PDHonline Course M583 (4 PDH)

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Pumps Installation Handbook

Calculations & Spreadsheets
Instructor: Jurandir Primo, PE

2016

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Fairfax, VA 22030-6658
Phone & Fax: 703-988-0088
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PUMPS INSTALLATION HANDBOOK

CALCULATIONS & SPREADSHEETS

CONTENTS:

1. INTRODUCTION:

2. PUMPS CALCULATION PRINCIPLES:

3. PIPING FUNDAMENTALS:

4. CALCULATING THE NPSH:

5. REFERENCES

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I. INTRODUCTION:

Every day a student or a professional is looking for a short and timely handbook with practical infor-
mation and comprehensive application for many technical subjects, including this study of Pumps Instal-
lations Handbook – Calculations & Spreadsheets. Pump is one of the most important component
inserted in fluid systems, then, this is the main motivation for the preparation of this outline. In order to
understand how a fluid system containing process piping and accessories operate, it is necessary to
have a good knowledge of fluid characteristics and study the basic concepts of the pumps nomenclature
and all the relationships with industrial piping and systems.

A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or heavy slurries, by mechanical action. Pumps
can be classified into three major groups according to the method they use to move the fluid; direct, lift,
displacement, and gravity pumps. Pumps operate by some mechanism, typically reciprocating or rotary,
and consume energy to perform mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy
sources, including manual operation, electricity, fuel engines, or wind power, and come in many sizes,
from microscopic for use in medical applications, to large industrial pumps.

Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications, such as pumping water from wells, aquarium
filtering, pond pumping and aeration, in the car industry for water-cooling and fuel injection, in the energy
industry for pumping oil and natural gas or for operating cooling towers. In the medical industry, pumps
are used for biochemical processes in developing and manufacturing medicine, and as artificial repla-
cements for body parts, in particular the artificial heart and penile prosthesis. The most common are:

Single Stage Pumps: Have only one impeller.

Double / Multi Stage Pumps: Have two or more impellers.

II. PUMPS CALCULATION PRINCIPLES:

Types of Pumps: Pumps come in a variety of sizes for a wide range of applications. The centrifugal
pumps are generally the most economical, followed by the rotary and reciprocating pumps. Although,
positive displacement pumps are generally more efficient than centrifugal pumps, the benefit of higher
efficiency tends to be offset by increased maintenance costs. They can be classified according to the
basic operating principle as dynamic or positive displacement pumps, as indicated below:

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Priming a Pump: Typically, a liquid pump can't simply draw air. The feed line of the pump and the inter-
nal body surrounding the pumping mechanism must first be filled with the liquid that requires pumping:
An operator must introduce liquid into the system to initiate the pumping, called as priming the pump.
The loss of power pumping is usually due to ingestion of air into the pump. This is the case with most
velocity (rotodynamic) pumps, for example, centrifugal pumps.

Self-Priming: All positive-displacement pumps tend to have sufficiently tight sealing between the moving
parts and the casing of the pump, then, described as self-priming. These pumps can also serve as prim-
ing pumps, typically when they are used to fulfill that need for other pumps, in lieu of action taken by a
human operator. The clearances and displacement ratios in pumps for liquids, whether thin or more vis-
cous, usually cannot displace air due to its compressibility.

Pump General Specifications: Pumps are commonly rated by horsepower, flow rate, outlet pressure in
metres (or feet) of head, inlet suction in suction feet (or metres) of head. The head can be simplified as
the number (in feet or metres) the pump can raise or lower a column of water at atmospheric pressure.
From an initial design point of view, engineers often use a quantity termed as the specific speed to iden-
tify the most suitable pump type for a particular combination of flow rate and head. The common nomen-
clature that must be known by every engineering student, systems engineer or technicians, are:

Head: Is a measurement of the height of a liquid column which the pump could create resulting from
the kinetic energy the pump gives to the liquid. The basic principle of a pump is the head, considered as
the height of the pumped jet water going up into the air. In imperial units, the head is measured in units
of feet, while pressure is measured in pounds per square inch (psi), and is independent of pressure
or liquid density. For water considering atmospheric pressure at sea level and specific gravity 1.0 is:

Head = 14.7 X 2.31 / 1.0 = 33.9 ft

Obs.: Thus, 33.9 feet is the theoretical maximum suction lift for a pump at sea level.

Pressure Head: The term head is used as a reference to pressure, or a reference to the height of a
column of water, typically in feet or meter, which a given pump may perform. The pressure head rep-
resents the flow energy of a column of fluid, whose weight is equivalent to the pressure of the fluid. In
imperial (or US units), to convert head to pressure (psi) the following formula applies:

Pump Pressure: The pressure rises as flow progresses from the suction to discharge. Pressure is ex-
pressed in “psi”, but also can be expressed in feet of water, water gauge, head or static head:

Head (h), ft. water, water gauge, = Pressure (psi) x 2.31 = (ft) - SG is the Specific Gravity.
SG

Static Head: Is the vertical distance from the water level at the source to the highest point where the
water must be delivered, or the difference in height between the source and destination of the
pumped liquid (see figure below). It is the sum of static lift and static discharge. The static head at a cer-
tain pressure depends of the weight of the liquid, but can be calculated with the same equation above:

Head = Pressure (psi) x 2.31 = (ft) - SG is the Specific Gravity.

SG

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Pressure Head: The equation below also refers to the pressure on the liquid in the reservoir feeding a
pump operating in a pressurized tank. If the fluid is under vacuum we can convert to the absolute pres-
sure to head instead of atmospheric pressure. Vacuum is often read in inches of mercury, then a formu-
la to convert it to head is:

Feet of liquid = 1.133 x inches of mercury = (ft)

SG

Obs.: The sum of the elevation head, velocity head, and pressure head of a fluid is called the total
head. The Bernoulli’s equation states that the total head of the fluid is constant.

