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Material and waveguide dispersion

Material dispersion in optics

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In optics and lens design, the Abbe number, also known as the V-number or constringence of a
transparent material, is an approximate measure of the material's dispersion (change of refractive
index versus wavelength), with high values of V indicating low dispersion. It is named after Ernst
Abbe (1840–1905), the German physicist who defined it. The term V-number should not be confused
with the normalized frequency in fibers.

Refractive index variation for SF11 flint glass, BK7 borosilicate crown glass, and fused quartz, and
calculation for two Abbe numbers for SF11.

The Abbe number,[1] Vd, of a material is defined as

,
{\displaystyle V_{D}={\frac {n_{d}-1}{n_{F}-n_{C}}},}

where nC, nd and nF are the refractive indices of the material at the wavelengths of the Fraunhofer
C, d, and F spectral lines (656.3 nm, 587.56 nm, and 486.1 nm respectively). This formulation only
applies to the visible spectrum. Outside this range requires the use of different spectral lines. For
non-visible spectral lines the term V-number is more commonly used. The more general formulation
defined as,

center

short

long

{\displaystyle V={\frac {n_{\text{center}}-1}{n_{\text{short}}-n_{\text{long}}}},}

where nshort, ncenter and nlong are the refractive indices of the material at three different
wavelengths. The shortest wavelength index is nshort and the longest is nlong.

Abbe numbers are used to classify glass and other optical materials in terms of their chromaticity.
For example, the higher dispersion flint glasses have V < 55 whereas the lower dispersion crown
glasses have larger Abbe numbers. Values of V range from below 25 for very dense flint glasses,
around 34 for polycarbonate plastics, up to 65 for common crown glasses, and 75 to 85 for some
fluorite and phosphate crown glasses.

Most of the human eye's wavelength sensitivity curve, shown here, is bracketed by the Abbe
number reference wavelengths of 486.1 nm (blue) and 656.3 nm (red)

Abbe numbers are used in the design of achromatic lenses, as their reciprocal is proportional to
dispersion (slope of refractive index versus wavelength) in the wavelength region where the human
eye is most sensitive (see graph). For different wavelength regions, or for higher precision in
characterizing a system's chromaticity (such as in the design of apochromats), the full dispersion
relation (refractive index as a function of wavelength) is used.

Abbe diagram

An Abbe diagram, also known as 'the glass veil', plots the Abbe number against refractive index for a
range of different glasses (red dots). Glasses are classified using the Schott Glass letter-number code
to reflect their composition and position on the diagram.

Influences of selected glass component additions on the Abbe number of a specific base glass.[2]

An Abbe diagram, also called 'the glass veil', is produced by plotting the Abbe number Vd of a
material versus its refractive index nd. Glasses can then be categorised and selected according to
their positions on the diagram. This can be a letter-number code, as used in the Schott Glass
catalogue, or a 6-digit glass code.

Glasses' Abbe numbers, along with their mean refractive indices, are used in the calculation of the
required refractive powers of the elements of achromatic lenses in order to cancel chromatic
aberration to first order. Note that these two parameters which enter into the equations for design
of achromatic doublets are exactly what is plotted on an Abbe diagram.

Due to the difficulty and inconvenience in producing sodium and hydrogen lines, alternate
definitions of the Abbe number are often substituted (ISO 7944).[3] Rather than the standard
definition, above, using the refractive index variation between the F and C hydrogen lines, an
alternative measure using the subscript "e"

′
−

V_{e}={\frac {n_{e}-1}{n_{F'}-n_{C'}}}

takes the difference between the refractive indices of the blue and red cadmium lines at 480.0 nm
and 643.8 nm (with ne referring to the wavelength of the mercury e-line, 546.073 nm). Other
definitions can similarly be employed; the following table lists standard wavelengths at which n is
commonly determined, including the standard subscripts employed.[4]

λ in nm Fraunhofer's symbol Light source Color

365.01 i Hg UV-A

404.66 h Hg violet

435.84 g Hg blue

479.99 F' Cd blue

486.13 F H blue

546.07 e Hg green

587.56 d He yellow

589.3 D Na yellow

643.85 C' Cd red

656.27 C H red

706.52 r He red

768.2 A' K IR-A

852.11 s Cs IR-A

1013.98 t Hg IR-A

Derivation

Starting from the Lensmaker's equation for a thin lens[citation needed]

�
=

−
1

{\displaystyle P={\frac {1}{f}}=(n-1)\left[{\frac {1}{R_{1}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}+{\frac {(n-1)d}

{nR_{1}R_{2}}}\right]\approx (n-1)\left({\frac {1}{R_{1}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}\right)}

The change of refractive power P between the two wavelengths λshort and λlong is given by

short

long

)
(

{\displaystyle \delta P=P_{\text{short}}-P_{\text{long}}=(n_{s}-n_{l})\left({\frac {1}{R_{1}}}-{\frac {1}

{R_{2}}}\right)}

This is expressed in terms of the power Pc at λcenter by multiplying and dividing by

{\displaystyle n_{c}-1}

(
�

�
{\displaystyle \delta P={\frac {n_{s}-n_{l}}{n_{c}-1}}(n_{c}-1)\left({\frac {1}{R_{1}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}\
right)={\frac {n_{s}-n_{l}}{n_{c}-1}}P_{c}={\frac {P_{c}}{V}}}

The relative change is inversely proportional to V

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In many-body physics, the problem of analytic continuation is that of numerically extracting the
spectral density of a Green function given its values on the imaginary axis. It is a necessary post-
processing step for calculating dynamical properties of physical systems from quantum Monte Carlo
simulations, which often compute Green function values only at imaginary-times or Matsubara
frequencies.

Mathematically, the problem reduces to solving a Fredholm integral equation of the first kind with
an ill-conditioned kernel. As a result, it is an ill-posed inverse problem with no unique solution and
where a small noise on the input leads to large errors in the unregularized solution. There are
different methods for solving this problem including the maximum entropy method,[1][2][3][4] the
average spectrum method[5][6][7][8] and Pade approximation methods.[9][10]

Examples

A common analytic continuation problem is obtaining the spectral function

{\textstyle A(\omega )} at real frequencies

�{\textstyle \omega } from the Green function values

{\textstyle {\mathcal {G}}(i\omega _{n})} at Matsubara frequencies

{\textstyle \omega _{n}} by numerically inverting the integral equation

(
�

{\displaystyle {\mathcal {G}}(i\omega _{n})=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {d\omega }{2\pi }}{\frac {1}
{i\omega _{n}-\omega }}\;A(\omega )}

where

(
2

�{\textstyle \omega _{n}=(2n+1)\pi /\beta } for fermionic systems or

�{\textstyle \omega _{n}=2n\pi /\beta } for bosonic ones and

{\textstyle \beta =1/T} is the inverse temperature. This relation is an example of Kramers-Kronig
relation.

