by the radio class, with a lower class (and higher
output power) having larger range. [2] The actual range achieved by a given link will depend on the
qualities of the devices at both ends of the link, as well as the air and obstacles in between. The
primary hardware attributes affecting range are the data rate, protocol (Bluetooth Classic or
Bluetooth Low Energy), the transmitter power, the receiver sensitivity, and the gain of both
antennas.[31]
The effective range varies depending on propagation conditions, material coverage, production
sample variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth applications
are for indoor conditions, where attenuation of walls and signal fading due to signal reflections
make the range far lower than specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products.
Most Bluetooth applications are battery-powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range
whether the other end of the link is a Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower-powered device
tends to set the range limit. In some cases the effective range of the data link can be extended
when a Class 2 device is connecting to a Class 1 transceiver with both higher sensitivity and
transmission power than a typical Class 2 device.[32] Mostly, however, the Class 1 devices have a
similar sensitivity to Class 2 devices. Connecting two Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity
and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m, depending on the throughput
required by the application. Some such devices allow open field ranges of up to 1 km and
beyond between two similar devices without exceeding legal emission limits. [33][34][35]

Bluetooth profile[edit]
Main article: List of Bluetooth profiles

To use Bluetooth wireless technology, a device must be able to interpret certain Bluetooth
profiles, which are definitions of possible applications and specify general behaviors that
Bluetooth-enabled devices use to communicate with other Bluetooth devices. These profiles
include settings to parameterize and to control the communication from the start. Adherence to
profiles saves the time for transmitting the parameters anew before the bi-directional link
becomes effective. There are a wide range of Bluetooth profiles that describe many different
types of applications or use cases for devices.[36]

List of applications[edit]

A typical Bluetooth mobile phone headset from early 2000's

A handheld, waterproof Bluetooth speaker with battery, late 2010s

 Wireless control and communication between a mobile phone and a handsfree headset. This
was one of the earliest applications to become popular. [37]
 Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a Bluetooth compatible
car stereo system (and sometimes between the SIM card and the car phone [38][39]).
 Wireless communication between a smartphone and a smart lock for unlocking doors.
 Wireless control of and communication with iOS and Android device phones, tablets and
portable wireless speakers.[40]
 Wireless Bluetooth headset and intercom. Idiomatically, a headset is sometimes called "a
Bluetooth".
 Wireless streaming of audio to headphones with or without communication capabilities.
 Wireless streaming of data collected by Bluetooth-enabled fitness devices to phone or PC. [41]
 Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required.
[42]

 Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being
the mouse, keyboard and printer.
 Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices
with OBEX[a] and sharing directories via FTP.[43]
 Replacement of previous wired RS-232 serial communications in test equipment, GPS
receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices.
 For controls where infrared was often used.
 For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not required and cable-free
connection desired.
 Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other,
discoverable, Bluetooth devices.[44]
 Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet (e.g., PROFINET) networks.
 Game consoles have been using Bluetooth as a wireless communications protocol for
peripherals since the seventh generation, including Nintendo's Wii[45] and Sony's PlayStation
3 which use Bluetooth for their respective controllers.
 Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDAs using a data-capable mobile phone
as a wireless modem.
 Short-range transmission of health sensor data from medical devices to mobile phone, set-
top box or dedicated telehealth devices.[46][47]
 Allowing a DECT phone to ring and answer calls on behalf of a nearby mobile phone.
 Real-time location systems (RTLS) are used to track and identify the location of objects in
real time using "Nodes" or "tags" attached to, or embedded in, the objects tracked, and
"Readers" that receive and process the wireless signals from these tags to determine their
locations.[48]
 Personal security application on mobile phones for prevention of theft or loss of items. The
protected item has a Bluetooth marker (e.g., a tag) that is in constant communication with the
phone. If the connection is broken (the marker is out of range of the phone) then an alarm is
raised. This can also be used as a man overboard alarm.
 Calgary, Alberta, Canada's Roads Traffic division uses data collected from travelers'
Bluetooth devices to predict travel times and road congestion for motorists. [49]
 Wireless transmission of audio (a more reliable alternative to FM transmitters)
 Live video streaming to the visual cortical implant device by Nabeel Fattah in Newcastle
university 2017.[50]
 Connection of motion controllers to a PC when using VR headsets
Bluetooth vs Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)[edit]
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi (Wi-Fi is the brand name for products using IEEE 802.11 standards) have
some similar applications: setting up networks, printing, or transferring files. Wi-Fi is intended as
a replacement for high-speed cabling for general local area network access in work areas or
home. This category of applications is sometimes called wireless local area networks (WLAN).
Bluetooth was intended for portable equipment and its applications. The category of applications
is outlined as the wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth is a replacement for cabling
in various personally carried applications in any setting and also works for fixed location
applications such as smart energy functionality in the home (thermostats, etc.).
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are to some extent complementary in their applications and usage. Wi-Fi is
usually access point-centered, with an asymmetrical client-server connection with all traffic
routed through the access point, while Bluetooth is usually symmetrical, between two Bluetooth
devices. Bluetooth serves well in simple applications where two devices need to connect with a
minimal configuration like a button press, as in headsets and speakers.

Devices[edit]

A Bluetooth USB dongle with a 100 m (330 ft) range

Bluetooth exists in numerous products such as telephones, speakers, tablets, media players,

robotics systems, laptops, and console gaming equipment as well as some high
definition headsets, modems, hearing aids[51] and even watches.[52] Given the variety of devices
which use Bluetooth, coupled with the contemporary deprecation of headphone jacks by Apple,
Google, and other companies, and the lack of regulation by the FCC, the technology is prone to
interference.[53] Nonetheless, Bluetooth is useful when transferring information between two or
more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used
to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e., with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-
held computers (transferring files).
Bluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of services between devices. [54] Bluetooth
devices can advertise all of the services they provide. [55] This makes using services easier,
because more of the security, network address and permission configuration can be automated
than with many other network types.[54]
Computer requirements[edit]

A typical Bluetooth USB dongle

An internal notebook Bluetooth card (14×36×4 mm)

A personal computer that does not have embedded Bluetooth can use a Bluetooth adapter that
enables the PC to communicate with Bluetooth devices. While some desktop computers and
most recent laptops come with a built-in Bluetooth radio, others require an external adapter,
typically in the form of a small USB "dongle."
Unlike its predecessor, IrDA, which requires a separate adapter for each device, Bluetooth lets
multiple devices communicate with a computer over a single adapter. [56]

Operating system implementation[edit]

Further information: Bluetooth stack

For Microsoft platforms, Windows XP Service Pack 2 and SP3 releases work natively with

Bluetooth v1.1, v2.0 and v2.0+EDR.[57] Previous versions required users to install their Bluetooth
adapter's own drivers, which were not directly supported by Microsoft. [58] Microsoft's own
Bluetooth dongles (packaged with their Bluetooth computer devices) have no external drivers
and thus require at least Windows XP Service Pack 2. Windows Vista RTM/SP1 with the Feature
Pack for Wireless or Windows Vista SP2 work with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR. [57] Windows 7 works with
Bluetooth v2.1+EDR and Extended Inquiry Response (EIR).[57] The Windows XP and Windows
Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stacks support the following Bluetooth profiles natively: PAN,
SPP, DUN, HID, HCRP. The Windows XP stack can be replaced by a third party stack that
supports more profiles or newer Bluetooth versions. The Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth
stack supports vendor-supplied additional profiles without requiring that the Microsoft stack be
replaced.[57] Windows 8 and later support Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). It is generally
recommended to install the latest vendor driver and its associated stack to be able to use the
Bluetooth device at its fullest extent.
Apple products have worked with Bluetooth since Mac OS X v10.2, which was released in 2002.
[59]

Linux has two popular Bluetooth stacks, BlueZ and Fluoride. The BlueZ stack is included with
most Linux kernels and was originally developed by Qualcomm.[60] Fluoride, earlier known as
Bluedroid is included in Android OS and was originally developed by Broadcom.[61] There is also
Affix stack, developed by Nokia. It was once popular, but has not been updated since 2005. [62]
FreeBSD has included Bluetooth since its v5.0 release, implemented through netgraph.[63][64]
NetBSD has included Bluetooth since its v4.0 release.[65][66] Its Bluetooth stack was ported
to OpenBSD as well, however OpenBSD later removed it as unmaintained. [67][68]
DragonFly BSD has had NetBSD's Bluetooth implementation since 1.11 (2008). [69][70] A netgraph-
based implementation from FreeBSD has also been available in the tree, possibly disabled until
2014-11-15, and may require more work.[71][72]