Velocity Head - Velocity head also known as dynamic head is a measure of a fluid’s kinetic energy. In
most installations velocity head is negligible in comparison to other components of the total head (usually
less than one foot). The velocity head varies at different points in the cross section of a flow. Velocity
head is calculated using the following equation:

V = v² / 2g.

V = Velocity head, ft;

v = Velocity of fluid, ft/s;
g = Acceleration of gravity 32.17 ft/s².

Velocity Head Table

Velocity Velocity Velocity Velocity Velocity Velocity Velocity Velocity
ft/s Head ft/s Head ft/s. Head ft/s Head
ft. ft. ft. ft.
1.0 0.02 6.0 0.56 9.5 1.4 12.0 2.24
2.0 0.06 7.0 0.76 10.0 1.55 13.0 2.62
3.0 0.14 8.0 1.0 10.5 1.7 14.0 3.05
4.0 0.25 8.5 1.12 11.0 1.87 15.0 3.50
5.0 0.39 9.0 1.25 11.5 2.05 20.0 6.20

Obs: A Pitometer may be used to take a number of readings at different points in piping:

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Total Dynamic Head: Is the vertical distance from source water level to point of discharge when pump-
ing at required capacity, pins Velocity Head, friction, inlets and exit losses. When a pump is installed, the
developed pressure as explained above, is also commonly called discharge head at the exit side of the
pump and suction head on the inlet side of the pump.

Suction Head Positive: The liquid level is above Suction Head Negative: The liquid level is below
the centerline of the pump: the centerline of the pump:

Total Dynamic Head (TDH): The total dynamic Total Dynamic Head (TDH): The total dynamic
discharge head is minus the total dynamic suc- discharge head is plus the total dynamic suction
tion head when installed with a suction head. head when installed with a suction lift.

TDH = discharge head - suction head TDH = discharge head + suction head
TDH = Hd - Hs (with a suction head) TDH = Hd + Hs (with a suction lift)

Notes:

 Static Suction Head: Or static lift is the vertical distance between the center line of the pump
and the height of the water source when the pump is not operating. The Static Suction Head
(h) is positive when liquid line is above pump centerline and negative when liquid line is below
pump centerline, as can be seen at the sketch below.

 Static Discharge Head: The static discharge head is a measure of the elevation difference be-
tween the center line of the pump and the final point of use.

 Total Dynamic Discharge Head: Is the Total Dynamic Head minus Dynamic Suction Lift or plus
Dynamic Suction Head.

 Dynamic Suction Head: Is the vertical distance from source water level to centerline of pump,
minus Velocity Head, entrance, friction, but not minus internal pump losses.

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The total suction head (Hs) consists of three separate heads. The formulae are:

Hs = hss + hps - hfs

hss = Suction static head;

hps = Suction surface pressure head;
hfs = Suction friction head.

The total discharge head (Hd) is also made from three separate heads:

Hd = hsd + hpd + hfd

hsd = Discharge static head;

hpd = Discharge surface pressure head;
hfd = Discharge friction head.

Lift and Equivalent Pressure Relationship: These terms are sometimes used to express different condi-
tions in a pumping system, and can be given dimensions of either pressure units (PSI) or head units (feet).

Static Head – The hydraulic pressure at a point in a fluid when the liquid is at rest.
Friction Head – The loss in pressure or energy due to frictional losses in flow.
Velocity Head – The energy in a fluid due to its velocity, expressed as a head unit.
Pressure Head – A pressure measured in equivalent head units.
Discharge Head – The outlet pressure of a pump in operation.
Total Head – The total pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of a pump in operation.
Suction Head – The inlet pressure of a pump when above atmospheric.
Suction Lift – The inlet pressure of a pump when below the atmospheric.

Converting head in feet to pressure, in psi:

p = 0.433 x h x SG =

Where:

p = Pressure (psi);
h = Head (ft);
SG = Specific Gravity.

Converting head in meter to pressure, in bar:

p = 0.0981 x h x SG =

Where:

h = Head (m);
p = Pressure (bar);

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Converting pressure in psi to head, in feet:

h = p x 2.31 / SG =

Where:

h = Head (ft);
p = Pressure (psi);

Converting pressure in bar to head, in meter:

h = p x 10.197 / SG =

Where:

h = Head (m);
p = Pressure (bar);

Example: The pressure - psi - of a water pump operating with head 120 ft can be expressed as:

p = (120 ft) x 1.0 / 2.31 =

p = 52 psi

Density and Pressure Relationships: A diver underwater at 10.3 m (33.9 ft) experiences a pressure of
about 2 atmospheres (1 atm of air plus 1 atm of water). This is the suction maximum height to which
a column of water can be drawn up. At higher altitudes, less air means less weight and less pressure,
then, pressure and density of air decreases with increasing elevation.

= ρ x g, where, - specific weight = weight per unit volume (N/m 3, lbf/ft3).

Water: = 9790 N/m3 = ~1000 Kg/m³ = 62.4 lbf/ft3 = 1.94 slug/ft3

Air: = 11.8 N/m3 = ~1.2 Kg/m³ = 0.0752 lbf/ft3 = 0.00237 slug/ft3

Density ρ is usually at 4˚C, but some references will use ρ at 20˚C, thus, Specific Gravity is:

Water (ρ) = at 1 atm, 4˚C = 1000 kg/m3 - SG = 1000 / 1000 = 1.0

Air (ρ) = at 1 atm, 4˚C = 1.205 kg/m3 - SG = 1.205 / 1000 = ~0.0012

1 atmosphere = 100 kPa = 14.7 psi. Pressure units that can lift water approximately 10.3 m (33.9 ft).
1 Newton-force (Nf) = 1 kg.m/s2 (Metric) 1 pound-force (lbf) = 1 slug ft/s2 (Imperial)

Example: Determine the static pressure of a column of water and some mixture, height 18 cm (0.59 ft)
measured with a Specific Gravity of 0.85.