The spectral function can also be related to the imaginary-time Green function

{\textstyle {\mathcal {G}}(\tau )} be applying the inverse Fourier transform to the above equation
�

�
�

�{\displaystyle {\mathcal {G}}(\tau )\ \colon ={\frac {1}{\beta }}\sum _{\omega _{n}}e^{-i\omega

_{n}\tau }{\mathcal {g}}(i\omega _{n})=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {d\omega }{2\pi }}A(\omega ){\
frac {1}{\beta }}\sum _{\omega _{n}}{\frac {e^{-i\omega _{n}\tau }}{i\omega _{n}-\omega }}}

with

�
∈

,
�

{\textstyle \tau \in [0,\beta ]}. Evaluating the summation over Matsubara frequencies gives the
desired relation

(
�

{\displaystyle {\mathcal {G}}(\tau )=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {d\omega }{2\pi }}{\frac {-e^{-\tau \
omega }}{1\pm e^{-\beta \omega }}}A(\omega )}

where the upper sign is for fermionic systems and the lower sign is for bosonic ones.

Another example of the analytic continuation is calculating the optical conductivity

{\displaystyle \sigma (\omega )} from the current-current correlation function values

{\displaystyle \Pi (i\omega _{n})} at Matsubara frequencies. The two are related as following

0
∞

{\displaystyle \Pi (i\omega _{n})=\int _{0}^{\infty }{\frac {d\omega }{\pi }}{\frac {2\omega ^{2}}{\
omega _{n}^{2}+\omega ^{2}}}\;A(\omega )}

Software

The Maxent Project: Open source utility for performing analytic continuation using the maximum
entropy method.

Spektra: Free online tool for performing analytic continuation using the average spectrum Method.

SpM: Sparse modeling tool for analytic continuation of imaginary-time Green’s function.

See also

Analytic continuation

Analytic continuation along a curve

Green's function

Kramers–Kronig relations

Quantum Monte Carlo

Fredholm integral equation

References

Silver, R. N.; Sivia, D. S.; Gubernatis, J. E. (1990-02-01). "Maximum-entropy method for analytic
continuation of quantum Monte Carlo data". Physical Review B. 41 (4): 2380–2389.
Bibcode:1990PhRvB..41.2380S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.41.2380. PMID 9993975.

Jarrell, Mark; Gubernatis, J. E. (1996-05-01). "Bayesian inference and the analytic continuation of
imaginary-time quantum Monte Carlo data". Physics Reports. 269 (3): 133–195.
Bibcode:1996PhR...269..133J. doi:10.1016/0370-1573(95)00074-7. ISSN 0370-1573.

Reymbaut, A.; Bergeron, D.; Tremblay, A.-M. S. (2015-08-27). "Maximum entropy analytic
continuation for spectral functions with nonpositive spectral weight". Physical Review B. 92 (6):
060509. arXiv:1507.01956. Bibcode:2015PhRvB..92f0509R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.92.060509. S2CID
56385057.

Burnier, Yannis; Rothkopf, Alexander (2013-10-31). "Bayesian Approach to Spectral Function

Reconstruction for Euclidean Quantum Field Theories". Physical Review Letters. 111 (18): 182003.
arXiv:1307.6106. Bibcode:2013PhRvL.111r2003B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.182003. PMID
24237510.

White, S. R. (1991). Landau, David P.; Mon, K. K.; Schüttler, Heinz-Bernd (eds.). "The Average
Spectrum Method for the Analytic Continuation of Imaginary-Time Data". Computer Simulation
Studies in Condensed Matter Physics III. Springer Proceedings in Physics. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.
53: 145–153. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-76382-3_13. ISBN 978-3-642-76382-3.

Sandvik, Anders W. (1998-05-01). "Stochastic method for analytic continuation of quantum Monte
Carlo data". Physical Review B. 57 (17): 10287–10290. Bibcode:1998PhRvB..5710287S.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.57.10287.

Ghanem, Khaldoon; Koch, Erik (2020-02-10). "Average spectrum method for analytic continuation:
Efficient blocked-mode sampling and dependence on the discretization grid". Physical Review B. 101
(8): 085111. arXiv:1912.01379. Bibcode:2020PhRvB.101h5111G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.101.085111.
S2CID 208548627.

Ghanem, Khaldoon; Koch, Erik (2020-07-06). "Extending the average spectrum method: Grid point
sampling and density averaging". Physical Review B. 102 (3): 035114. arXiv:2004.01155.
Bibcode:2020PhRvB.102c5114G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.102.035114. S2CID 214775183.

Beach, K. S. D.; Gooding, R. J.; Marsiglio, F. (2000-02-15). "Reliable Pad\'e analytical continuation
method based on a high-accuracy symbolic computation algorithm". Physical Review B. 61 (8): 5147–
5157. arXiv:cond-mat/9908477. Bibcode:2000PhRvB..61.5147B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.61.5147.
S2CID 17880539.

Östlin, A.; Chioncel, L.; Vitos, L. (2012-12-06). "One-particle spectral function and analytic
continuation for many-body implementation in the exact muffin-tin orbitals method". Physical
Review B. 86 (23): 235107. arXiv:1209.5283. Bibcode:2012PhRvB..86w5107O.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.86.235107. S2CID 8434964.

Categories: Mathematical physicsQuantum Monte Carlo

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{\displaystyle {\frac {\delta P}{P_{c}}}={\frac {1}{V}}}

See also

Abbe prism

Abbe refractometer

Calculation of glass properties, including Abbe number

Glass code

Sellmeier equation, more comprehensive and physically based modeling of dispersion

References

The Properties of Optical Glass. Schott Series on Glass and Glass Ceramics. 1998. doi:10.1007/978-3-
642-57769-7. ISBN 978-3-642-63349-2.

Alexander Fluegel (2007-12-07). "Abbe number calculation of glasses". Statistical Calculation and
Development of Glass Properties. Retrieved 2022-01-16.

Meister, Darryl. "Understanding Reference Wavelengths" (PDF). Carl Zeiss Vision. Archived (PDF)
from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2013-03-13.

L. D. Pye, V. D. Frechette, N. J. Kreidl: "Borate Glasses"; Plenum Press, New York, 1977

External links

Abbe graph and data for 356 glasses from Ohara, Hoya, and Schott

Categories: Dimensionless numbersOpticsGlass physics

This page was last edited on 13 February 2023, at 07:37 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms
may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a
registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

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statementWikimedia FoundationPowered by MediaWikiToggle limited content width up velocity
dispersion

Dispersion control

In waveguides

Higher-order dispersion over broad bandwidths

Generalized formulation of the high orders of dispersion – Lah-Laguerre optics

Spatial dispersion

In gemology

In imaging

Pulsar emissions

See also

References

External links

Dispersion (optics)

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about dispersion of waves in optics. For other uses, see Dispersion (disambiguation).

In a dispersive prism, material dispersion (a wavelength-dependent refractive index) causes different

colors to refract at different angles, splitting white light into a spectrum.

A compact fluorescent lamp seen through an Amici prism

In optics and in wave propagation in general, dispersion is the phenomenon in which the phase
velocity of a wave depends on its frequency;[1] sometimes the term chromatic dispersion is used for
specificity to optics in particular. A medium having this common property may be termed a
dispersive medium (plural dispersive media).