Specifications and features[edit]

The specifications were formalized by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) and formally
announced on 20 May 1998.[73] Today it has a membership of over 30,000 companies worldwide.
[74]
 It was established by Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba, and later joined by many other
companies.
All versions of the Bluetooth standards support downward compatibility.[75] That lets the latest
standard cover all older versions.
The Bluetooth Core Specification Working Group (CSWG) produces mainly 4 kinds of
specifications:

 The Bluetooth Core Specification, release cycle is typically a few years in between
 Core Specification Addendum (CSA), release cycle can be as tight as a few times per year
 Core Specification Supplements (CSS), can be released very quickly
 Errata (Available with a user account: Errata login)
Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B[edit]

 Products weren't interoperable

 Anonymity wasn't possible, preventing certain services from using Bluetooth environments [76]
Bluetooth 1.1[edit]

 Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1–2002[77]

 Many errors found in the v1.0B specifications were fixed.
 Added possibility of non-encrypted channels.
 Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI).
Bluetooth 1.2[edit]
Major enhancements include:

 Faster Connection and Discovery

 Adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH), which improves resistance to radio
frequency interference by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence.
 Higher transmission speeds in practice than in v1.1, up to 721 kbit/s.[78]
 Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which improve voice quality of audio links by
allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets, and may optionally increase audio latency to
provide better concurrent data transfer.
 Host Controller Interface (HCI) operation with three-wire UART.
 Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1–2005[79]
 Introduced Flow Control and Retransmission Modes for L2CAP.
Bluetooth 2.0 + EDR[edit]
This version of the Bluetooth Core Specification was released before 2005. The main difference
is the introduction of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) for faster data transfer. The bit rate of EDR
is 3 Mbit/s, although the maximum data transfer rate (allowing for inter-packet time and
acknowledgements) is 2.1 Mbit/s.[78] EDR uses a combination of GFSK and phase-shift
keying modulation (PSK) with two variants, π/4-DQPSK and 8-DPSK.[80] EDR can provide a lower
power consumption through a reduced duty cycle.
The specification is published as Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR, which implies that EDR is an optional
feature. Aside from EDR, the v2.0 specification contains other minor improvements, and products
may claim compliance to "Bluetooth v2.0" without supporting the higher data rate. At least one
commercial device states "Bluetooth v2.0 without EDR" on its data sheet. [81]

Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR[edit]

Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.1 + EDR was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 26 July
2007.[80]
The headline feature of v2.1 is secure simple pairing (SSP): this improves the pairing experience
for Bluetooth devices, while increasing the use and strength of security. [82]
Version 2.1 allows various other improvements, including extended inquiry response (EIR), which
provides more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before
connection; and sniff subrating, which reduces the power consumption in low-power mode.

Bluetooth 3.0 + HS[edit]

Version 3.0 + HS of the Bluetooth Core Specification[80] was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 21
April 2009. Bluetooth v3.0 + HS provides theoretical data transfer speeds of up to 24 Mbit/s,
though not over the Bluetooth link itself. Instead, the Bluetooth link is used for negotiation and
establishment, and the high data rate traffic is carried over a colocated 802.11 link.
The main new feature is AMP (Alternative MAC/PHY), the addition of 802.11 as a high-speed
transport. The high-speed part of the specification is not mandatory, and hence only devices that
display the "+HS" logo actually support Bluetooth over 802.11 high-speed data transfer. A
Bluetooth v3.0 device without the "+HS" suffix is only required to support features introduced in
Core Specification Version 3.0[83] or earlier Core Specification Addendum 1.[84]
L2CAP Enhanced modes
Enhanced Retransmission Mode (ERTM) implements reliable L2CAP channel, while
Streaming Mode (SM) implements unreliable channel with no retransmission or flow
control. Introduced in Core Specification Addendum 1.
Alternative MAC/PHY
Enables the use of alternative MAC and PHYs for transporting Bluetooth profile data. The
Bluetooth radio is still used for device discovery, initial connection and profile
configuration. However, when large quantities of data must be sent, the high-speed
alternative MAC PHY 802.11 (typically associated with Wi-Fi) transports the data. This
means that Bluetooth uses proven low power connection models when the system is idle,
and the faster radio when it must send large quantities of data. AMP links require
enhanced L2CAP modes.
Unicast Connectionless Data
Permits sending service data without establishing an explicit L2CAP channel. It is
intended for use by applications that require low latency between user action and
reconnection/transmission of data. This is only appropriate for small amounts of data.
Enhanced Power Control
Updates the power control feature to remove the open loop power control, and also to
clarify ambiguities in power control introduced by the new modulation schemes added for
EDR. Enhanced power control removes the ambiguities by specifying the behavior that is
expected. The feature also adds closed loop power control, meaning RSSI filtering can
start as the response is received. Additionally, a "go straight to maximum power" request
has been introduced. This is expected to deal with the headset link loss issue typically
observed when a user puts their phone into a pocket on the opposite side to the headset.
Ultra-wideband[edit]
The high-speed (AMP) feature of Bluetooth v3.0 was originally intended
for UWB, but the WiMedia Alliance, the body responsible for the flavor of UWB
intended for Bluetooth, announced in March 2009 that it was disbanding, and
ultimately UWB was omitted from the Core v3.0 specification. [85]
On 16 March 2009, the WiMedia Alliance announced it was entering into
technology transfer agreements for the WiMedia Ultra-wideband (UWB)
specifications. WiMedia has transferred all current and future specifications,
including work on future high-speed and power-optimized implementations, to
the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), Wireless USB Promoter Group and
the USB Implementers Forum. After successful completion of the technology
transfer, marketing, and related administrative items, the WiMedia Alliance
ceased operations.[86][87][88][89][90]
In October 2009, the Bluetooth Special Interest Group suspended development
of UWB as part of the alternative MAC/PHY, Bluetooth v3.0 + HS solution. A
small, but significant, number of former WiMedia members had not and would
not sign up to the necessary agreements for the IP transfer. As of 2009, the
Bluetooth SIG was in the process of evaluating other options for its longer term
roadmap.[91][92][93]

Bluetooth 4.0[edit]
Main article: Bluetooth Low Energy

The Bluetooth SIG completed the Bluetooth Core Specification version 4.0
(called Bluetooth Smart) and has been adopted as of 30 June 2010. It
includes Classic Bluetooth, Bluetooth high speed and Bluetooth Low
Energy (BLE) protocols. Bluetooth high speed is based on Wi-Fi, and Classic
Bluetooth consists of legacy Bluetooth protocols.
Bluetooth Low Energy, previously known as Wibree,[94] is a subset of Bluetooth
v4.0 with an entirely new protocol stack for rapid build-up of simple links. As an
alternative to the Bluetooth standard protocols that were introduced in Bluetooth
v1.0 to v3.0, it is aimed at very low power applications powered by a coin cell.
Chip designs allow for two types of implementation, dual-mode, single-mode
and enhanced past versions.[95] The provisional names Wibree and Bluetooth
ULP (Ultra Low Power) were abandoned and the BLE name was used for a
while. In late 2011, new logos "Bluetooth Smart Ready" for hosts and "Bluetooth
Smart" for sensors were introduced as the general-public face of BLE. [96]
Compared to Classic Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low Energy is intended to provide
considerably reduced power consumption and cost while maintaining a similar
communication range. In terms of lengthening the battery life of Bluetooth
devices, BLE represents a significant progression.

 In a single-mode implementation, only the low energy protocol stack is

implemented. Dialog Semiconductor,[97] STMicroelectronics,[98] AMICCOM,
[99]
 CSR,[100] Nordic Semiconductor[101] and Texas Instruments[102] have released
single mode Bluetooth Low Energy solutions.
 In a dual-mode implementation, Bluetooth Smart functionality is integrated
into an existing Classic Bluetooth controller. As of March 2011, the following
semiconductor companies have announced the availability of chips meeting
the standard: Qualcomm-Atheros, CSR, Broadcom[103][104] and Texas
Instruments. The compliant architecture shares all of Classic Bluetooth's
existing radio and functionality resulting in a negligible cost increase
compared to Classic Bluetooth.
Cost-reduced single-mode chips, which enable highly integrated and compact
devices, feature a lightweight Link Layer providing ultra-low power idle mode
operation, simple device discovery, and reliable point-to-multipoint data transfer
with advanced power-save and secure encrypted connections at the lowest
possible cost.
General improvements in version 4.0 include the changes necessary to facilitate
BLE modes, as well the Generic Attribute Profile (GATT) and Security Manager
(SM) services with AES Encryption.
Core Specification Addendum 2 was unveiled in December 2011; it contains
improvements to the audio Host Controller Interface and to the High Speed
(802.11) Protocol Adaptation Layer.
Core Specification Addendum 3 revision 2 has an adoption date of 24 July 2012.
Core Specification Addendum 4 has an adoption date of 12 February 2013.