Metric: P = ρ x g x h = SG h = 0.85 x 9790 N/m 3 x 0.18 m = 1498 N/m2 = 1.5 kPa = 0.015 bar;
Us Units: P = ρ x g x h = SG h = 0.85 x 62.4 lbf/ft3 x 0.59 ft = 31.3 lb/ft2 = 31.3 lb/144 = 0.217 psi.

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Altitude and Atmospheric Pressure: Atmospheric pressure is often measured with a mercury barom-
eter, and a height of approximately 760 millimeters (30 in) of mercury is often used to measure the
atmospheric pressure. At sea level, the weight of the air presses on us with a pressure of approxi-
mately 14.7 lbs/in2. Altitude and atmospheric pressure are according to tables below:

Altitude and Atmospheric Pressure Table

ALTITUDE AT SEA LEVEL ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Feet Meters Psia Kg/cm² abs.

0.0 0.0 14.69 1.033
500.0 153.0 14.43 1.015
1000.0 305.0 14.16 0.956
1500.0 458.0 13.91 0.978
2000.0 610.0 13.66 0.960
2500.0 763.0 13.41 0.943
3000.0 915.0 13.17 0.926
3500.0 1068.0 12.93 0.909
4000.0 1220.0 12.69 0.892
4500.0 1373.0 12.46 0.876
5000.0 1526.0 12.23 0.860
6000.0 1831.0 11.78 0.828
7000.0 2136.0 11.34 0.797
8000.0 2441.0 10.91 0.767
9000.0 2746.0 10.50 0.738
10000.0 3050.0 10.10 0.710
15000.0 4577.0 8.29 0.583

Practical Suction Lift Table - Various Elevations Above Sea Level

Barometer Theoreti- Practical Vacuum
ELEVATION Reading cal Suc- Suction Gauge
tion Lift Lift
(psi) (feet) (feet) (inches)
At sea level 14.7 33.9 22 19.5
¼ mile – 1320 ft – above sea level 14.0 32.4 21 18.6
½ mile – 2640 ft – above sea level 13.3 30.8 20 17.7
¾ mile – 3960 ft – above sea level 12.7 29.2 18 15.9
1 mile – 5280 ft – above sea level 12.0 27.8 17 15.0
1 ¼ mile – 6600 ft – above sea level 11.4 26.4 16 14.2
11/4 mile – 7920 ft – above sea level 10.9 25.1 15 13,3
2 miles – 10560 ft – above sea level 9.9 22.8 14 12.4
Obs: Multiply barometer in inches by 0.491 to obtain psi.

Pressure Head: Is a component of hydraulic head, in which it is combined with elevation head. When
considering dynamic (flowing) systems, there is a third term needed, velocity head. Thus, the three
terms of velocity head, elevation head, and pressure head appear in the head equation derived from
the Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluids:

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Example: If water is replaced by mercury at the same pressure, it shows a rather different value for
pressure head. In fact the specific weight of water is 9.8 kN/m3 and the specific weight of mercury is 133
kN/m3. Then, the height of the column of water will be about 13.6 times taller than a column of mercury,
that is - 133/9.8 = 13.6. So if a water column meter reads "13.6 cm H2O", the equivalent measurement
for mercury will be "1.00 cm Hg".

PRESSURE AND EQUIVALENT FEET HEAD OF WATER

psi Feet Head psi Feet Head psi Feet Head psi Feet Head

1.0 2.31 20.0 46.28 120.0 277.07 225.0 519.51

2.0 4.62 25.0 57.72 125.0 288.62 250.0 577.24
3.0 6.93 30.0 69.27 130.0 300.16 275.0 643.03
4.0 9.24 40.0 92.36 140.0 323.25 300.0 692.69
5.0 11.54 50.0 115.45 150.0 346.34 325.0 750.41
6.0 13.85 60.0 138.54 160.0 369.43 350.0 808.13
7.0 16.16 70.0 161.63 170.0 392.52 375.0 865.89
8.0 18.47 80.0 184.72 180.0 415.61 400.0 922.58
9.0 20.78 90.0 207.81 190.0 438.90 500.0 1154.48
10.0 23.09 100.0 230.90 200.0 461.78 1000.0 2310.00
15.0 34.63 110.0 253.98

Inches of Feet of Inches of Feet of Inches of Feet of

psi psi psi
Mercury Water Mercury Water Mercury Water
1.0 1.13 0.49 11.0 12.44 5.39 21.0 23.75 10.28
2.0 2.26 0.98 12.0 13.57 5.87 22.0 24.88 10.77
3.0 3.39 1.47 13.0 14.70 6.37 23.0 26.00 11.26
4.0 4.52 1.95 14.0 15.83 6.85 24.0 27,14 11.75
5.0 5.65 2.45 15.0 16.96 7.34 25.0 28.27 12.24
6.0 6.78 2.94 16.0 18.09 7.83 26.0 29.40 12.73
7.0 7.91 3.43 17.0 19.22 8.32 27.0 30.53 13.22
8.0 9.04 3.92 18.0 20.35 8.82 28.0 31.66 13.71
9.0 10.17 4.40 19.0 21.48 9.30 29.0 32.79 14.20
10.0 11.31 4.89 20.0 22.61 9.79 29.92 33.83 14.65

Example: An inlet pressure gage is installed in a 2 inches pipe in front of a pump delivering 100 gpm
oil with Specific Gravity = 0.9, reading 10 psig. Calculate the Velocity Head and Total Suction Pressure:

The pipe net area is:

A = 3.14 x d² / 4 = 3.14 x 2² / 4 = 3.14 in²

The fluid velocity is:

v = (Q x 0.321) / A = (100 x 0.321) / 3.14 = 10.2 ft/s

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The Velocity Head is:

Vh = v² / 2g = 10.2² / (2 x 32.2) = 1.6 ft., or,

Vh = 1.6 x 0.9 / 2.31 = 0.6 psi.