Although the term is used in the field of optics to describe light and other electromagnetic waves,
dispersion in the same sense can apply to any sort of wave motion such as acoustic dispersion in the
case of sound and seismic waves, and in gravity waves (ocean waves). Within optics, dispersion is a
property of telecommunication signals along transmission lines (such as microwaves in coaxial cable)
or the pulses of light in optical fiber. Physically, dispersion translates in a loss of kinetic energy
through absorption.
In optics, one important and familiar consequence of dispersion is the change in the angle of
refraction of different colors of light,[2] as seen in the spectrum produced by a dispersive prism and
in chromatic aberration of lenses. Design of compound achromatic lenses, in which chromatic
aberration is largely cancelled, uses a quantification of a glass's dispersion given by its Abbe number
V, where lower Abbe numbers correspond to greater dispersion over the visible spectrum. In some
applications such as telecommunications, the absolute phase of a wave is often not important but
only the propagation of wave packets or "pulses"; in that case one is interested only in variations of
group velocity with frequency, so-called group-velocity dispersion.

All common transmission media also vary in attenuation (normalized to transmission length) as a
function of frequency, leading to attenuation distortion; this is not dispersion, although sometimes
reflections at closely spaced impedance boundaries (e.g. crimped segments in a cable) can produce
signal distortion with further aggravates inconsistent transit time as observed across signal
bandwidth.

Examples

The most familiar example of dispersion is probably a rainbow, in which dispersion causes the spatial
separation of a white light into components of different wavelengths (different colors). However,
dispersion also has an effect in many other circumstances: for example, group velocity dispersion
causes pulses to spread in optical fibers, degrading signals over long distances; also, a cancellation
between group-velocity dispersion and nonlinear effects leads to soliton waves.

Material and waveguide dispersion

Most often, chromatic dispersion refers to bulk material dispersion, that is, the change in refractive
index with optical frequency. However, in a waveguide there is also the phenomenon of waveguide
dispersion, in which case a wave's phase velocity in a structure depends on its frequency simply due
to the structure's geometry. More generally, "waveguide" dispersion can occur for waves
propagating through any inhomogeneous structure (e.g., a photonic crystal), whether or not the
waves are confined to some region.[dubious – discuss] In a waveguide, both types of dispersion will
generally be present, although they are not strictly additive.[citation needed] For example, in fiber
optics the material and waveguide dispersion can effectively cancel each other out to produce a
zero-dispersion wavelength, important for fast fiber-optic communication.

Material dispersion in optics

The variation of refractive index vs. vacuum wavelength for various glasses. The wavelengths of
visible light are shaded in grey.

Influences of selected glass component additions on the mean dispersion of a specific base glass (nF
valid for λ = 486 nm (blue), nC valid for λ = 656 nm (red))[3]
Material dispersion can be a desirable or undesirable effect in optical applications. The dispersion of
light by glass prisms is used to construct spectrometers and spectroradiometers. However, in lenses,
dispersion causes chromatic aberration, an undesired effect that may degrade images in
microscopes, telescopes, and photographic objectives.

The phase velocity, v, of a wave in a given uniform medium is given by

v={\frac {c}{n}}

where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and n is the refractive index of the medium.

In general, the refractive index is some function of the frequency f of the light, thus n = n(f), or
alternatively, with respect to the wave's wavelength n = n(λ). The wavelength dependence of a
material's refractive index is usually quantified by its Abbe number or its coefficients in an empirical
formula such as the Cauchy or Sellmeier equations.

Because of the Kramers–Kronig relations, the wavelength dependence of the real part of the
refractive index is related to the material absorption, described by the imaginary part of the
refractive index (also called the extinction coefficient). In particular, for non-magnetic materials (μ =
μ0), the susceptibility χ that appears in the Kramers–Kronig relations is the electric susceptibility χe =
n2 − 1.

The most commonly seen consequence of dispersion in optics is the separation of white light into a
color spectrum by a prism. From Snell's law it can be seen that the angle of refraction of light in a
prism depends on the refractive index of the prism material. Since that refractive index varies with
wavelength, it follows that the angle that the light is refracted by will also vary with wavelength,
causing an angular separation of the colors known as angular dispersion.

For visible light, refraction indices n of most transparent materials (e.g., air, glasses) decrease with
increasing wavelength λ:

<
�

<

<

1<n(\lambda _{\rm {red}})<n(\lambda _{\rm {yellow}})<n(\lambda _{\rm {blue}})\ ,

or alternatively:
�

<

0.

{\displaystyle {\frac {dn}{d\lambda }}<0.}

In this case, the medium is said to have normal dispersion. Whereas, if the index increases with
increasing wavelength (which is typically the case in the ultraviolet[4]), the medium is said to have
anomalous dispersion.

At the interface of such a material with air or vacuum (index of ~1), Snell's law predicts that light
incident at an angle θ to the normal will be refracted at an angle arcsin(

sin θ

). Thus, blue light, with a higher refractive index, will be bent more strongly than red light, resulting
in the well-known rainbow pattern.

Group velocity dispersion

Time evolution of a short pulse in a hypothetical dispersive medium (k=w^2) showing that the longer
wavelength components travel faster than the shorter wavelengths (positive GVD), resulting in
chirping and pulse broadening.

Beyond simply describing a change in the phase velocity over wavelength, a more serious
consequence of dispersion in many applications is termed group velocity dispersion (GVD). While
phase velocity v is defined as v =

, this describes only one frequency component. When different frequency components are
combined, as when considering a signal or a pulse, one is often more interested in the group velocity
which describes the speed at which a pulse or information superimposed on a wave (modulation)
propagates. In the accompanying animation, it can be seen that the wave itself (orange-brown)
travels at a phase velocity which is much faster than the speed of the envelope (black) which
corresponds to the group velocity. This pulse might be a communications signal, for instance, and its
information only travels at the group velocity rate even though it consists of wavefronts advancing
at a faster rate (the phase velocity).

It is possible to calculate the group velocity from the refractive index curve n(ω) or more directly
from the wavenumber k = ωn/c where ω is the radian frequency ω=2πf. Whereas one expression for
the phase velocity is vp=ω/k, the group velocity can be expressed using the derivative: vg=dω/dk. Or
in terms of the phase velocity vp,

{\displaystyle {v_{g}}={\frac {v_{p}}{1-{\frac {\omega }{v_{p}}}{\frac {dv_{p}}{d\omega }}}}.}

When dispersion is present, not only will the group velocity not be equal to the phase velocity, but
generally will itself vary with wavelength. This is known as group velocity dispersion and causes a
short pulse of light to be broadened, as the different frequency components within the pulse travel
at different velocities. Group velocity dispersion is quantified as the derivative of the reciprocal of
the group velocity with respect to radian frequency which results in group velocity dispersion =

d2k

dω2
.

If a light pulse is propagated through a material with positive group-velocity dispersion, then the
shorter wavelength components travel slower than the longer wavelength components. The pulse
therefore becomes positively chirped, or up-chirped, increasing in frequency with time. On the other
hand, if a pulse travels through a material with negative group-velocity dispersion, shorter
wavelength components travel faster than the longer ones, and the pulse becomes negatively
chirped, or down-chirped, decreasing in frequency with time.