Bluetooth 4.1[edit]
The Bluetooth SIG announced formal adoption of the Bluetooth v4.1
specification on 4 December 2013. This specification is an incremental software
update to Bluetooth Specification v4.0, and not a hardware update. The update
incorporates Bluetooth Core Specification Addenda (CSA 1, 2, 3 & 4) and adds
new features that improve consumer usability. These include increased co-
existence support for LTE, bulk data exchange rates—and aid developer
innovation by allowing devices to support multiple roles simultaneously. [105]
New features of this specification include:

 Mobile Wireless Service Coexistence Signaling

 Train Nudging and Generalized Interlaced Scanning
 Low Duty Cycle Directed Advertising
 L2CAP Connection Oriented and Dedicated Channels with Credit-Based
Flow Control
 Dual Mode and Topology
 LE Link Layer Topology
 802.11n PAL
 Audio Architecture Updates for Wide Band Speech
 Fast Data Advertising Interval
 Limited Discovery Time[106]
Notice that some features were already available in a Core Specification
Addendum (CSA) before the release of v4.1.

Bluetooth 4.2[edit]
Released on 2 December 2014, it introduces features for the Internet of Things.
The major areas of improvement are:

 Low Energy Secure Connection with Data Packet Length Extension

 Link Layer Privacy with Extended Scanner Filter Policies
 Internet Protocol Support Profile (IPSP) version 6 ready for Bluetooth
Smart things to support connected home
Older Bluetooth hardware may receive 4.2 features such as Data Packet Length
Extension and improved privacy via firmware updates. [107][108]

Bluetooth 5[edit]
The Bluetooth SIG released Bluetooth 5 on 6 December 2016. Its new features
are mainly focused on new Internet of Things technology. Sony was the first to
announce Bluetooth 5.0 support with its Xperia XZ Premium in Feb 2017 during
the Mobile World Congress 2017. [109] The Samsung Galaxy S8 launched with
Bluetooth 5 support in April 2017. In September 2017, the iPhone 8, 8 Plus
and iPhone X launched with Bluetooth 5 support as well. Apple also integrated
Bluetooth 5 in its new HomePod offering released on 9 February 2018.
[110]
 Marketing drops the point number; so that it is just "Bluetooth 5" (unlike
Bluetooth 4.0);[111] the change is for the sake of "Simplifying our marketing,
communicating user benefits more effectively and making it easier to signal
significant technology updates to the market."
Bluetooth 5 provides, for BLE, options that can double the speed (2 Mbit/s burst)
at the expense of range, or provide up to four times the range at the expense of
data rate. The increase in transmissions could be important for Internet of
Things devices, where many nodes connect throughout a whole house.
Bluetooth 5 increases capacity of connectionless services such as location-
relevant navigation[112] of low-energy Bluetooth connections.[113][114][115]
The major areas of improvement are:

 Slot Availability Mask (SAM)

 2 Mbit/s PHY for LE
 LE Long Range
 High Duty Cycle Non-Connectable Advertising
 LE Advertising Extensions
 LE Channel Selection Algorithm #2
Features Added in CSA5 – Integrated in v5.0:

 Higher Output Power

The following features were removed in this version of the specification:

 Park State[116]
Bluetooth 5.1[edit]
The Bluetooth SIG presented Bluetooth 5.1 on 21 January 2019.
The major areas of improvement are:

 Angle of Arrival (AoA) and Angle of Departure (AoD) which are used for
locating and tracking of devices
 Advertising Channel Index
 GATT Caching
 Minor Enhancements batch 1:
o HCI support for debug keys in LE Secure Connections
o Sleep clock accuracy update mechanism
o ADI field in scan response data
o Interaction between QoS and Flow Specification
 o Block Host channel classification for secondary advertising
o Allow the SID to appear in scan response reports
o Specify the behavior when rules are violated
 Periodic Advertising Sync Transfer
Features Added in Core Specification Addendum (CSA) 6 – Integrated in v5.1:

 Models
 Mesh-based model hierarchy
The following features were removed in this version of the specification:

 Unit keys
Bluetooth 5.2[edit]
On 31 December 2019, the Bluetooth SIG published the Bluetooth Core
Specification Version 5.2. The new specification adds new features: [117]

 Enhanced Attribute Protocol (EATT), an improved version of the Attribute

Protocol (ATT)
 LE Power Control
 LE Isochronous Channels
 LE Audio that is built on top of the new 5.2 features. BT LE Audio was
announced in January 2020 at CES by the Bluetooth SIG. Compared to
regular Bluetooth Audio, Bluetooth Low Energy Audio makes lower battery
consumption possible and creates a standardized way of transmitting audio
over BT LE. Bluetooth LE Audio also allows one-to-many and many-to-one
broadcasts, allowing multiple receivers from one source or one receiver for
multiple sources, known as Auracast.[118][119] It uses a new LC3 codec. BLE
Audio will also add support for hearing aids.[120] On July 12, 2022, the
Bluetooth SIG announced the completion of Bluetooth LE Audio. The
standard has a lower minimum latency claim of 20-30 ms vs Bluetooth
Classic audio of 100-200 ms.[121]
Bluetooth 5.3[edit]
The Bluetooth SIG published the Bluetooth Core Specification Version 5.3 on
July 13, 2021. The feature enhancements of Bluetooth 5.3 are: [122]

 Connection Subrating
 Periodic Advertisement Interval
 Channel Classification Enhancement
 Encryption Key Size Control Enhancements
The following features were removed in this version of the specification:

 Alternate MAC and PHY (AMP) Extension

Technical information[edit]
Architecture[edit]
Software[edit]
Seeking to extend the compatibility of Bluetooth devices, the devices that
adhere to the standard use an interface called HCI (Host Controller Interface)
between the host device (e.g. laptop, phone) and the Bluetooth device (e.g.
Bluetooth wireless headset).
High-level protocols such as the SDP (Protocol used to find other Bluetooth
devices within the communication range, also responsible for detecting the
function of devices in range), RFCOMM (Protocol used to emulate serial port
connections) and TCS (Telephony control protocol) interact with the baseband
controller through the L2CAP (Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol).
The L2CAP protocol is responsible for the segmentation and reassembly of the
packets.
Hardware[edit]
The hardware that makes up the Bluetooth device is made up of, logically, two
parts; which may or may not be physically separate. A radio device, responsible
for modulating and transmitting the signal; and a digital controller. The digital
controller is likely a CPU, one of whose functions is to run a Link Controller; and
interfaces with the host device; but some functions may be delegated to
hardware. The Link Controller is responsible for the processing of the baseband
and the management of ARQ and physical layer FEC protocols. In addition, it
handles the transfer functions (both asynchronous and synchronous), audio
coding (e.g. SBC (codec)) and data encryption. The CPU of the device is
responsible for attending the instructions related to Bluetooth of the host device,
in order to simplify its operation. To do this, the CPU runs software called Link
Manager that has the function of communicating with other devices through the
LMP protocol.
A Bluetooth device is a short-range wireless device. Bluetooth devices
are fabricated on RF CMOS integrated circuit (RF circuit) chips.[6][123]

Bluetooth protocol stack[edit]

Main article: Bluetooth protocols

Bluetooth Protocol Stack

Bluetooth is defined as a layer protocol architecture consisting of core protocols,

cable replacement protocols, telephony control protocols, and adopted
protocols.[124] Mandatory protocols for all Bluetooth stacks are LMP, L2CAP and
SDP. In addition, devices that communicate with Bluetooth almost universally
can use these protocols: HCI and RFCOMM.[125]
Link Manager[edit]
The Link Manager (LM) is the system that manages establishing the connection
between devices. It is responsible for the establishment, authentication and
configuration of the link. The Link Manager locates other managers and
communicates with them via the management protocol of the LMP link. To
perform its function as a service provider, the LM uses the services included in
the Link Controller (LC). The Link Manager Protocol basically consists of several
PDUs (Protocol Data Units) that are sent from one device to another. The
following is a list of supported services:

 Transmission and reception of data.