The Total Suction Pressure is:

Hs = 10 + 0.6 = 10.6 psi, or,

Hs = 10.6 x 2.31 / 0.9 = 27.2 feet of water

Pump Capacity Relationship: As liquids are essentially incompressible, the capacity is directly related
with the velocity of flow in the suction pipe. This relationship is as follows:

GPM = 449 * v * A =

Where

v = Velocity of flow, feet per second (fps);

A = Area of pipe, ft².

Pipe Diameter – Minimum Recommended: The recommended suction inlet size (D) may be:

D = (0.0744 Q) 0.5 =

Where:

D = Pipe diameter, inches;

Q = Flow rate in gallons per minute (GPM).

Clear fluids:

d = 0.73 √ Q / SG =
ρ 0.33

Corrosive fluids:

d = 1.03 √ Q / SG =
ρ 0.33

d = Pipe inner diameter, inches;

Q = Flow rate, GPM;
SG = Specific Gravity;
ρ = Fluid density, lb/ft².

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Vapor Pressure: A fluid’s vapor pressure is the force per unit area that a fluid exerts as an effort to
change phase from a liquid to a vapor, and depends on the fluid’s chemical and physical properties. At
60°F, the vapor pressure of water is approximately 0.25 psia; at 212°F (boiling point of water) the va-
por pressure is 14.7 psia (atmospheric pressure).

Water Vapor Pressure Table

Temperature Abs. Water Vapor Pressure Max. Elevation

C° F° psi/psia bar (m) (ft)

0 32 0.0886 0.0061 0.062 0.2044
5 40 0.1217 0.0084 0.085 0.2807
10 50 0.1781 0.0122 0.125 0.4108
15 60 0.2563 0.0176 0.180 0.5912
21 70 0.3631 0.0250 0.255 0.8376
25 77 0.4593 0.0316 0.322 1.0594
30 86 0.6152 0.0424 0.432 1.4190
35 95 0.8153 0.0562 0.573 1.8806
40 104 1.069 0.0737 0.751 2.4658
45 113 1.389 0.0957 0.976 3.2040
50 122 1.789 0.1233 1.258 4.1267
55 131 2.282 0.1573 1.604 5.2639
60 140 2.888 0.1991 2.030 6.6618
65 149 3.635 0.2506 2.555 8.3849
70 158 4.519 0.3115 3.177 10.424
75 167 5.601 0.3861 3.938 12.9199
80 176 6.866 0.4733 4.827 15.8379
85 185 8.398 0.5790 5.904 19.3718
90 194 10.167 0.7010 7.148 23.4524
95 203 12.257 0.8450 8.618 28.2735
100 212 14.695 1.0132 10.332 33.8973

Note: In US and imperial units, the unit used for mass is the slug and not the lbm. 1 slug = 32.174 lbm.

Pump Flow Specific Speed: The specific speeds of centrifugal pumps range from 500 to 20,000 de-
pending upon the design. Pumps of the same specific speed (Ns), but with different sizes are considered
to be geometrically similar, one pump being a size-factor of the other, as indicated in table below:

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Ns = N x Q0.5 =
H 0.75

Ns = Specific speed, dimensionless;

Q = Flow capacity at best efficiency point at maximum impeller diameter, GPM;
H = Head at maximum impeller diameter, ft;
N = Pumps speed, RPM.

Recommended Flow Velocity: In general - a rule of thumb - is to keep the suction fluid flow speed
below the following values:

Pipe Diameter Flow Velocity - Water

inches mm m/s ft/s
1 25 0.5 1.5
2 50 0.5 1.6
3 75 0.5 1.7
4 100 0.55 1.8
6 150 0.6 2
8 200 0.75 2.5
10 250 0.9 3
12 300 1.4 4.5

Fluid velocity should not exceed 4 ft/s and, depending on the pipe sizes involved, always select the
next larger pipe diameter, that will result in acceptable pipe velocities.

The velocity formulae may be:

v = Q x 0.4085 / d2 = (Imperial Units)

or,

v = (Q x 0.321) / A =

Where:

v = Velocity (ft/s);
Q = Volume flow (GPM);
d = Pipe inside diameter (inches);

Constant = 0.4085 and 0.321 (used to convert GPM into cubic feet and then, velocity in ft/s).

v = 1.274 Q / d2 = (Metric Units)

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v = Velocity (m/s);
Q = Volume flow (m 3/s);
d = Pipe inside diameter (m).

Pump Impeller Speed: A handy formula for the pump impeller speed is:

V=NxD=
229

V = Peripheral impeller velocity, ft/s;

N = Impeller rotation, RPM;
D = Impeller diameter.

Example: What is the velocity of flow for a 1" polyethylene sewage pipe, 1.189" ID, with a flow rate of 8
GPM?

v = 0.4085 x 8 / (1.189)²
v = 0.4085 x 8 / 1.41
v = 2.3 ft/s

Specific Speeds for Centrifugal Pumps

Example: Given a centrifugal pump at 3570 RPM, flow capacity 2000 GPM and head of 500 ft, the spe-
cific speed is calculated as:

Ns = N x Q0.5 =
H 0.75

Ns = 3570 x 2000 0.5 = 1510

500 0.75

Centrifugal Force Theory: The equation that describes the relationship of velocity, height and gravity
applied to a falling body is:

v² = 2 g h =

Where:

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v = Velocity of the body, ft/s;

g = Acceleration due gravity, 32.2 ft/s²;
h = Distance the body falls, ft.