An everyday example of a negatively chirped signal in the acoustic domain is that of an approaching
train hitting deformities on a welded track. The sound caused by the train itself is impulsive, and
travels much faster in the metal tracks than in air, so that the train can be heard well before it
arrives. However from afar it isn't heard as causing impulses, but leads to a distinctive descending
chirp, amidst reverberation caused by the complexity of the vibrational modes of the track. Group
velocity dispersion can be heard in that the volume of the sounds stays audible for a surprisingly
long time, up to several seconds.

The group velocity dispersion parameter:

{\displaystyle D={\frac {1}{c}}\,{\frac {dn}{d\lambda }}.}

is often used to quantify GVD, that is proportional to D through a negative factor:

2
�

{\displaystyle D=-{\frac {2\pi c}{\lambda ^{2}}}\,{\frac {d^{2}k}{d\omega ^{2}}}.}

According to some authors a medium is said to have normal dispersion/anomalous dispersion for a
certain vacuum wavelength λ0 if the second derivative of the refraction index calculated in λ0 is
positive/negative or, equivalently, if D(λ0) is negative/positive.[5] This definition concerns group
velocity dispersion and should not be confused with the one given in previous section. The two
definitions do not coincide in general, so the reader has to understand the context.

Dispersion control

The result of GVD, whether negative or positive, is ultimately temporal spreading of the pulse. This
makes dispersion management extremely important in optical communications systems based on
optical fiber, since if dispersion is too high, a group of pulses representing a bit-stream will spread in
time and merge, rendering the bit-stream unintelligible. This limits the length of fiber that a signal
can be sent down without regeneration. One possible answer to this problem is to send signals down
the optical fibre at a wavelength where the GVD is zero (e.g., around 1.3–1.5 μm in silica fibres), so
pulses at this wavelength suffer minimal spreading from dispersion. In practice, however, this
approach causes more problems than it solves because zero GVD unacceptably amplifies other
nonlinear effects (such as four wave mixing). Another possible option is to use soliton pulses in the
regime of negative dispersion, a form of optical pulse which uses a nonlinear optical effect to self-
maintain its shape. Solitons have the practical problem, however, that they require a certain power
level to be maintained in the pulse for the nonlinear effect to be of the correct strength. Instead, the
solution that is currently used in practice is to perform dispersion compensation, typically by
matching the fiber with another fiber of opposite-sign dispersion so that the dispersion effects
cancel; such compensation is ultimately limited by nonlinear effects such as self-phase modulation,
which interact with dispersion to make it very difficult to undo.

Dispersion control is also important in lasers that produce short pulses. The overall dispersion of the
optical resonator is a major factor in determining the duration of the pulses emitted by the laser. A
pair of prisms can be arranged to produce net negative dispersion, which can be used to balance the
usually positive dispersion of the laser medium. Diffraction gratings can also be used to produce
dispersive effects; these are often used in high-power laser amplifier systems. Recently, an
alternative to prisms and gratings has been developed: chirped mirrors. These dielectric mirrors are
coated so that different wavelengths have different penetration lengths, and therefore different
group delays. The coating layers can be tailored to achieve a net negative dispersion.

In waveguides

Waveguides are highly dispersive due to their geometry (rather than just to their material
composition). Optical fibers are a sort of waveguide for optical frequencies (light) widely used in
modern telecommunications systems. The rate at which data can be transported on a single fiber is
limited by pulse broadening due to chromatic dispersion among other phenomena.

In general, for a waveguide mode with an angular frequency ω(β) at a propagation constant β (so
that the electromagnetic fields in the propagation direction z oscillate proportional to ei(βz−ωt)), the
group-velocity dispersion parameter D is defined as:[6]

�
�

�D=-{\frac {2\pi c}{\lambda ^{2}}}{\frac {d^{2}\beta }{d\omega ^{2}}}={\frac {2\pi c}{v_{g}^{2}\

lambda ^{2}}}{\frac {dv_{g}}{d\omega }}

where λ =

2πc

is the vacuum wavelength and vg =

dω

dβ

is the group velocity. This formula generalizes the one in the previous section for homogeneous
media, and includes both waveguide dispersion and material dispersion. The reason for defining the
dispersion in this way is that |D| is the (asymptotic) temporal pulse spreading Δt per unit bandwidth
Δλ per unit distance travelled, commonly reported in ps/nm/km for optical fibers.

In the case of multi-mode optical fibers, so-called modal dispersion will also lead to pulse
broadening. Even in single-mode fibers, pulse broadening can occur as a result of polarization mode
dispersion (since there are still two polarization modes). These are not examples of chromatic
dispersion as they are not dependent on the wavelength or bandwidth of the pulses propagated.

Higher-order dispersion over broad bandwidths

When a broad range of frequencies (a broad bandwidth) is present in a single wavepacket, such as in
an ultrashort pulse or a chirped pulse or other forms of spread spectrum transmission, it may not be
accurate to approximate the dispersion by a constant over the entire bandwidth, and more complex
calculations are required to compute effects such as pulse spreading.
In particular, the dispersion parameter D defined above is obtained from only one derivative of the
group velocity. Higher derivatives are known as higher-order dispersion.[7][8] These terms are
simply a Taylor series expansion of the dispersion relation β(ω) of the medium or waveguide around
some particular frequency. Their effects can be computed via numerical evaluation of Fourier
transforms of the waveform, via integration of higher-order slowly varying envelope approximations,
by a split-step method (which can use the exact dispersion relation rather than a Taylor series), or by
direct simulation of the full Maxwell's equations rather than an approximate envelope equation.

Generalized formulation of the high orders of dispersion – Lah-Laguerre optics

The description of the chromatic dispersion in a perturbative manner through Taylor coefficients is
advantageous for optimization problems where the dispersion from several different systems needs
to be balanced. For example, in chirp pulse laser amplifiers, the pulses are first stretched in time by a
stretcher to avoid optical damage. Then in the amplification process, the pulses accumulate
inevitably linear and nonlinear phase passing through materials. And lastly, the pulses are
compressed in various types of compressors. To cancel any residual higher orders in the
accumulated phase, usually individual orders are measured and balanced. However, for uniform
systems, such perturbative description is often not needed (i.e., propagation in waveguides). The
dispersion orders have been generalized in a computationally friendly manner, in the form of Lah-
Laguerre type transforms.[9][10]

The dispersion orders are defined by the Taylor expansion of the phase or the wavevector.