  Name request
 Request of the link addresses.
 Establishment of the connection.
 Authentication.
 Negotiation of link mode and connection establishment.
Host Controller Interface[edit]
The Host Controller Interface provides a command interface for the controller
and for the link manager, which allows access to the hardware status and
control registers. This interface provides an access layer for all Bluetooth
devices. The HCI layer of the machine exchanges commands and data with the
HCI firmware present in the Bluetooth device. One of the most important HCI
tasks that must be performed is the automatic discovery of other Bluetooth
devices that are within the coverage radius.
Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol[edit]
The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) is used to multiplex
multiple logical connections between two devices using different higher level
protocols. Provides segmentation and reassembly of on-air packets.
In Basic mode, L2CAP provides packets with a payload configurable up to
64 kB, with 672 bytes as the default MTU, and 48 bytes as the minimum
mandatory supported MTU.
In Retransmission and Flow Control modes, L2CAP can be configured either for
isochronous data or reliable data per channel by performing retransmissions and
CRC checks.
Bluetooth Core Specification Addendum 1 adds two additional L2CAP modes to
the core specification. These modes effectively deprecate original
Retransmission and Flow Control modes:
Enhanced Retransmission Mode (ERTM)
This mode is an improved version of the original retransmission mode. This mode
provides a reliable L2CAP channel.
Streaming Mode (SM)
This is a very simple mode, with no retransmission or flow control. This mode provides an
unreliable L2CAP channel.
Reliability in any of these modes is optionally and/or additionally
guaranteed by the lower layer Bluetooth BDR/EDR air interface by
configuring the number of retransmissions and flush timeout (time after
which the radio flushes packets). In-order sequencing is guaranteed by
the lower layer.
Only L2CAP channels configured in ERTM or SM may be operated over
AMP logical links.
Service Discovery Protocol[edit]
The Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) allows a device to discover
services offered by other devices, and their associated parameters. For
example, when you use a mobile phone with a Bluetooth headset, the
phone uses SDP to determine which Bluetooth profiles the headset can
use (Headset Profile, Hands Free Profile (HFP), Advanced Audio
Distribution Profile (A2DP) etc.) and the protocol multiplexer settings
needed for the phone to connect to the headset using each of them.
Each service is identified by a Universally Unique Identifier (UUID), with
 official services (Bluetooth profiles) assigned a short form UUID (16 bits
rather than the full 128).
Radio Frequency Communications[edit]
Radio Frequency Communications (RFCOMM) is a cable replacement
protocol used for generating a virtual serial data stream. RFCOMM
provides for binary data transport and emulates EIA-232 (formerly RS-
232) control signals over the Bluetooth baseband layer, i.e., it is a serial
port emulation.
RFCOMM provides a simple, reliable, data stream to the user, similar to
TCP. It is used directly by many telephony related profiles as a carrier
for AT commands, as well as being a transport layer for OBEX over
Bluetooth.
Many Bluetooth applications use RFCOMM because of its widespread
support and publicly available API on most operating systems.
Additionally, applications that used a serial port to communicate can be
quickly ported to use RFCOMM.
Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol[edit]
The Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol (BNEP) is used for
transferring another protocol stack's data via an L2CAP channel. Its
main purpose is the transmission of IP packets in the Personal Area
Networking Profile. BNEP performs a similar function to SNAP in
Wireless LAN.
Audio/Video Control Transport Protocol[edit]
The Audio/Video Control Transport Protocol (AVCTP) is used by the
remote control profile to transfer AV/C commands over an L2CAP
channel. The music control buttons on a stereo headset use this
protocol to control the music player.
Audio/Video Distribution Transport Protocol[edit]
The Audio/Video Distribution Transport Protocol (AVDTP) is used by the
advanced audio distribution (A2DP) profile to stream music to stereo
headsets over an L2CAP channel intended for video distribution profile
in the Bluetooth transmission.
Telephony Control Protocol[edit]
The Telephony Control Protocol – Binary (TCS BIN) is the bit-oriented
protocol that defines the call control signaling for the establishment of
voice and data calls between Bluetooth devices. Additionally, "TCS BIN
defines mobility management procedures for handling groups of
Bluetooth TCS devices."
TCS-BIN is only used by the cordless telephony profile, which failed to
attract implementers. As such it is only of historical interest.
Adopted protocols[edit]
Adopted protocols are defined by other standards-making organizations
and incorporated into Bluetooth's protocol stack, allowing Bluetooth to
code protocols only when necessary. The adopted protocols include:
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
Internet standard protocol for transporting IP datagrams over a point-to-point link.
TCP/IP/UDP
Foundation Protocols for TCP/IP protocol suite
Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX)
Session-layer protocol for the exchange of objects, providing a model for object and
operation representation
Wireless Application Environment/Wireless Application
Protocol (WAE/WAP)
WAE specifies an application framework for wireless devices and WAP is an open
standard to provide mobile users access to telephony and information services. [124]

Baseband error correction[edit]

Depending on packet type, individual packets may be
protected by error correction, either 1/3 rate forward
error correction (FEC) or 2/3 rate. In addition, packets
with CRC will be retransmitted until acknowledged
by automatic repeat request (ARQ).

Setting up connections[edit]
Any Bluetooth device in discoverable mode transmits
the following information on demand:

 Device name
 Device class
 List of services
 Technical information (for example: device
features, manufacturer, Bluetooth specification
used, clock offset)
Any device may perform an inquiry to find other devices
to connect to, and any device can be configured to
respond to such inquiries. However, if the device trying
to connect knows the address of the device, it always
responds to direct connection requests and transmits
the information shown in the list above if requested.
Use of a device's services may require pairing or
acceptance by its owner, but the connection itself can
be initiated by any device and held until it goes out of
range. Some devices can be connected to only one
device at a time, and connecting to them prevents them
from connecting to other devices and appearing in
inquiries until they disconnect from the other device.
Every device has a unique 48-bit address. However,
these addresses are generally not shown in inquiries.
Instead, friendly Bluetooth names are used, which can
be set by the user. This name appears when another
user scans for devices and in lists of paired devices.
Most cellular phones have the Bluetooth name set to
the manufacturer and model of the phone by default.
Most cellular phones and laptops show only the
Bluetooth names and special programs are required to
get additional information about remote devices. This
can be confusing as, for example, there could be
several cellular phones in range
named T610 (see Bluejacking).
Pairing and bonding[edit]
Motivation[edit]
Many services offered over Bluetooth can expose
private data or let a connecting party control the
Bluetooth device. Security reasons make it necessary
to recognize specific devices, and thus enable control
over which devices can connect to a given Bluetooth
device. At the same time, it is useful for Bluetooth
devices to be able to establish a connection without
user intervention (for example, as soon as in range).
To resolve this conflict, Bluetooth uses a process
called bonding, and a bond is generated through a
process called pairing. The pairing process is triggered
either by a specific request from a user to generate a
bond (for example, the user explicitly requests to "Add
a Bluetooth device"), or it is triggered automatically
when connecting to a service where (for the first time)
the identity of a device is required for security
purposes. These two cases are referred to as
dedicated bonding and general bonding respectively.
Pairing often involves some level of user interaction.
This user interaction confirms the identity of the
devices. When pairing completes, a bond forms
between the two devices, enabling those two devices to
connect in the future without repeating the pairing
process to confirm device identities. When desired, the
user can remove the bonding relationship.
Implementation[edit]
During pairing, the two devices establish a relationship
by creating a shared secret known as a link key. If both
devices store the same link key, they are said to
be paired or bonded. A device that wants to
communicate only with a bonded device
can cryptographically authenticate the identity of the
other device, ensuring it is the same device it
previously paired with. Once a link key is generated, an
authenticated ACL link between the devices may
be encrypted to protect exchanged data
against eavesdropping. Users can delete link keys from
either device, which removes the bond between the
devices—so it is possible for one device to have a
stored link key for a device it is no longer paired with.
Bluetooth services generally require either encryption
or authentication and as such require pairing before
they let a remote device connect. Some services, such
as the Object Push Profile, elect not to explicitly require
authentication or encryption so that pairing does not
interfere with the user experience associated with the
service use-cases.
Pairing mechanisms[edit]
Pairing mechanisms changed significantly with the
introduction of Secure Simple Pairing in Bluetooth v2.1.
The following summarizes the pairing mechanisms:

 Legacy pairing: This is the only method available in

Bluetooth v2.0 and before. Each device must enter
a PIN code; pairing is only successful if both
devices enter the same PIN code. Any 16-byte
UTF-8 string may be used as a PIN code; however,
not all devices may be capable of entering all
possible PIN codes.
o Limited input devices: The obvious example of
this class of device is a Bluetooth Hands-free
headset, which generally have few inputs.
These devices usually have a fixed PIN, for
example "0000" or "1234", that are hard-coded
into the device.
o Numeric input devices: Mobile phones are
classic examples of these devices. They allow
a user to enter a numeric value up to 16 digits
in length.
o Alpha-numeric input devices: PCs and
smartphones are examples of these devices.
They allow a user to enter full UTF-8 text as a
PIN code. If pairing with a less capable device
the user must be aware of the input limitations
on the other device; there is no mechanism
available for a capable device to determine
how it should limit the available input a user
may use.
 Secure Simple Pairing (SSP): This is required by
Bluetooth v2.1, although a Bluetooth v2.1 device
may only use legacy pairing to interoperate with a
v2.0 or earlier device. Secure Simple Pairing uses
a form of public-key cryptography, and some types
can help protect against man in the middle, or
MITM attacks. SSP has the following authentication
mechanisms:
o Just works: As the name implies, this method
just works, with no user interaction. However, a
device may prompt the user to confirm the
pairing process. This method is typically used
by headsets with minimal IO capabilities, and is
more secure than the fixed PIN mechanism this
limited set of devices uses for legacy pairing.
This method provides no man-in-the-middle
(MITM) protection.
o Numeric comparison: If both devices have a
display, and at least one can accept a binary
yes/no user input, they may use Numeric
Comparison. This method displays a 6-digit
numeric code on each device. The user should
compare the numbers to ensure they are
identical. If the comparison succeeds, the
 user(s) should confirm pairing on the device(s)
that can accept an input. This method provides
MITM protection, assuming the user confirms
on both devices and actually performs the
comparison properly.
o Passkey Entry: This method may be used
between a device with a display and a device
with numeric keypad entry (such as a
keyboard), or two devices with numeric keypad
entry. In the first case, the display presents a 6-
digit numeric code to the user, who then enters
the code on the keypad. In the second case,
the user of each device enters the same 6-digit
number. Both of these cases provide MITM
protection.
o Out of band (OOB): This method uses an
external means of communication, such
as near-field communication (NFC) to
exchange some information used in the pairing
process. Pairing is completed using the
Bluetooth radio, but requires information from
the OOB mechanism. This provides only the
level of MITM protection that is present in the
OOB mechanism.
SSP is considered simple for the following reasons:

 In most cases, it does not require a user to

generate a passkey.
 For use cases not requiring MITM protection, user
interaction can be eliminated.
 For numeric comparison, MITM protection can be
achieved with a simple equality comparison by the
user.
 Using OOB with NFC enables pairing when devices
simply get close, rather than requiring a lengthy
discovery process.
Security concerns[edit]
Prior to Bluetooth v2.1, encryption is not required and
can be turned off at any time. Moreover, the encryption
key is only good for approximately 23.5 hours; using a
single encryption key longer than this time allows
simple XOR attacks to retrieve the encryption key.

 Turning off encryption is required for several

normal operations, so it is problematic to detect if
encryption is disabled for a valid reason or a
security attack.
Bluetooth v2.1 addresses this in the following ways:

 Encryption is required for all non-SDP (Service

Discovery Protocol) connections
 A new Encryption Pause and Resume feature is
used for all normal operations that require that
encryption be disabled. This enables easy
 identification of normal operation from security
attacks.
 The encryption key must be refreshed before it
expires.
Link keys may be stored on the device file system, not
on the Bluetooth chip itself. Many Bluetooth chip
manufacturers let link keys be stored on the device—
however, if the device is removable, this means that the
link key moves with the device.

Security[edit]
Overview[edit]
See also: Mobile security § Attacks based on
communication networks

Bluetooth
implements confidentiality, authentication and key deriv
ation with custom algorithms based on
the SAFER+ block cipher. Bluetooth key generation is
generally based on a Bluetooth PIN, which must be
entered into both devices. This procedure might be
modified if one of the devices has a fixed PIN (e.g., for
headsets or similar devices with a restricted user
interface). During pairing, an initialization key or master
key is generated, using the E22 algorithm.
[126]
 The E0 stream cipher is used for encrypting packets,
granting confidentiality, and is based on a shared
cryptographic secret, namely a previously generated
link key or master key. Those keys, used for
subsequent encryption of data sent via the air interface,
rely on the Bluetooth PIN, which has been entered into
one or both devices.
An overview of Bluetooth vulnerabilities exploits was
published in 2007 by Andreas Becker.[127]
In September 2008, the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) published a Guide to Bluetooth
Security as a reference for organizations. It describes
Bluetooth security capabilities and how to secure
Bluetooth technologies effectively. While Bluetooth has
its benefits, it is susceptible to denial-of-service attacks,
eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks, message
modification, and resource misappropriation. Users and
organizations must evaluate their acceptable level of
risk and incorporate security into the lifecycle of
Bluetooth devices. To help mitigate risks, included in
the NIST document are security checklists with
guidelines and recommendations for creating and
maintaining secure Bluetooth piconets, headsets, and
smart card readers.[128]
Bluetooth v2.1 – finalized in 2007 with consumer
devices first appearing in 2009 – makes significant
changes to Bluetooth's security, including pairing. See
the pairing mechanisms section for more about these
changes.
Bluejacking[edit]
Main article: Bluejacking

Bluejacking is the sending of either a picture or a

message from one user to an unsuspecting user
through Bluetooth wireless technology. Common
applications include short messages, e.g., "You've just
been bluejacked!"[129] Bluejacking does not involve the
removal or alteration of any data from the device.
[130]
 Bluejacking can also involve taking control of a
mobile device wirelessly and phoning a premium rate
line, owned by the bluejacker. Security advances have
alleviated this issue[citation needed].

History of security concerns[edit]

2001–2004[edit]
In 2001, Jakobsson and Wetzel from Bell
Laboratories discovered flaws in the Bluetooth pairing
protocol and also pointed to vulnerabilities in the
encryption scheme.[131] In 2003, Ben and Adam Laurie
from A.L. Digital Ltd. discovered that serious flaws in
some poor implementations of Bluetooth security may
lead to disclosure of personal data.[132] In a subsequent
experiment, Martin Herfurt from the trifinite.group was
able to do a field-trial at the CeBIT fairgrounds, showing
the importance of the problem to the world. A new
attack called BlueBug was used for this experiment.
[133]
 In 2004 the first purported virus using Bluetooth to
spread itself among mobile phones appeared on
the Symbian OS.[134] The virus was first described
by Kaspersky Lab and requires users to confirm the
installation of unknown software before it can
propagate. The virus was written as a proof-of-concept
by a group of virus writers known as "29A" and sent to
anti-virus groups. Thus, it should be regarded as a
potential (but not real) security threat to Bluetooth
technology or Symbian OS since the virus has never
spread outside of this system. In August 2004, a world-
record-setting experiment (see also Bluetooth sniping)
showed that the range of Class 2 Bluetooth radios
could be extended to 1.78 km (1.11 mi) with directional
antennas and signal amplifiers.[135] This poses a
potential security threat because it enables attackers to
access vulnerable Bluetooth devices from a distance
beyond expectation. The attacker must also be able to
receive information from the victim to set up a
connection. No attack can be made against a Bluetooth
device unless the attacker knows its Bluetooth address
and which channels to transmit on, although these can
be deduced within a few minutes if the device is in use.
[136]