The peripheral velocity or, the outside travelling point of a rotating body in one second is:

v = π D n / 60 =

Where:

D = Diameter of rotating body or impeller, inches;

n = Rotation of the rotating body or impeller in minutes, RPM.

The same equation applies when pumping water with a centrifugal pump. If we rearrange the falling body
equation we get the velocity head - known as dynamic head as a measure of a fluid’s kinetic energy:

h = v² / 2g.

This relationship is one of fundamental laws of centrifugal pumps. Applying this theory with a practical
application, take the example below:

Example: Installing an 1800 RPM centrifugal pump, what will be the necessary diameter of the impel-
ler to develop a head of 200 ft?

v² = 2 g h
v² = 2 x 32.2 x 200 = 12880 ft²/s² = 113 ft/s

The peripheral velocity is:

v = π d n / 60, then:
d = 60 v / π n = 60 x 113 / π 1800 = 1.2 ft (14.4 inches)

Example: The inlet diameter of a centrifugal pump (figure below) is 28 in. and the outlet mas flow
through the pump is 9200 lb/s. Density of the fluid is 49 lb/ft³. What is the velocity at the pump inlet?

A = π.r² = π x (14 / 12)2 = 4.28 ft²

m = ρ x A x v = 9200 lb/s

v = 9200 lb/s = 9200 lb/s…… =

Axρ 4.28 ft² x 49 lb/ft³

v = 43.9 ft/s

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Example: What is the velocity of a stone thrown from a building window 100 ft high?

v² = 2 g h
v² = 2 x 32.2 x 100 = 6440 ft²/s² =
v = 80.3 ft/s

Pump System Power: The Brake Horsepower (BHP) is the actual horsepower delivered to the pump
shaft, defined as follows:

BHP = Q x H x SG / 3960 x Pη =

Where:

Q = Capacity, gallons per minute;

H = Total Differential Head in absolute, feet;
SG = Specific Gravity of the liquid;
Pη = Pump efficiency as a percentage.

The actual or brake horsepower (BHP) of a pump will be greater than the WHP by the amount of losses
incurred within the pump through friction, leakage and recirculation, defined as follows:

WHP = Q x H x SG / 3960 =

Where

Q = Capacity in gallons per minute;

H = Total Differential Head in absolute feet;
SG = Specific Gravity of the liquid.

Obs.: The constant (3960) is the number of foot-pounds in one horsepower (33,000) divided by the
weight of one gallon of water (8.33 pounds).

Example: Assume frictionless flow in a long, horizontal, conical pipe. The diameter is 2.0 ft (radius = 1
ft) at one end and 4.0 ft (radius = 2 ft) at the other. If water flows through this cone at a rate of 125.6
ft³/s, find the velocities at the two ends and the pressure head at the larger end.

v1 = Q1 v2 = Q2
A1 A2

v1 = 125.6 v2 = 125.6
π x (1)2 π x (2)2
v1 = 40 ft/s v2 = 10 ft/s

Example: Water is pumped from a large reservoir to a point 65 ft higher. How many feet of head must
be added by the pump, if 8000 lb/h flows through a 6 inch pipe and the frictional head loss (Hf) is 2.0
ft? The density of the fluid is 62.4 lb/ft³, and the cross-sectional area of the pipe is 0.2006 ft².

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m=ρxAxv=
v= m…
ρxA

v= 8000 lb/h..............
(62.4 lb/ft³) (0.2006 ft²

v = 639 ft/h = 0.178 ft/s

Affinity Laws for Pumps: The pump performance parameters (flow rate, head and power) will change
with varying rotating speeds. As can be seen below, doubling the rotating speed of the centrifugal
pump will increase the power consumption by 8 times. This forms the basis for energy conservation
in centrifugal pumps with varying flow requirements. The equations that explain these relationships are
known as the “Affinity Laws”.

 Flow rate (Q) is proportional to the rotating speed (N);

 Head (H) is proportional to the square of the rotating speed;
 Power (P) is proportional to the cube of the rotating speed.

Example: A centrifugal pump, at 1750 RPM, has the following performance, Q = 1000 GPM; h = 150 ft.;
N = 45 HP. What will the performance of this pump at 2900 RPM?

a) Q = 1000 x (2900 / 1750) = 1660 GPM;

b) h = 150 x (2900 / 1750)² = 411 ft;
c) N = 45 x (2900 / 1750)³ = 205 HP.

Pump Performance Curve: The rate of flow at a certain head is called the duty point. The pump per-
formance curve is made up of many duty points. The amount of the pump pressure dictates where the
performance point will be on the curve and how much flow is produced. As pressure increases, the flow
decreases moving your performance point to the left of the curve. As pressure decreases, the perfor-

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mance point runs out to the right of the curve and flow increases. The pump operating point is deter-
mined by the intersection of the system curve and the pump curve as shown below:

III. PIPING FUNDAMENTALS:

Volumetric Flow Rate: The volumetric flow rate (Q - ft³/s) can be calculated as the product of the
cross sectional area (A - ft²) for flow and the average flow velocity (v – ft/s).

Q=Axv=

Example: A pipe with an inner diameter of 4 inches contains water that flows at an average velocity
of 14 ft/s. Calculate the volumetric flow rate of water in the pipe.