�
)

�
∂

2
+

…{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{c}\varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} =\varphi \left.\ \right|_{\
omega _{0}}+\left.\ {\frac {\partial \varphi }{\partial \omega }}\right|_{\omega _{0}}\left(\omega -\
omega _{0}\right)+{\frac {1}{2}}\left.\ {\frac {\partial ^{2}\varphi }{\partial \omega ^{2}}}\right|_{\
omega _{0}}\left(\omega -\omega _{0}\right)^{2}\ +\ldots +{\frac {1}{p!}}\left.\ {\frac {\partial ^{p}\
varphi }{\partial \omega ^{p}}}\right|_{\omega _{0}}\left(\omega -\omega _{0}\right)^{p}+\ldots \
end{array}}}

�
(

�
∂

(
�

…{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{c}k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} =k\left.\ \right|_{\omega _{0}}+\

left.\ {\frac {\partial k}{\partial \omega }}\right|_{\omega _{0}}\left(\omega -\omega _{0}\right)+{\
frac {1}{2}}\left.\ {\frac {\partial ^{2}k}{\partial \omega ^{2}}}\right|_{\omega _{0}}\left(\omega -\
omega _{0}\right)^{2}\ +\ldots +{\frac {1}{p!}}\left.\ {\frac {\partial ^{p}k}{\partial \omega ^{p}}}\
right|_{\omega _{0}}\left(\omega -\omega _{0}\right)^{p}+\ldots \end{array}}}

The dispersion relations for the wavector

{\displaystyle k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\omega }{c}}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm
{)} } and the phase

�
�

{\displaystyle \varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\omega }{c}}{\it {OP}}\mathrm {(} \
omega \mathrm {)} } can be expressed as:

−
1

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{c}{\frac {{\partial }^{p}}{\partial {\omega }^{p}}}k\mathrm {(} \omega \

mathrm {)} ={\frac {1}{c}}\left(p{\frac {{\partial }^{p-1}}{\partial {\omega }^{p-1}}}n\mathrm {(} \
omega \mathrm {)} +\omega {\frac {{\partial }^{p}}{\partial {\omega }^{p}}}n\mathrm {(} \omega \
mathrm {)} \right)\ \end{array}}},

=
1

)
(

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{c}{\frac {{\partial }^{p}}{\partial {\omega }^{p}}}\varphi \mathrm {(} \

omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {1}{c}}\left(p{\frac {{\partial }^{p-1}}{\partial {\omega }^{p-1}}}{\it {OP}}\
mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} +\omega {\frac {{\partial }^{p}}{\partial {\omega }^{p}}}{\it {OP}}\
mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} \right)\end{array}}(1)}

The derivatives of any differentiable function

{\displaystyle f\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {|} \lambda \mathrm {)} } in the wavelength or the
frequency space is specified through a Lah transform as:

)
�

)
{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {\partial {p}}{\partial {\omega }^{p}}}f\mathrm {(} \omega \
mathrm {)} ={}{\left(\mathrm {-} \mathrm {1} \right)}^{p}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\
right)}^{p}\sum \limits _{m={0}}^{p}{{\mathcal {A}}\mathrm {(} p,m\mathrm {)} {\lambda }^{m}{\frac
{{\partial }^{m}}{\partial {\lambda }^{m}}}f\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }\end{array}}}

0
�

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{c}{\frac {{\partial }^{p}}{\partial {\lambda }^{p}}}f\mathrm {(} \lambda \

mathrm {)} ={}{\left(\mathrm {-} \mathrm {1} \right)}^{p}{\left({\frac {\omega }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\
right)}^{p}\sum \limits _{m={0}}^{p}{{\mathcal {A}}\mathrm {(} p,m\mathrm {)} {\omega }^{m}{\frac
{{\partial }^{m}}{\partial {\omega }^{m}}}f\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }\end{array}}(2)}

The matrix elements of the transformation are the Lah coefficients:

�
)

{\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}\mathrm {(} p,m\mathrm {)} ={\frac {p\mathrm {!} }{\left(p\mathrm {-}
m\right)\mathrm {!} m\mathrm {!} }}{\frac {\mathrm {(} p\mathrm {-} \mathrm {1)!} }{\mathrm {(}
m\mathrm {-} \mathrm {1)!} }}}

Written for the GDD the above expression states that a constant with wavelength GGD, will have
zero higher orders. The higher orders evaluated from the GDD are:

�
∂

�
)

,
�

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{c}{\frac {{\partial }^{p}}{\partial {\omega }^{p}}}GDD\mathrm {(} \omega

\mathrm {)} ={}{\left(\mathrm {-} \mathrm {1} \right)}^{p}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\
right)}^{p}\sum \limits _{m={0}}^{p}{{\mathcal {A}}\mathrm {(} p,m\mathrm {)} {\lambda }^{m}{\frac
{{\partial }^{m}}{\partial {\lambda }^{m}}}GDD\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }\end{array}}}

Substituting equation (2) expressed for the refractive index

n or optical path

{\displaystyle OP} into equation (1) results in closed-form expressions for the dispersion orders. In
general the

�
ℎ

p^{{th}} order dispersion POD is a Laguerre type transform of negative order two:
�

∑
�

�
)

{\displaystyle POD={\frac {d^{m}\varphi (\omega )}{d\omega ^{m}}}=(-1)^{p}({\frac {\lambda }{2\pi

c}})^{(p-1)}\sum _{m=0}^{p}{\mathcal {B(p,m)}}(\lambda )^{m}{\frac {d^{m}OP(\lambda )}{d\lambda
^{m}}}}

�
=

0
�

{\displaystyle POD={\frac {d^{m}k(\omega )}{d\omega ^{m}}}=(-1)^{p}({\frac {\lambda }{2\pi c}})^{(p-

1)}\sum _{m=0}^{p}{\mathcal {B(p,m)}}(\lambda )^{m}{\frac {d^{m}n(\lambda )}{d\lambda ^{m}}}}

The matrix elements of the transforms are the unsigned Laguerre coefficients of order minus 2, and
are given as:

=
�

{\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}\mathrm {(} p,m\mathrm {)} ={\frac {p\mathrm {!} }{\left(p\mathrm {-}
m\right)\mathrm {!} m\mathrm {!} }}{\frac {\mathrm {(} p\mathrm {-} \mathrm {2)!} }{\mathrm {(}
m\mathrm {-} \mathrm {2)!} }}}

The first ten dispersion orders, explicitly written for the wavevector, are:

∂
∂

�
)

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\boldsymbol {\it {GD}}}={\frac {\partial }{\partial \omega }}k\mathrm

{(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\left(n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} +\omega {\
frac {\partial n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial \omega }}\right)={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\
left(n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} -\lambda {\frac {\partial n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }
{\partial \lambda }}\right)=v_{gr}^{\mathrm {-} \mathrm {1} }\end{array}}}

The group refractive index

n_{g} is defined as:

�
�

{\displaystyle n_{g}=cv_{gr}^{\mathrm {-} \mathrm {1} }}.