2005[edit]
In January 2005, a mobile malware worm known as
Lasco surfaced. The worm began targeting mobile
phones using Symbian OS (Series 60 platform) using
Bluetooth enabled devices to replicate itself and spread
to other devices. The worm is self-installing and begins
once the mobile user approves the transfer of the file
(Velasco.sis) from another device. Once installed, the
worm begins looking for other Bluetooth enabled
devices to infect. Additionally, the worm infects
other .SIS files on the device, allowing replication to
another device through the use of removable media
(Secure Digital, CompactFlash, etc.). The worm can
render the mobile device unstable. [137]
In April 2005, Cambridge University security
researchers published results of their actual
implementation of passive attacks against the PIN-
based pairing between commercial Bluetooth devices.
They confirmed that attacks are practicably fast, and
the Bluetooth symmetric key establishment method is
vulnerable. To rectify this vulnerability, they designed
an implementation that showed that stronger,
asymmetric key establishment is feasible for certain
classes of devices, such as mobile phones.[138]
In June 2005, Yaniv Shaked[139] and Avishai
Wool[140] published a paper describing both passive and
active methods for obtaining the PIN for a Bluetooth
link. The passive attack allows a suitably equipped
attacker to eavesdrop on communications and spoof if
the attacker was present at the time of initial pairing.
The active method makes use of a specially
constructed message that must be inserted at a specific
point in the protocol, to make the master and slave
repeat the pairing process. After that, the first method
can be used to crack the PIN. This attack's major
weakness is that it requires the user of the devices
under attack to re-enter the PIN during the attack when
the device prompts them to. Also, this active attack
probably requires custom hardware, since most
commercially available Bluetooth devices are not
capable of the timing necessary.[141]
In August 2005, police in Cambridgeshire, England,
issued warnings about thieves using Bluetooth enabled
phones to track other devices left in cars. Police are
advising users to ensure that any mobile networking
connections are de-activated if laptops and other
devices are left in this way.[142]
2006[edit]
In April 2006, researchers from Secure Network and F-
Secure published a report that warns of the large
number of devices left in a visible state, and issued
statistics on the spread of various Bluetooth services
and the ease of spread of an eventual Bluetooth worm.
[143]

In October 2006, at the Luxemburgish Hack.lu Security

Conference, Kevin Finistere and Thierry Zoller
demonstrated and released a remote root shell via
Bluetooth on Mac OS X v10.3.9 and v10.4. They also
demonstrated the first Bluetooth PIN and Linkkeys
cracker, which is based on the research of Wool and
Shaked.[144]
2017[edit]
In April 2017, security researchers at Armis discovered
multiple exploits in the Bluetooth software in various
platforms, including Microsoft Windows, Linux,
Apple iOS, and Google Android. These vulnerabilities
are collectively called "BlueBorne". The exploits allow
an attacker to connect to devices or systems without
authentication and can give them "virtually full control
over the device". Armis contacted Google, Microsoft,
Apple, Samsung and Linux developers allowing them to
patch their software before the coordinated
announcement of the vulnerabilities on 12 September
2017.[145]
2018[edit]
In July 2018, Lior Neumann and Eli Biham, researchers
at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology
identified a security vulnerability in the latest
Bluetooth pairing procedures: Secure Simple Pairing
and LE Secure Connections.[146][147]
Also, in October 2018, Karim Lounis, a network security
researcher at Queen's University, identified a security
vulnerability, called CDV (Connection Dumping
Vulnerability), on various Bluetooth devices that allows
an attacker to tear down an existing Bluetooth
connection and cause the deauthentication and
disconnection of the involved devices. The researcher
demonstrated the attack on various devices of different
categories and from different manufacturers.[148]
2019[edit]
In August 2019, security researchers at the Singapore
University of Technology and Design, Helmholtz Center
for Information Security, and University of
Oxford discovered a vulnerability, called KNOB (Key
Negotiation Of Bluetooth) in the key negotiation that
would "brute force the negotiated encryption keys,
decrypt the eavesdropped ciphertext, and inject valid
encrypted messages (in real-time)". [149] [150] Google
released an Android security patch on August 5, 2019,
which removed this vulnerability.[151]

Health concerns[edit]
Main article: Wireless electronic devices and health

Bluetooth uses the radio frequency spectrum in the

2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz range,[152] which is non-ionizing
radiation, of similar bandwidth to that used by wireless
and mobile phones. No specific harm has been
demonstrated, even though wireless transmission has
been included by IARC in the possible carcinogen list.
Maximum power output from a Bluetooth radio is
100 mW for class 1, 2.5 mW for class 2, and 1 mW for
class 3 devices. Even the maximum power output of
class 1 is a lower level than the lowest-powered mobile
phones.[153] UMTS and W-CDMA output
250 mW, GSM1800/1900 outputs 1000 mW,
and GSM850/900 outputs 2000 mW.

Award programs[edit]
The Bluetooth Innovation World Cup, a marketing
initiative of the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG),
was an international competition that encouraged the
development of innovations for applications leveraging
Bluetooth technology in sports, fitness and health care
products. The competition aimed to stimulate new
markets.[154]
The Bluetooth Innovation World Cup morphed into the
Bluetooth Breakthrough Awards in 2013. Bluetooth SIG
subsequently launched the Imagine Blue Award in 2016
at Bluetooth World.[155] The Bluetooth Breakthrough
Awards program highlights the most innovative
products and applications available today, prototypes
coming soon, and student-led projects in the making. [156]

See also[edit]

 ANT+
 Bluetooth stack – building blocks that make up the
various implementations of the Bluetooth protocol
 Bluetooth profile – features used within the
Bluetooth stack
 Bluesniping
 BlueSoleil – proprietary Bluetooth driver
 Bluetooth Low Energy
Beacons (AltBeacon, iBeacon, Eddystone)
 Bluetooth Mesh
 Continua Health Alliance
 DASH7
 Headset (audio)
 Hotspot (Wi-Fi)
 Java APIs for Bluetooth
 Key finder
 Li-Fi
 List of Bluetooth protocols
 List of Bluetooth Profiles
 MyriaNed
 Near-field communication
 RuBee – secure wireless protocol alternative
 Tethering
 Thread (network protocol)
 Wi-Fi HaLow
 ZigBee – low-power lightweight wireless protocol in
the ISM band based on IEEE 802.15.4
 Notes

TDMA

1.2 Time division multiple access (TDMA) TDMA creates channels by assigning

users nonoverlapping time slots, and it was used in 2G cellular networks. In a
system with N users, each user can thus use the total bandwidth W, but only a
fraction 1/N of the time.

What Is TDMA and What Does It Do?

What you need to know about this 2G cell phone technology

Definition:

TDMA technology, which stands for Time Division Multiple Access, is a cell phone

standard that has been incorporated into the more advanced GSM standard, which is now the
world’s most widely used cell phone technology.
TDMA appeared in second-generation (2G) cell phone systems such as GSM. Most major
third-generation (3G) cell phone systems were primarily based upon GSM rival CDMA. 3G
allowed for faster data speeds over 2G.
While TDMA and CDMA both achieve the same goal, they do so using different methods.
TDMA technology works by dividing each digital cellular channel into three-time slots for
the purpose of increasing the amount of data carried.
Multiple users, therefore, can share the same frequency channel without causing interference
because the signal is divided into multiple time slots.
While each conversation is transmitted alternately over short lengths of time with TDMA
technology, CDMA separates communications by code so multiple calls can also be routed
into the same channel.
The major cell phone carriers in the U.S. no longer use TDMA. Sprint, Virgin Mobile, and
Verizon Wireless use CDMA while T-Mobile and AT&T use GSM.

Pronunciation:

tee-dee-em-eh

Also Known As:

Time Division Multiple Access

Example:

TDMA technology was incorporated into the more advanced GSM standard.
  How do mobile networks work?

Mobile networks, or cellular networks, are made up of transceiver towers that rely on
various radio frequencies to transmit data between mobile devices. The towers
connect to telephone switches or exchanges, which route the data to the appropriate
device.

 What is FDMA?

FDMA stands for frequency-division multiple access. It's another multiple-access

communications protocol like TDMA. Early cellphones relied on FDMA, and it's still
used today for private mobile radio systems like walkie-talkies.

 What is EDGE?

EDGE stands for Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution. It's a faster version of
GSM, but it can't match the speed of DSL or high-speed cable internet. EDGE
technology was replaced by Evolved EDGE, which is twice as fast as the original
EDGE.

5G is the latest generation of mobile networking technology

following 4G. Much like every generation before it, 5G aims to
make mobile communication faster and more reliable as more and
more devices go online.

Unlike in the past, when mobile networks only needed to support

cell phones that were just for browsing the web and text
messaging, we now have all sorts of bandwidth-demanding
devices like our HD-streaming smartphones, smartwatches with
data plans, always-on security cameras, self-driving and internet-
connected cars, and other promising devices like health sensors
and untethered AR and VR hardware.

As billions more devices connect to the web, the entire

infrastructure needs to accommodate the traffic to not only support
faster connections, but also better handle simultaneous ones and
provide broader coverage for these devices. This is what 5G is all
about.

Don't get 5G mixed with 5GE, which is a marketing term used by

AT&T and is not actually 5G. Similarly, 5G and 5 GHz Wi-Fi are
not the same.
 Shutterstock
How 5G Benefits You

There are many benefits to 5G. Delmond Newton (Founder and

CEO) of Groopview, says the core benefits of 5G come down to
lower latency, increased bandwidth, and higher capacity.