Q = (π.r²).v =
Q = (π x 0.16² ft) x 14 ft/s = 1.22 ft³/s

Mass Flow Rate: Is related to the volumetric flow rate as shown in equation below:

m=ρxv=

Replacing with the appropriate terms allows the calculation of direct mass flow rate:

m = ρ x (A x v) =

Example: The water in the pipe, (previous example) had a density of 62.44 lb/ft³ and a velocity of 1.22
ft/s. Calculate the mass flow rate.

m=ρxv=
m = 62.44 lb/ft³ x 1.22 ft/s =
m = 76.2 lb/s

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Continuity Equation: The continuity equation is simply a mathematical expression of the principle of
conservation of mass. The continuity equation is:

m (inlet) = m (outlet)

(ρ1 x A1 x v1) inlet = (ρ2 x A2 x v2) outlet =

(ρ1 x (R1)2 x v1) inlet = (ρ2 x (R2)2 x v2) outlet =

Example: In a piping process undergoes a gradual expansion from a diameter of 6 in. to a diameter of
8 in. The density of the fluid in the pipe is constant at 60.8 lb/ft³. If the flow velocity is 22.4 ft/s in the 6
in. section, what is the flow velocity in the 8 in. section?

m (inlet) = m (outlet) =

(ρ1 x (R1)2 x v1) inlet = (ρ2 x (R2)2 x v2) outlet =

v2 (outlet) = v1 x ρ1 x (R1)2 =
ρ2 (R2)2
ρ = ρ1 = ρ2

v2 (outlet) = v1 x ρ1 x (R1)2 =
ρ2 (R2)

v2 (outlet) = 22.4 ft/s x 60.8 lb/ft³ x (3)2 =

60.8 lb/ft³ (4)2

v2 (outlet) = 12.6 ft/s - (the flow velocity decreases in the 8 in. section).

Viscosity and Density: Viscosity can be defined as the flow speed of a liquid. Density is the mass per
unit volume of a liquid. When a viscous liquid is heated, its flow speed is increased, but the density still
remains the same. However, both properties are affected by temperature. When a fluid is heated, its
particles move far apart, and it also becomes less viscous.

a) Metric or SI System: In this system of units the kilogram (kg) is the standard unit of mass, a cubic
meter is the standard unit of volume and the second is the standard unit of time.

Density ρ: The density of a fluid is obtained by dividing the mass of the fluid by the volume of the fluid,
normally expressed as kg / cubic meter.

ρ = kg/m³

Note: Sometimes the term “Relative Density” is used to describe the density of a fluid. Relative density is
the fluid density divided by 1000 kg/m³. Example: relative density of water = 1000 / 1000 kg/m³ = 1.0.
However, water at a temperature of 20°C has a relative density of 0.998.

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Dynamic Viscosity, μ: Viscosity describes a fluids resistance to flow. Dynamic Viscosity also known as
Poise is also referred to as Absolute Viscosity, obtained by dividing the shear stress by the rate of shear
strain. The units of Dynamic Viscosity are: Force / area x time. This unit can be combined with time (sec)
to define Dynamic Viscosity. The Centipoise (cP) is also commonly used to describe the Dynamic Vis-
cosity. The Pascal unit (Pa) is calculated as pressure = force / area.

μ = Pa•s
1.00 Pa•s = 10 Poise = 1000 Centipoise.

Obs.: Water temperature of 20°C has a viscosity of 1.002 cP, or 1.002 x 10-3 Pa.s.

Kinematic Viscosity, v: Kinematic Viscosity is measured by timing the flow of a known volume of fluid
from a viscosity measuring cup, whose value is the Stokes or Centistokes (cSt). The unit of the Kine-
matic Viscosity as area / time is:

v = m²/s
1.0 m²/s = 10,000 Stokes = 1,000,000 Centistokes.

Water at a temperature of 20°C has a viscosity of 1.004 x 10-6 m²/s or 1.004000 Centistokes. This
value must be converted back to 1.004 x 10-6 m²/s for use in calculations.

Kinematic Viscosity and Dynamic Viscosity Relationship: Kinematic Viscosity can also be deter-
mined by dividing the Dynamic Viscosity by the fluid density. The Poise is used as Dynamic Viscosity,
and the unit is often divided by 100, and for smaller unit, the centipoise (cP), where:

Dynamic viscosity, μ = Pa.s (Pascal. second). Substitute for Pa = N/m² and N = kg.m/s².
Therefore, μ = Pa.s = kg / (m.s)

Dynamic viscosity may also be expressed in the CGS system (centimeter-gram-second) as g/(cm.s),
dyne s/cm 2 or poise (P) where, 1 poise = 1 dyne s/cm2 = 1 g/(cm.s) = 1/10 Pa.s = 1/10 N s/m2.

Example: 1 P = 100 cP = 1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.01 gram per cm second = 0.001 Pascal second = 1
milliPascal second = 0.001 N s/m 2.

Obs.: Water at a temperature of 20°C (68°F) has the absolute viscosity of 1.0 Centipoise. The relation-
ship of the Kinematic Viscosity is, Centistokes:

Centipoise / Density = v = μ / ρ.

Kinematic Viscosity = v = μ / ρ = (kg/(m.s) x 10-3) / (kg/m³) = m²/s x 10-6.

b) Imperial Units: In this system of units the pound (lb) is the standard unit of weight, a cubic foot is
the standard unit of volume and the second is the standard unit of time. This is the mass that will ac-
celerate by 1 ft/s when a force of one pound (lbf) is applied to the mass. The acceleration due to
gravity (g) is 32.17 ft per second per second. The standard unit of mass is the slug. To obtain the
mass of a fluid the weight (lb) must be divided by 32.17.

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Density, ρ: Density is normally expressed as mass (slugs) per cubic foot. The weight of a fluid can be
expressed as pounds per cubic foot.