�
+

∂
�

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\boldsymbol {\it {GDD}}}={\frac {{\partial }^{2}}{\partial {\omega }^{\

mathrm {2} }}}k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\left(\mathrm {2} {\frac {\
partial n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial \omega }}+\omega {\frac {{\partial }^{2}n\
mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {2} }}}\right)={\frac {\mathrm {1} }
{c}}\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)\left({\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\
partial }^{2}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}\right)\
end{array}}}

(
�

�
2

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\boldsymbol {\it {TOD}}}={\frac {{\partial }^{3}}{\partial {\omega }^{\

mathrm {3} }}}k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\left(\mathrm {3} {\frac {{\
partial }^{2}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\omega {\frac
{{\partial }^{3}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {3} }}}\right)={-}{\frac
{\mathrm {1} }{c}}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {2} }{\Bigl (}\mathrm
{3} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \
mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

�
�

�
(

12

+
8

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\boldsymbol {\it {FOD}}}={\frac {{\partial }^{4}}{\partial {\omega }^{\

mathrm {4} }}}k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\left(\mathrm {4} {\frac {{\
partial }^{3}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {3} }}}+\omega {\frac
{{\partial }^{4}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {4} }}}\right)={\frac {\
mathrm {1} }{c}}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {3} }{\Bigl (}\mathrm
{12} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {8} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}n\mathrm
{(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\
partial }^{4}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}{\Bigr )}\
end{array}}}

4
+

60

(
�

60

15

4
+

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\boldsymbol {\it {FiOD}}}={\frac {{\partial }^{5}}{\partial {\omega }^{\

mathrm {5} }}}k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\left(\mathrm {5} {\frac {{\
partial }^{4}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+\omega {\frac
{{\partial }^{5}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {5} }}}\right)={-}{\frac
{\mathrm {1} }{c}}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {4} }{\Bigl (}\mathrm
{60} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {60} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}n\mathrm
{(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}+\mathrm {15} {\lambda }^{\mathrm
{4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+{\
lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac {{\partial }^{5}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

6
�

=
1

360

480

�
)

180

24

+
�

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\boldsymbol {\it {SiOD}}}={\frac {{\partial }^{6}}{\partial {\omega }^{\

mathrm {6} }}}k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\left(\mathrm {6} {\frac {{\
partial }^{5}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {5} }}}+\omega {\frac
{{\partial }^{6}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {6} }}}\right)={\frac {\
mathrm {1} }{c}}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {5} }{\Bigl (}\mathrm
{360} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {480} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}n\mathrm
{(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}+\mathrm {180} {\lambda }^{\mathrm
{4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+\
mathrm {24} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac {{\partial }^{5}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\
partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }{\frac {{\partial }^{6}n\mathrm {(} \
lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

7
�

=
−

2520

4200

(
�

2100

420

5
+

35

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\boldsymbol {\it {SeOD}}}={\frac {{\partial }^{7}}{\partial {\omega }^{\

mathrm {7} }}}k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\left(\mathrm {7} {\frac {{\
partial }^{6}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{{\partial \omega }^{\mathrm {6} }}}+\omega {\frac
{{\partial }^{7}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{{\partial \omega }^{\mathrm {7} }}}\right)={-}{\frac
{\mathrm {1} }{c}}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {6} }{\Bigl (}\mathrm
{2520} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {4200} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}n\mathrm
{(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}+\mathrm {2100} {\lambda }^{\
mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm
{4} }}}+\mathrm {420} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac {{\partial }^{5}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm
{)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}+\mathrm {35} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }{\frac {{\
partial }^{6}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }}}+{\lambda }^{\
mathrm {7} }{\frac {{\partial }^{7}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm
{7} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

∂
�

20160

�
(

40320

25200

�
4

6720

840

48

�
7

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\boldsymbol {\it {EOD}}}={\frac {{\partial }^{8}}{\partial {\omega }^{\

mathrm {8} }}}k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\left(\mathrm {8} {\frac {{\
partial }^{7}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{{\partial \omega }^{\mathrm {7} }}}+\omega {\frac
{{\partial }^{8}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {8} }}}\right)={\frac {\
mathrm {1} }{c}}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {7} }{\Bigl (}\mathrm
{20160} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial
{\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {40320} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}n\
mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}+\mathrm {25200} {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+\mathrm {6720} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac {{\partial }^{5}n\mathrm
{(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}+\mathrm {840} {\lambda }^{\mathrm
{6} }{\frac {{\partial }^{6}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }}}+\\
+\mathrm {48} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }{\frac {{\partial }^{7}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\
partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {8} }{\frac {{\partial }^{8}n\mathrm {(} \
lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {8} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

+
�

181440

�
)

423360

317520

+
105840

17640

1512

∂
7

63

∂
�

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\boldsymbol {\it {NOD}}}={\frac {{\partial }^{9}}{\partial {\omega }^{\

mathrm {9} }}}k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\left(\mathrm {9} {\frac {{\
partial }^{8}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {8} }}}+\omega {\frac
{{\partial }^{9}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {9} }}}\right)={-}{\frac
{\mathrm {1} }{c}}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {8} }{\Bigl (}\mathrm
{181440} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial
{\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {423360} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}n\
mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}+\mathrm {317520} {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+\mathrm {105840} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac {{\partial }^{5}n\
mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}+\mathrm {17640} {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }{\frac {{\partial }^{6}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }}}+\\+\mathrm {1512} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }{\frac {{\partial }^{7}n\
mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }}}+\mathrm {63} {\lambda }^{\
mathrm {8} }{\frac {{\partial }^{8}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm
{8} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {9} }{\frac {{\partial }^{9}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {9} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

10

10

1
�

10

10

10

�
�

1814400

4838400

4233600
�

1693440

352800

6
�

40320

2520

∂
�

80

10

10

10

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\boldsymbol {\it {TeOD}}}={\frac {{\partial }^{10}}{\partial {\

omega }^{\mathrm {10} }}}k\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} ={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}\left(\mathrm
{10} {\frac {{\partial }^{9}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {9} }}}+\
omega {\frac {{\partial }^{10}n\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm
{10} }}}\right)={\frac {\mathrm {1} }{c}}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm
{9} }{\Bigl (}\mathrm {1814400} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}n\mathrm {(} \lambda
\mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {4838400} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }{\
frac {{\partial }^{3}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}+\
mathrm {4233600} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)}
}{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+{1693440}{\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac {{\partial }^{5}n\
mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}+\\+\mathrm {352800} {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }{\frac {{\partial }^{6}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }}}+\mathrm {40320} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }{\frac {{\partial }^{7}n\
mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }}}+\mathrm {2520} {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {8} }{\frac {{\partial }^{8}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {8} }}}+\mathrm {80} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {9} }{\frac {{\partial }^{9}n\mathrm
{(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {9} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {10} }{\frac {{\
partial }^{10}n\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {10} }}}{\Bigr )}\
end{array}}}

Explicitly, written for the phase

�\varphi , the first ten dispersion orders can be expressed as a function of wavelength using the Lah
transforms (equation (2)) as:

(
�

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {\partial {p}}{\partial {\omega }^{p}}}f\mathrm {(} \omega \

mathrm {)} ={}{\left(\mathrm {-} \mathrm {1} \right)}^{p}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\
right)}^{p}\sum \limits _{m={0}}^{p}{{\mathcal {A}}\mathrm {(} p,m\mathrm {)} {\lambda }^{m}{\frac
{{\partial }^{m}}{\partial {\lambda }^{m}}}f\mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }\end{array}}}
,

(
�

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{c}{\frac {{\partial }^{p}}{\partial {\lambda }^{p}}}f\mathrm {(} \lambda \

mathrm {)} ={}{\left(\mathrm {-} \mathrm {1} \right)}^{p}{\left({\frac {\omega }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\
right)}^{p}\sum \limits _{m={0}}^{p}{{\mathcal {A}}\mathrm {(} p,m\mathrm {)} {\omega }^{m}{\frac
{{\partial }^{m}}{\partial {\omega }^{m}}}f\mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }\end{array}}}