"When you look beyond the obvious; the most beneficial impact of
5G comes down to connectivity," he says. "With stronger and more
reliable network connectivity, people have the ability to
simultaneously experience digital content and communicate
without the disruptions experienced with 4G, such as lagging,
buffering, etc. This new era of network connectivity is creating an
untapped market for technological advances to connect and
communicate, benefitting both users and enterprises."

At a glance, key benefits include:

 Minimal lag when streaming videos and playing games

 Safer cities with smart, interconnected vehicles
 Near-instant access to most files online
 Smaller devices that offload hardware requirements to
remote servers
 New products and applications that require ultrafast speeds
 Reliable internet in remote areas
How Is 5G Different From the Other “Gs”?

5G is simply the next numbered generation following 4G, which

replaced all the older technologies.

 1G introduced analog voice

 2G introduced digital voice
 3G ushered in mobile data
 4G paved the way for widespread mobile internet usage

5G vs 4G: Everything You Need to Know

Where Is 5G Available?

The time frame for 5G service availability depends on

which service providers  are available in your area.

Right now, 5G is available in a relatively small number of locations,

so not just anybody can access those networks. Verizon, AT&T, T-
Mobile, and some smaller companies already provide it to
customers across the United States, but the ultra-high-speed
variety is primarily targeted to heavily populated areas. There are
also carriers that have live 5G networks elsewhere around the
world.

A compatible phone is also an important component of this new

fifth-generation cellular network because not just any phone can
work with the network. There are already quite a few compatible
devices on the market right now, and essentially all new phones
coming out support 5G.

See Where Is 5G Available in the US?  for more information, or 5G

Availability Around the World  if you're not in the US.

5G Challenges: Why It Isn't Rolling Out Faster

Latest 5G News

Internet service providers, mobile network operators, and other

companies are constantly coming out with new 5G trials and other
announcements as networks roll out around the world.

 August 22: Australian operator Optus launches its 5G

Standalone network after a year of testing.
 August 18: German carrier 1&1 completes the first live test
of its 5G network .

5G: The Latest News & Updates

What Is 5G Used For?

This might seem obvious given how ubiquitous smartphones are,

but while phones are definitely a major player in mobile
communication, they certainly aren't the only focus in a 5G
network.

As you’ll see below, the key components are ultrafast connections

and minimal delays. While this is, of course, great for anyone
streaming videos from their phone, it’s more important in scenarios
where minimizing delays are really important, like with the future of
interconnected devices.

One application is augmented reality devices and virtual reality

headsets. These devices require a tremendous amount of
bandwidth and need to communicate over the internet as
quickly as possible to provide their intended effects. Any latency at
all can drastically impact how "real" things feel in those virtual
environments.

The same applies to any other devices that need to respond

quickly, like autonomous cars to avoid sudden collisions and
understand proper turn-by-turn directions, remotely operated
hardware, and robotic systems that learn or abide by remote
controllers.

That said, 5G is still paving the way for smoother connectivity from
our everyday devices, too, like when gaming, making video calls,
streaming movies, downloading files, sharing HD and 4K media,
receiving real-time traffic updates, vlogging, etc.

5G is so fast that it's not just available for mobile devices. It has
the potential to completely replace your high-speed wired
connection via fixed wireless access! See our 5G Internet: The
High-Speed Replacement for Cable  article for more on this.

5G: Here's Everything That's Changing

How Does 5G Work?

Like other wireless communication methods, 5G sends and

receives data in the radio spectrum. However, unlike what we're
used to with 4G, this new network can use higher frequencies
(millimeter waves) on the radio spectrum to achieve ultrafast
speeds.
The downside to this is that these frequencies experience far more
interference from things like trees and buildings, and sometimes
even much smaller objects like a person. This means that
strategically positioned small cell towers are required to push the
network throughout a city.

However, not every mobile network operator works the same way.
Some companies make use of 5G on lower ends of the radio
spectrum so that cell towers can reach broader areas and go
through walls, but the trade-off is relatively slower speeds.

5G Spectrum and Frequencies: Everything You Need to Know

5G Specs: Data Rate and Latency

Everything related to mobile communication is faster, from the

speed at which you can download and upload data to the number
of devices that can connect to the internet at the same time.

A 5G cell, which is what transmits and receives mobile data,

supports speeds of at least 20 Gb/s for downloads and 10 Gb/s
for uploads, with latency as low as 4 ms or more.

However, in most situations, this might translate to real-world

speeds of 100 Mb/s (12.5 MB/s) and 50 Mb/s (6.25 MB/s),
respectively, but could easily fluctuate up or down depending on a
variety of circumstances.

As an example, in an ideal situation with 5G speeds as fast as 1

Gb/s, you could download a 3 GB movie to your phone in 24
seconds, or upload a 1 GB video to YouTube in just eight seconds.

5G Speed: How to Understand the Numbers

5G Supports Lots of Devices

At a minimum, 5G must support 1 million devices for every square

kilometer (0.386 square miles). This means that within that amount
of space, the network is capable of connecting a whopping 1
million or more devices to the internet at the same time.
This type of scenario might seem hard to fathom considering cities
with the highest population density (like Manila Philippines and
Mumbai India) "only" hold anywhere from 70,000 to 110,000
people for every square mile.

However, 5G doesn’t need to support a mere one or two devices

per person but also everyone’s smartwatch, all the vehicles in the
area that might be connected to the internet, smart locks in nearby
houses, wearables, and any other current or to-be-released device
that needs to be on the network.

It's predicted that, globally, there will be 1.4 billion connections on

5G networks by the end of 2023.

5G cells can communicate with all sorts of devices, like ones used
by a stationary person who isn’t moving to someone in a high-
speed vehicle like a train, who’s traveling up to 500 kmh (310
mph).

Different areas require a different mobile base station to

accommodate for varying speeds. For example, a small city that
only has users traveling by car and foot might not have the same
base stations that a larger city with a high-speed public transport
system might.

What are Private 5G Networks?

More Information on 5G

5G and other mobile broadband standards are set by the 3rd

Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). 3GPP Release 16 was
completed in 2020, Release 17 is expected to be finalized by mid-
2022, and Release 18 will follow. See their release timelines  for
more information.

For a much more technical reading of the 5G specs, see this

Microsoft Word document  from the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU).

Once 5G is widely available, it's possible that it will be the last

major advancement in mobile networking. Instead of a 6G or 7G
later on, we might simply stick with 5G but get incremental
improvements over time.

How to Fix It When a 5G Network Doesn't Show Up

It's easy to confuse 5G with 5 GHz Wi-Fi, but the two are not the
same. The former is a mobile networking technology, while the
latter is a frequency band used in some Wi-Fi routers.

How to Fix It When a 5 GHz Network Isn't Working

FAQ

 How are 5G and 4G towers different?

5G network towers are smaller than 4G towers, and you need

several 5G towers to cover one area. 5G towers typically just
look like a small box on a pole.

 What are the internet speed requirement for watching

Netflix?

The internet speed recommendations for video streaming  are

5 Mbps for high definition and 25 Mbps for 4K. If you're
connected to a 5G network, you will have no problem
streaming videos, but it consumes a lot of mobile data. Most
streaming services automatically adjust the video quality to
your internet speed.

 What is a good internet speed?

Your recommended upload and download speed  depends on

what you need to do on the internet. A download speed of at
least 25 Mbps is ideal for streaming movies and playing
online games. Your router and modem must also be fast
enough to handle your internet plan.

GSM vs. EDGE vs. CDMA vs. TDMA

These standards are the reason some phones can't switch networks

The type of technology a wireless carrier uses

(GSM, EDGE, CDMA, or TDMA) matters when you buy or sell a
cellphone. While selecting the right mobile phone service plan at
your carrier of choice  is important, so is choosing the right carrier
in the first place. We examined the different technologies wireless
carriers use to help you tell the difference.

Not all of the protocols in this article are still in use.

Overall Findings
GSM EDGE CDMA TDMA

Information stored on SIM cards. Based on GSM. May use SIM cards. 2G system.

Switching phones means only Three times Provider stores information. Predates
switching cards. faster than GSM. GSM.

Most widely used, especially Used by AT&T Can't change phones without No longer in
internationally. and T-Mobile. provider approval. use.

Switch SIM cards to use phone in other Used by Sprint, Virgin Mobile,
countries without roaming. and Verizon Wireless.

For years, the two major mobile phone technologies, CDMA and
GSM, have been incompatible competitors. This incompatibility is
the reason many AT&T phones don't work with Verizon service
and vice versa.