ρ = slugs/ft³ =

Water at a temperature of 70°F has a density of 1.936 slug/ft³ = (62.286 lb/ft³)

Dynamic Viscosity, μ: The units of dynamic viscosity are: Force / area x time, μ = lb.s/ft². Water at a
temperature of 70°F has a viscosity of 2.04 x 10-5 lb.s/ft²

1.0 lb.s/ft² = 47880.26 Centipoise

Kinematic Viscosity, v: The unit of Kinematic Viscosity is area / time:

v = ft²/s
1.00 ft²/s = 929.034116 Stokes = 92903.4116 Centistokes

Water at a temperature of 70°F has a viscosity of 10.5900 x 10-6 ft²/s (0.98384713 Centistokes)

Kinematic Viscosity and Dynamic Viscosity Relationship: The Imperial unit for Kinematic Viscosity is
ft²/s. To understand the Imperial units involved in this relationship it will be necessary to use an example:

Kinematic Viscosity = Dynamic Viscosity / Density:

v=μ/ρ

Dynamic viscosity μ = lb.s/ft²

Density ρ = slug/ft³

Substitute for slug = lb/32.17 ft.s²

Density ρ = (lb/32.174 ft.s²)/ft³ = (lb/32.17.s²)/ft4 =

Table of Water Properties

T Density v T Density v
Fluid
(°F) (slug/ft3) (ft2/s) (°C) (kg/m3) (m2/s)
Water 70 1.936 1.05 x 105 20 998.2 1.00 x 106
Water 40 1.94 1.66 x 105 5 1000 1.52 x 106
Seawater 60 1.99 1.26 x 105 16 1030 1.17 x 106

Note: slugs/ft³ can be expressed in terms of lb.s²/ ft4 =

Kinematic Viscosity v = (lb.s/ft²)/(slug/ft³), substitute lb.s²/ ft4 for slug/ft³ =

Kinematic Viscosity, v = (lb.s/ft²) / (lb.s²/ ft4) = ft²/s.

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Conversions: It is possible to convert between the Imperial system and the Metric system by substi-
tuting the equivalent of each dimension with the appropriate value.

The density of water is 1.94 slug/ft³ = ~1000 kg/m³ (1 gr/cm³).

Reynolds Number: The Reynolds Number, based on studies of Osborn Reynolds, is a dimensionless
number comprised of the physical characteristics of the flow. The flow regime, called commonly laminar
or turbulent, is determined by evaluating the Reynolds Number of the flow.

If the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar. Reynolds numbers between 2000 and
3500 are sometimes referred to as transitional flows. If it is greater than 3500, the flow is turbulent.
Most fluid systems in plant facilities operate with turbulent flow. The equation used to calculate the
Reynolds Number for fluid flow is:

Re = ρ v D or, Re = ρ v D =
μ gc μ

Where:

Re = Reynolds Number (unitless)

v = Velocity (ft/sec)
D = Diameter of pipe (ft)
μ = Absolute Viscosity of fluid (lbf.s/ft²)
ρ = Fluid Density (lb/ft³)
gc = Gravitational constant (32.17 ft-lbm/lbf-s²)

Obs.: Reynolds numbers can also be conveniently determined using a Moody Chart.

Head Loss, Darcy – Weisbach & Moody Chart: Head loss is a measure of the reduction in the total
head (sum of elevation head, velocity head and pressure head) of the fluid as it moves through a fluid
system. The head loss is directly proportional to the length of pipe, the square of the velocity, and a
term for fluid friction called the friction factor.

Darcy-Weisbach Head Loss, Hf = f. L v2 =

D 2g
Where:

f = Friction Factor (see Moody Chart)

L = Length of pipe, ft
v = Velocity of fluid, ft/s
D = Diameter of pipe, ft
g = Acceleration due gravity (ft/s²)

Friction Factor, Moody Chart: The Moody Chart can be used to determine the friction factor based
on the Reynolds Number and the relative roughness, which is equals the average height of surface
irregularities (ε) divided by the pipe diameter (D) – see specific table.

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Moody Chart:

Example: Determine the friction factor (f) for fluid flow in a pipe that has a Reynolds number of
40,000 and a relative roughness of 0.01.

a) Using the Moody Chart, a Reynolds number of 40,000 intersects the curve corresponding to a rela-
tive roughness of 0.01 at a friction factor of 0.038 and indicates a transition zone (see above graphic).

b) As a rule of thumb, for transition flow with Reynolds numbers between 4,000 and 100,000, SI friction
factors will be of the order suggested by equation 1, whilst Imperial friction factors will be of the order
suggested by equation 2. Consider the equations below only for an estimating calculation.

f = ~ 0.55. f = ~ 0.3.. Example (above): f = ~ 0.55….. = 0.039

Re 0.25 Re 0.25 40,000 0.25
(Equation 1) (Equation 2)

Darcy-Weisbach Equations: Can be calculated using a relationship known as frictional head loss.
The calculation takes two distinct forms. The first form is associated with the piping length and the
second form is associated with the piping fittings and accessories, with a coefficient “K”.

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a) Darcy-Weisbach equation associated with piping length:

Hf = f x L v2 =
D 2g

Where:

f = Friction factor (unitless)

L = Length of pipe (ft)
D = Diameter of pipe (ft)
v = Velocity of fluid (ft/s)
g = Acceleration due gravity (ft/s²)

b) Simplified Pressure Drop: The equation for calculating the simplified pressure drop is:

Δp = ρ x g x Hf =

Where:

ρ = Density of fluid, in slugs/ft³;

g = Acceleration due gravity, 32.17 ft/s²;
Hf = Frictional head loss.

Example: Using the same example above, calculate the simplified pressure drop (in psi), knowing that
the frictional head loss is Hf = 0.58 and fluid density is 1.94 slugs/ft³.

