MODULE 1

Introduction to Ethics

This course discusses the following basic concepts of ethics,

namely: moral vs. non-moral standards, dilemmas, levels of
moral dilemma, foundation of morality, and minimum
requirement for morality.

Objectives:
At the end of the session, the participants should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of ethics.

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves

systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong
conduct. The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value,
and thus comprises the branch of philosophy called axiology.

Ethics is a set of moral principles and values that separate right from wrong.
The English word "ethics" is derived from the Ancient Greek word ēthikós,
Meaning, "relating to one's character", which itself comes from the root word
êthos, meaning, "character, moral nature." This word was transferred into
Latin as ethica and then into French as éthique, from which it was transferred
into English.

2. Distinguish between moral standards and non-moral standards.

What are moral standards?

Moral standards are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of
actions believed to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on
what we believed to be morally good or morally bad. Moral standards normally
promote “the good”, that is, the welfare and well-being of humans as well as
animals and the environment. Moral standards, therefore, prescribe what
humans ought to do in terms of rights and obligations.

According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum of combined norms
and values. In other words, norms plus values equal moral standards. On the
one hand, norms are understood as general rules about our actions or
behaviors. For example, we may say “We are always under the obligation to
fulfill our promises” or “It is always believed that killing innocent people is
absolutely wrong”. On the other hand, values are understood as enduring
beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not. For example,
we may say “Helping the poor is good” or “Cheating during exams is bad”.

According to many scholars, moral standards have the following

characteristics, namely: 1) moral standards deal with matters we think can
seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the environment, such as
 child abuse, rape, and murder; 2) moral standards are not established or
changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies. Indeed, moral
standards rest on the adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support and
justify them. For sure, we don’t need a law to back up our moral conviction
that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong; 3) moral standards are
overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standards and
considerations, especially of self-interest; 4) moral standards are based on
impartial considerations. Hence, moral standards are fair and just; and 5)
moral standards are associated with special emotions (such as guilt and
shame) and vocabulary (such as right, wrong, good, and bad).
What are non-moral standards?
Non-moral standards refer to standards by which we judge what is good or
bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way. Examples of non-moral standards
are standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad,
standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal, and
standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good or rubbish. Hence, we
should not confuse morality with etiquette, law, aesthetics or even with
religion.

Likewise,non-moral standards are matters of taste or preference. Hence, a

scrupulous observance of these types of standards does not make one a
moral person. Violation of said standards also does not pose any threat to
human well-being.

Finally, as a way of distinguishing moral standards from non-moral ones, if a

moral standard says “Do not harm innocent people” or “Don’t steal”, a non-
moral standard says “Don’t text while driving” or “Don’t talk while the mouth is
full”.

3. Discuss moral dilemmas.

A dilemma is a Greek word meaning, problem offering two possibilities,

neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or preferable. (Wikipedia)

On the other hand, Oxford dictionary defines it as a situation in which a

difficult choice has to be made between two or more alternatives, especially
ones that are equally undesirable. An example would be: ‘he wants to make
money, but he also disapproves of it: Den's dilemma in a nutshell’

Three Levels of Ethical Standards in a Business Organization

The ethical standards of an organization have a major influence on how it
conducts its business. Business ethics are defined by the behavior
standards of management and personnel, and the way in which business is
carried out at both a strategic and operational level. A positive approach to
maintaining ethical standards can lead to competitive market advantage and
an enhanced reputation. Ethical standards are classified at three levels.
At Macro or systemic level, ethics are defined and influenced by the wider
operating environment in which the company exists. Factors such as political
pressures, economic conditions, societal attitudes to certain businesses, and
even business regulation can influence a company's operating standards
 and policies. Business owners and managers must be aware of how these
pressures affect operations and relationships, and how they may impact on
markets locally, nationally and internationally.
At a company or corporate level, ethical standards are embedded in the
policies and procedures of the organization, and form an important
foundation on which business strategy is built. These policies derive from the
influences felt at macro level and therefore help a business to respond to
changing pressures in the most effective way.

Since businesses are run by people, the ethical standards of individuals in

the business are an important consideration. Individuals may well have a
very different set of ethical standards from their employer and this can lead
to tensions. Factors such as peer pressure, personal financial position, and
socio-economic status all may influence individual ethical standards.
Managers and business owners should be aware of this to manage potential
conflicts.