2
�

�{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial \
omega }}={-}\left({\frac {\mathrm {2} \pi c}{{\omega }^{\mathrm {2} }}}\right){\frac {\partial \varphi \
mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial \lambda }}={-}\left({\frac {{\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}{\
mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right){\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial \
lambda }}\end{array}}}
∂

2
(

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {{\partial }^{2}\varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial
{\omega }^{\mathrm {2} }}}={\frac {\partial }{\partial \omega }}\left({\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm
{(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial \omega }}\right)={\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\
right)}^{\mathrm {2} }\left(\mathrm {2} \lambda {\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \
mathrm {)} }{\partial \lambda }}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}\varphi \mathrm {(} \
lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}\right)\end{array}}}

�
(

2
�

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {{\partial }^{3}\varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial
{\omega }^{\mathrm {3} }}}={-}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {3} }\
left(\mathrm {6} \lambda {\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial \
lambda }}+\mathrm {6} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \
mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}\
varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}\right)\end{array}}}

)
∂

24

36

)
∂

12

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {{\partial }^{4}\varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial
{\omega }^{\mathrm {4} }}}={\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {4} }{\Bigl
(}\mathrm {24} \lambda {\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial \
lambda }}+\mathrm {36} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}\varphi \mathrm {(} \
lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {12} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }
{\frac {{\partial }^{3}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}+
{\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

120

)
∂

240

120

20

�
4

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {{\partial }^{\mathrm {5} }\varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm
{)} }{\partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {5} }}}={-}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\
mathrm {5} }{\Bigl (}\mathrm {120} \lambda {\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)}
}{\partial \lambda }}+\mathrm {240} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}\varphi \mathrm
{(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {120} {\lambda }^{\mathrm
{3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3}
}}}+\mathrm {20} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \
mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac {{\partial }^{5}\
varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

∂
6

720

1800

∂
2

1200

300

)
∂

30

)
{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {{\partial }^{6}\varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial
{\omega }^{\mathrm {6} }}}={\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {6} }{\Bigl
(}\mathrm {720} \lambda {\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial \
lambda }}+\mathrm {1800} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}\varphi \mathrm {(} \
lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {1200} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3}
}{\frac {{\partial }^{3}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}
+\mathrm {300} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \
mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+\mathrm {30} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac {{\
partial }^{5}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}\mathrm
{\ +} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }{\frac {{\partial }^{6}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\
partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

5040

�
(

15120

12600

3
+

4200

630

42

∂
6

{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {{\partial }^{7}\varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial
{\omega }^{\mathrm {7} }}}={-}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {7} }{\
Bigl (}\mathrm {5040} \lambda {\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial \
lambda }}+\mathrm {15120} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}\varphi \mathrm {(} \
lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {12600} {\lambda }^{\mathrm
{3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3}
}}}+\mathrm {4200} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \
mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+\mathrm {630} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac {{\
partial }^{5}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}+\
mathrm {42} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }{\frac {{\partial }^{6}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm
{)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }{\frac {{\partial }^{7}\varphi \
mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

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40320

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{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {{\partial }^{8}\varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial
{\omega }^{\mathrm {8} }}}={\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {8} }{\Bigl
(}\mathrm {40320} \lambda {\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial \
lambda }}+\mathrm {141120} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}\varphi \mathrm {(} \
lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {141120} {\lambda }^{\mathrm
{3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3}
}}}+\mathrm {58800} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \
mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+\mathrm {11760} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac
{{\partial }^{5}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}+\
mathrm {1176} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }{\frac {{\partial }^{6}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm
{)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }}}+\mathrm {56} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }{\frac {{\
partial }^{7}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }}}+\\+{\
lambda }^{\mathrm {8} }{\frac {\partial ^{8}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {8} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

362880

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{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {{\partial }^{9}\varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\partial
{\omega }^{\mathrm {9} }}}={-}{\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm {9} }{\
Bigl (}\mathrm {362880} \lambda {\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial \
lambda }}+\mathrm {1451520} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}\varphi \mathrm {(} \
lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {1693440} {\lambda }^{\mathrm
{3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {3}
}}}+\mathrm {846720} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \
mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+\mathrm {211680} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\
frac {{\partial }^{5}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}+\
mathrm {28224} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }{\frac {{\partial }^{6}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \
mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }}}+\\+\mathrm {2016} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }{\
frac {{\partial }^{7}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }}}+\
mathrm {72} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {8} }{\frac {{\partial }^{8}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm
{)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {8} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {9} }{\frac {\partial ^{\mathrm {9} }\
varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {9} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

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{\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\frac {{\partial }^{10}\varphi \mathrm {(} \omega \mathrm {)} }{\
partial {\omega }^{\mathrm {10} }}}={\left({\frac {\lambda }{\mathrm {2} \pi c}}\right)}^{\mathrm
{10} }{\Bigl (}\mathrm {3628800} \lambda {\frac {\partial \varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }
{\partial \lambda }}+\mathrm {16329600} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }{\frac {{\partial }^{2}\varphi \
mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {2} }}}+\mathrm {21772800} {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }{\frac {{\partial }^{3}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {3} }}}+\mathrm {12700800} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }{\frac {{\partial }^{4}\
varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {4} }}}+\mathrm {3810240}
{\lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }{\frac {{\partial }^{5}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {5} }}}+\mathrm {635040} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }{\frac {{\partial }^{6}\
varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {6} }}}+\\+\mathrm {60480}
{\lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }{\frac {{\partial }^{7}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\
lambda }^{\mathrm {7} }}}+\mathrm {3240} {\lambda }^{\mathrm {8} }{\frac {{\partial }^{8}\varphi \
mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {8} }}}+\mathrm {90} {\lambda }^{\
mathrm {9} }{\frac {{\partial }^{9}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\
mathrm {9} }}}+{\lambda }^{\mathrm {10} }{\frac {{\partial }^{10}\varphi \mathrm {(} \lambda \
mathrm {)} }{\partial {\lambda }^{\mathrm {10} }}}{\Bigr )}\end{array}}}

Spatial dispersion

Main article: Spatial dispersion

In electromagnetics and optics, the term dispersion generally refers to aforementioned temporal or
frequency dispersion. Spatial dispersion refers to the non-local response of the medium to the
space; this can be reworded as the wavevector dependence of the permittivity. For an exemplary
anisotropic medium, the spatial relation between electric and electric displacement field can be
expressed as a convolution:[11]

,
�

{\displaystyle D_{i}(t,r)=E_{i}(t,r)+\int _{0}^{\infty }\int f_{ik}(\tau ;r,r')E_{k}(t-\tau ,r')dV'd\tau ,}

where the kernel

{\displaystyle f_{ik}} is dielectric response (susceptibility); its indices make it in general a tensor to
account for the anisotropy of the medium. Spatial dispersion is negligible in most macroscopic cases,
where the scale of variation of

−
�

{\displaystyle E_{k}(t-\tau ,r')} is much larger than atomic dimensions, because the dielectric kernel
dies out at macroscopic distances. Nevertheless, it can result in non-negligible macroscopic effects,
particularly in conducting media such as metals, electrolytes and plasmas. Spatial dispersion also
plays role in optical activity and Doppler broadening,[11] as well as in the theory of metamaterials.
[12]