EDGE is a faster version of GSM, and TDMA is effectively

obsolete. Therefore, TDMA is not a viable choice anymore. It
effectively comes down to GSM and CDMA, with GSM beating out
CDMA for user- and consumer-friendliness.
Speed: EDGE Has the Advantage
GSM EDGE CDMA TDMA

3G network. Three times faster than GSM.3G network. 2G system.

Max speed of about 7.2 Mbps. Only about 1 Mbps.No longer available.

Average speed of 2.11 Mbps.

Both GSM and CDMA are 3G networks, but between the two,
GSM is the faster option. CDMA shows an effective download
speed of about 1 megabit per second, while GSM claims speeds of
up to 7 Mbps. Testing has put the practical speed of GSM closer to
2.11 Mbps, which is twice as fast as CDMA.

EDGE is three times faster than GSM and is built upon that
standard. It is designed to accommodate streaming media on
mobile devices. AT&T and T-Mobile have EDGE networks.
User-Friendliness: GSM Is Easiest to Transfer
GSM EDGE CDMA TDMA

Uses SIM cards to store user data. Works similarly Doesn't use SIM cards. Unavailable.
to GSM.

Transferring to a new phone means Carrier must release or transfer

only swapping the SIM card. user data to a new phone.

Better for international use.

GSM network providers put customer information on a

removable SIM card. This approach makes it easy to switch
phones. Just take the SIM card out of the old phone and insert it
into the new one. GSM technology is widespread in Europe.
Combine that with a phone with a removable SIM, and you have a
phone you can use on overseas visits with a SIM change.

CDMA phones may or may not have SIM cards. User information
is stored with the service provider, which must give its permission
to switch phones. CDMA phones must be programmed with every
carrier you use. When you switch carriers, the phone must be
reprogrammed for that carrier, even if it's an unlocked phone.
Providers: Look for Your Favorites
GSM EDGE CDMA TDMA

Providers include T-Mobile Same as Providers include Sprint, Virgin Mobile, Incorporated into
and AT&T. GSM. and Verizon Wireless. GSM.

More popular
internationally.

GSM is the world's most widely used cellphone technology,

popular in both the U.S. and internationally. Cellphone carriers T-
Mobile and AT&T, along with many smaller cellular providers, use
GSM for their networks.

GSM is the most popular cellular technology in the U.S., and it is

bigger in other countries. China, Russia, and India have more
GSM phone users than the U.S. It's common for GSM networks to
have roaming arrangements with foreign countries, which means
GSM phones are good choices for overseas travelers.
EDGE is an evolution of GSM, so it has the same availability as
that older standard.

CDMA competes with GSM. Sprint, Virgin Mobile, and Verizon

Wireless use the CDMA technology standard in the U.S, as do
other smaller cellular providers.

Since 2015, all U.S. carriers are required to unlock customer's

phones after they fulfill their contracts. Even if you unlock your
phone or to buy a new unlocked phone, it is either a GSM or
CDMA phone, and you can only use it with compatible service
providers. However, having an unlocked phone gives you a wider
range of service providers to choose from. You aren't limited to
only one.

TDMA, which predates the more advanced GSM technology

standard, has been incorporated into GSM. TDMA, which was a
2G system, is no longer in use by the major U.S. cellphone service
carriers.
Final Verdict

The quality of the phone service has nothing to do with the

technology the provider uses. Quality depends on the network and
how the provider structures it. There are both good and not-so-
good networks with GSM and CDMA technology. You are more
likely to run into quality concerns with smaller networks than with
the big ones.

FAQ

 Can you use a GSM phone on Verizon's network?

Most modern phones are designed to work on both GSM and

CDMA networks, which means they're compatible with any
major cell phone carrier. But, you can only switch carriers if
the phone is unlocked. You can check if your specific phone
model is compatible with Verizon's network using its IMEI.

 Is Verizon still using CDMA?

 Verizon plans to decommission its 3G CDMA network on
December 31, 2022. Leading up to the shutoff date, 3G
customers might experience outages or spottier service, and
Verizon says its customer support can only offer "extremely
limited" troubleshooting for older devices.

 How can you tell if a phone is GSM or CDMA?

On Android, go to Settings > About Phone. Your phone

uses CDMA if you see a MEID number or ESN, and it uses
GSM if you see an IMEI number. On iOS, go
to Settings > General > About to find this information.

How Flexible Chips Could Change

Computing
Key Takeaways

 A new type of flexible microchip could be cheap enough to transform everyday items. 
 Arm’s new chip, PlasticArm, could be placed on milk bottles to ensure the contents aren’t
spoiled. 
 Future generations of smaller, faster chips even could power artificial intelligence that works
without an internet connection.
 sinology / Getty Images

Microchips might soon be so cheap and flexible that they could be printed onto milk bottles. 

Chip manufacturer Arm has unveiled a new prototype plastic-based microchip. Arm says this
will create a new "internet of everything," with chips integrated into many kinds of objects.
It’s the latest in a series of recent advances in chip technology that could transform personal
electronics. 

"Many of today's wearables and implantables face severe battery life and size issues that
prevent breakthroughs in applications such as AR glasses, AR contacts, and neural-computer
interfaces," Wood Chiang, a professor of electrical and computer engineering at Brigham
Young University who studies chip design, told Lifewire in an email interview.

"For example, making a Zoom call on your smart glasses or having GPS maps appear
overlayed on top of your vision."

Cheaper Chips

Arm’s new chip, PlasticArm, is made of "metal-oxide thin-film transistor technology on a

flexible substrate," instead of the silicon used in traditional processors. The chip is low-
powered, but it’s inexpensive enough to go where others can’t. 

"The potential for this technology is beyond significant," Arm said in a news release.
"PlasticArm is bringing the possibility of seamlessly embedding billions of extremely low-
cost, ultra-thin, conformable microprocessors into everyday objects–a significant leap
forward in realizing the Internet of Things."

Arm and flexible electronics developer PragmatIC said PlasticArm is "an ultra-minimalist
Cortex-M0-based SoC, with just 128 bytes of RAM and 456 bytes of ROM," which means
it's much less powerful than silicon-based chips. However, it’s "12 times more complex than
the previous state-of-the-art flexible electronics." The chip could be placed on milk bottles,
for example, to make sure the contents aren’t spoiled. 

But not all observers agree that flexible chips will make it to market. The Arm chips are still
in the research phase, and the company hasn’t said when they could go into production.

"People have been investigating flexible electronics for decades with few actual products
other than foldable phones (even that is a niche product)," Chiang said. "As CMOS circuits
get smaller and better, it's not clear if flexible electronics will find good applications to take
off."

This means better interfaces in vehicles, more depth using smart home software,
and better visuals for movies or games.

ARM isn't the only manufacturer working to make less expensive chips. South Korea’s
Samsung and Taiwan’s TSMC plan to introduce the first 3-nanometer chips next year. Both
companies last year introduced 5-nanometer chips, which are used in some recently launched
consumer devices. 
"Three-nanometer chips increase transistor density by about a third compared to five-
nanometer chips," Nir Kshetri, a professor who studies chip manufacturing at the University
of North Carolina at Greensboro, told Lifewire in an email interview. "Higher transistor
density means smaller devices for a given level of performance, less costly, and more
powerful."

Personal Tech Will Benefit From New Chips

New chips like the 3-millimeter designs from Samsung will make personal technology faster
and energy-efficient, Mark Granahan, the CEO of chip design company iDEAL
Semiconductor told Lifewire in an email interview. 

"It will help bring larger computing power to devices, which can take shape in all forms from
making calculations to showing more brilliant visuals to support VR headsets," he said.

"It’s the real engine of the machine, so an upgrade here means an upgrade everywhere. This
spans more than simply phones or personal devices—this means better interfaces in vehicles,
more depth using smart home software, and better visuals for movies or games."
 Yellow Dog Productions / Getty Images

Chiang said he doesn't think innovations in chips will slow down.

"Microchip technology continues to get smaller and better each year despite naysayers for the
last 30 years," he added. "We have moved from building transistors on a 2D plane to a 2.5D
structure in today's latest processes. It is a matter of time before we figure out how to build
3D transistors. I don't see Moore's Law running out of steam anytime soon."

Future generations of smaller, faster chips could even power artificial intelligence that works
without an internet connection, Chiang said. 

"AI will write novels, create music, and draw animation films for people," he added. "There
might even be AI stars and TV personalities. The line between virtual and reality will blur to
a point where people can't tell if they are talking to or watching an AI or a human."

Was this page helpful?