4. Determine the foundations of morality.

The main five foundations of morality are:

According to Moral Foundations Theory, differences in people's moral
concerns can be described in terms of five moral foundations:

●Care: cherishing and protecting others; opposite of harm

●Fairness or proportionality: rendering justice according to shared rules;

opposite of cheating

●Loyalty or ingroup: standing with your group, family, nation; opposite

of betrayal

● Authority or respect: submitting to tradition and legitimate authority; opposite

of subversion

● Sanctity or purity: abhorrence for disgusting things, foods, actions; opposite

of degradation
These five foundations are argued to group into two higher-order clusters –
the person-focused Individualizing cluster of Care and Fairness, and the
group-focused Binding cluster of Loyalty, Authority and Sanctity. The
empirical evidence favoring this grouping comes from patterns of associations
between the moral foundations observed with the Moral Foundations
Questionnaire.
The liberty foundation
A sixth foundation, liberty (opposite of oppression) was theorized by Jonathan
Haidt in The Righteous Mind, chapter eight, in response to the need to
differentiate between proportionality fairness and the objections he had
received from conservatives and libertarians (United States usage) to
coercion by a dominating power or person. Haidt noted that the latter group's
moral matrix relies almost entirely on the liberty foundation. The evolutionary
roots of the liberty foundation are theorized to lie in "hypervigilance of
 egalitarian hunter–gatherers for any sign of alpha male behavior, including
boasting."

5. Discuss the minimum requirement for morality.

The two requirements for moral-minimum are the following:

a. IMPARTIALITY

Impartiality (also called evenhandedness or fair-mindedness) is a

principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on objective
criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit
to one person over another for improper reasons. (Wikipedia).

Impartiality is a more complex concept than is generally recognized. Judging

a person to be impartial is not as straightforward as judging a person to have
some moral virtue such as kindness or trustworthiness.

The most common characterization of general impartiality is that it requires

that like cases be treated alike. Almost all philosophers take this
characterization as trivially true, but it is mistaken.

A person is impartial with regard to a group in a specified respect insofar as

that person acts impartially in that respect with regard to that group. The basic
concept of impartiality is defined as follows:

A is impartial in respect R with regard to group G if and only if A's actions in

respect R are not influenced at all by which member(s) of G are benefited or
harmed by these actions.
b. Reasoning

Moral reasoning applies critical analysis to specific events to determine what

is right or wrong, and what people ought to do in a particular situation. Both
philosophers and psychologists study moral reasoning.
How we make day-to-day decisions like “What should I wear?” is similar to
how we make moral decisions like “Should I lie or tell the truth?” The brain
processes both in generally the same way.
Moral reasoning typically applies logic and moral theories, such as deontology
or utilitarianism, to specific situations or dilemmas. However, people are not
especially good at moral reasoning. Indeed, the term moral dumbfounding
describes the fact that people often reach strong moral conclusions that they
cannot logically defend.
In fact, evidence shows that the moral principle or theory a person chooses to
apply is often, ironically, based on their emotions, not on logic. Their choice is
usually influenced by internal biases or outside pressures, such as the self-
serving bias or the desire to conform.
So, while we likely believe we approach ethical dilemmas logically and
rationally, the truth is our moral reasoning is usually influenced by intuitive,
emotional reactions.

Methodology

Lecture/Discussion (classroom and/or online)

Participation based on guided topics (online)
Materials

Handouts
Lecture attachments (online)

References
Oxford Dictionary
Wikipedia Dictionary
https://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/06/08/moral-standards/

https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/SocialSciences/ppecorino/
MEDICAL_ETHICS_TEXT/Chapter_2_Ethical_Traditions/Reading-Barger-on-
Kohlberg.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory#:~:text=Moral
%20foundations%20theory%20is%20a,basis%20of%20innate%2C
%20modular%20foundations.&text=The%20two%20main%20sources
%20are,and%20Mapping%20the%20Moral%20Domain.

cu.edu/ethics/focus-areas/business-ethics/resources/case-on-executive-
integrity/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fAkqh9pfVkc