In gemology

Dispersion values of minerals[13]

Name B–G C–F

In the technical terminology of gemology, dispersion is the difference in the refractive index of a
material at the B and G (686.7 nm and 430.8 nm) or C and F (656.3 nm and 486.1 nm) Fraunhofer
wavelengths, and is meant to express the degree to which a prism cut from the gemstone
demonstrates "fire". Fire is a colloquial term used by gemologists to describe a gemstone's
dispersive nature or lack thereof. Dispersion is a material property. The amount of fire demonstrated
by a given gemstone is a function of the gemstone's facet angles, the polish quality, the lighting
environment, the material's refractive index, the saturation of color, and the orientation of the
viewer relative to the gemstone.[13][14]

In imaging

In photographic and microscopic lenses, dispersion causes chromatic aberration, which causes the
different colors in the image not to overlap properly. Various techniques have been developed to
counteract this, such as the use of achromats, multielement lenses with glasses of different
dispersion. They are constructed in such a way that the chromatic aberrations of the different parts
cancel out.

Pulsar emissions

Pulsars are spinning neutron stars that emit pulses at very regular intervals ranging from
milliseconds to seconds. Astronomers believe that the pulses are emitted simultaneously over a
wide range of frequencies. However, as observed on Earth, the components of each pulse emitted at
higher radio frequencies arrive before those emitted at lower frequencies. This dispersion occurs
because of the ionized component of the interstellar medium, mainly the free electrons, which make
the group velocity frequency dependent. The extra delay added at a frequency ν is
�

{\displaystyle t=k_{\mathrm {DM} }\cdot \left({\frac {\mathrm {DM} }{\nu ^{2}}}\right)}

where the dispersion constant kDM is given by

�
≃

4.149

z
2

{\displaystyle k_{\mathrm {DM} }={\frac {e^{2}}{2\pi m_{\mathrm {e} }c}}\simeq 4.149\,\mathrm

{GHz} ^{2}\,\mathrm {pc} ^{-1}\,\mathrm {cm} ^{3}\,\mathrm {ms} ,}[15]

and the dispersion measure (DM) is the column density of free electrons (total electron content) —
i.e. the number density of electrons ne (electrons/cm3) integrated along the path traveled by the
photon from the pulsar to the Earth — and is given by

{\displaystyle \mathrm {DM} =\int _{0}^{d}{n_{e}\,dl}}

with units of parsecs per cubic centimetre (1 pc/cm3 = 30.857 × 1021 m−2).[16]

Typically for astronomical observations, this delay cannot be measured directly, since the emission
time is unknown. What can be measured is the difference in arrival times at two different
frequencies. The delay Δt between a high frequency νhi and a low frequency νlo component of a
pulse will be

{\displaystyle \Delta t=k_{\mathrm {DM} }\cdot \mathrm {DM} \cdot \left({\frac {1}{\nu _{\mathrm
{lo} }^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{\nu _{\mathrm {hi} }^{2}}}\right)}

Rewriting the above equation in terms of Δt allows one to determine the DM by measuring pulse
arrival times at multiple frequencies. This in turn can be used to study the interstellar medium, as
well as allow for observations of pulsars at different frequencies to be combined.
See also

Abbe number

Calculation of glass properties incl. dispersion

Cauchy's equation

Dispersion relation

Fast radio burst (astronomy)

Fluctuation theorem

Green–Kubo relations

Group delay

Intramodal dispersion

Kramers–Kronig relations

Linear response function

Multiple-prism dispersion theory

Sellmeier equation

Ultrashort pulse

Virtually imaged phased array

References

Born, Max; Wolf, Emil (October 1999). Principles of Optics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
pp. 14–24. ISBN 0-521-64222-1.

Dispersion Compensation Retrieved 25-08-2015.

Calculation of the Mean Dispersion of Glasses

Born, M. and Wolf, E. (1980) "Principles of Optics, 6th ed." pg. 93. Pergamon Press.

Saleh, B.E.A. and Teich, M.C. Fundamentals of Photonics (2nd Edition) Wiley, 2007.

Ramaswami, Rajiv and Sivarajan, Kumar N. (1998) Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective.
Academic Press: London.

Chromatic Dispersion, Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology (Wiley, 2008).

Mai, Wending; Campbell, Sawyer D.; Whiting, Eric B.; Kang, Lei; Werner, Pingjuan L.; Chen, Yifan;
Werner, Douglas H. (2020-10-01). "Prismatic discontinuous Galerkin time domain method with an
integrated generalized dispersion model for efficient optical metasurface analysis". Optical Materials
Express. 10 (10): 2542–2559. Bibcode:2020OMExp..10.2542M. doi:10.1364/OME.399414. ISSN 2159-
3930.

Popmintchev, Dimitar; Wang, Siyang; Xiaoshi, Zhang; Stoev, Ventzislav; Popmintchev, Tenio (2022-
10-24). "Analytical Lah-Laguerre optical formalism for perturbative chromatic dispersion". Optics
Express. 30 (22): 40779–40808. Bibcode:2022OExpr..3040779P. doi:10.1364/OE.457139. PMID
36299007.

Popmintchev, Dimitar; Wang, Siyang; Xiaoshi, Zhang; Stoev, Ventzislav; Popmintchev, Tenio (2020-
08-30). "Theory of the Chromatic Dispersion, Revisited". arXiv:2011.00066 [physics.optics].

Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M.; Pitaevskii, L. P. (1984). Electrodynamics of Continuous Media. Vol. 8
(2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-2634-7.

Demetriadou, A.; Pendry, J. B. (1 July 2008). "Taming spatial dispersion in wire metamaterial".
Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter. 20 (29): 295222. Bibcode:2008JPCM...20C5222D.
doi:10.1088/0953-8984/20/29/295222. S2CID 120249447.

Schumann, Walter (2009). Gemstones of the World: Newly Revised & Expanded Fourth Edition.
Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 41–2. ISBN 978-1-4027-6829-3. Retrieved 31 December 2011.

"What is Gemstone Dispersion?". GemSociety.org. International Gem Society. Retrieved 2015-03-

09.

Single-Dish Radio Astronomy: Techniques and Applications, ASP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 278.
Edited by Snezana Stanimirovic, Daniel Altschuler, Paul Goldsmith, and Chris Salter. ISBN 1-58381-
120-6. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2002, p. 251-269

Lorimer, D.R., and Kramer, M., Handbook of Pulsar Astronomy, vol. 4 of Cambridge Observing
Handbooks for Research Astronomers, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.; New York,
U.S.A, 2005), 1st edition.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dispersion (optics).

Dispersive Wiki – discussing the mathematical aspects of dispersion.

Dispersion – Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology

Animations demonstrating optical dispersion by QED

Interactive webdemo for chromatic dispersion Institute of Telecommunications, University of

Stuttgart

vte

Glass science topics

Authority control: National libraries Edit this at Wikidata

Germany

Categories: Glass physicsOptics

This page was last edited on 20 January 2023, at 20:23 (UTC).

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