The simplified pressure drop is:

Δp = ρ x g x Hf =
Δp = 1.94 x 32.17 x 0.58 = 36 lb/ft²
Δp = 36/144 psi = 0.25 psi

Example: A pipe 100 ft long and 20 inches in diameter contains water at 200°F flowing at a mass flow
rate of 700 lb/s. The water has a density of 60 lb/ft³ and a viscosity of 1.978 x 10-7 lbf-s/ft². The rela-
tive roughness of the pipe is ε = 0.0001. Calculate the head loss for the pipe.

m=ρxAxv=
v = m...
ρxA

v= 700 lb/s………… =
(60 lb/ft³) x π x (10 in)²
144
v = 5.35 ft/s

The Reynolds Number is:

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Rn = ρ v D
μ gc

Rn = 60 x 5.35 x (20) = 8.4 x 107

12..........
(1.978 x 10-7)(32.17)

a) The Moody Chart for a Reynolds Number of 8.4 x 107 with a relative roughness ε = 0.0001 may be
found as, f = 0.012, then:

Hf = f x L v2 =
D 2g

Hf = (0.012) 100. (5.35)² =

20 2 x 32.17
12
Hf = 0.32 ft

b) Darcy – Weisbach Pipe Fittings Loss: The Darcy-Weisbach equation for minor losses for piping
fittings and accessories is the second form, expressed in terms of the equivalent length of pipe, con-
sidering a resistance coefficient “K”, to be used according to table below:

Hf = K (v² / 2g) =

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Hazen-Williams Equation: Since the approach does not require so efficient trial and error, an alterna-
tive empirical piping head loss calculation like Hazen-Williams equation, may be preferred, as indicat-
ed below:

Hf = 0.2083 (100 / C) 1.85 x Q1.85 = (in feet); Hf = 10.64 x Q1.85 = (in meters)
D4.8655 C1.85 D4.8655
Where:

f = Friction head loss in feet of water (per 100 ft of pipe);

C = Hazen-Williams roughness constant (see table below);
Q = Volume flow (gpm);
D = Inside pipe diameter (inches);
L = Length of pipe, (in. or m).

Hazen-Williams Coefficients: The usual coefficients are “C” for friction loss calculation and “ε” for pipe
surface roughness, using some common materials that can be found in the tables below:

Hazen-Williams
Pipe or Duct Material
Coefficient - C

Aluminum 130 - 150

Fiber Glass Pipe - FRP 150
Cast Iron, Wrought Plain 120
Polyethylene, PE, PEH 140
Galvanized Steel, Standard Steel Pipe 100

Pipe Surface Roughness, ε:

Pipe or Duct Material Surface Roughness, ε
Feet Meters
PVC, Plastic or Glass 0.0 0.0
Galvanized and Commercial Steel or Wrought Iron 0.00015 0.000045
Galvanized Iron 0.0005 0.00015
Cast Iron 0.00085 0.00026

Example: Calculate the frictional head loss (in ft) for a flow rate of 0.60 ft³/sec of water at 50°F,
through a length of 100 ft with 6 inch diameter galvanized iron pipe. Use the Moody Chart to find “f”.

a) At 50°F the properties of water are:

Density = ρ = 1.94 slugs/ft³, Viscosity = μ = 2.73 x 10-5 lb-s/ft²

b) Water velocity = V = Q / (πD²/4) = 0.60/(π(6/12)2/4) = 3.1 ft/sec

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Reynolds Number = Re = D x V x ρ/μ = (0.5)(3.1)(1.94) / (2.73 x 105) = 1.08 x 105

c) From the pipe roughness table, for Galvanized Iron: ε = 0.0005 ft. The Pipe roughness ratio is = ε/D =
0.0005/0.5 = 0.001

From the Moody diagram, the point for Re = 1.08 x 105 and ε/D = 0.001, then f = ~0.02

Hf = f L v2 = (Given D = (6 inches/12) = 0.5 ft, L = 100 ft, v = 3.1 ft/s and f = 0.02, g = 32.17 ft/s²);
D 2g

The frictional head loss becomes: Hf = (0.02) (100) (3.1)2 = 0.58

(0.5) x 2 (32.17)

Hazen Williams Calculation Table:

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Example: Calculate the Total Dynamic Head (TDH) according to figure below:

a) The total suction head (Hs) calculations are:

1. The suction head is negative because the liquid level is below the centerline of the pump:

hss = - 6 feet

2. The suction surface pressure: the tank is open, so pressure equals atmospheric pressure:

hps = 0 feet, gauge

3. Assume the suction friction head as:

hfs = 4 feet

4. The total suction head is:

Hs = hss + hps - hfs =

Hs = - 6 + 0 - 4 = - 10 feet

b) The total discharge head (Hd) calculations are:

1. The static discharge head is:

hsd = 125 feet

2. The discharge surface pressure: the discharge tank is also open to atmospheric pressure, thus:

hpd = 0 feet, gauge

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3. Assume the discharge friction head as:

hfd = 25 feet

4. The total discharge head is:

Hd = hsd + hpd + hfd =

Hd = 125 + 0 + 25 = 150 feet

The Total Dynamic Head calculation is:

TDH = Hd - Hs =

TDH = 150 - (- 10) = 160 feet

Example: Take the following data for the pump system below:

1. Transferring 1000 GPM weak acid from the vacuum receiver to the storage tank;
2. Specific Gravity – SG = 0.98;
3. Viscosity - equal to water;
4. Piping – suction and discharge piping - all 6" Schedule 40 steel pipes;
5. Discharge piping rises 40 feet vertically, plus 400 feet horizontally. Only one 90° flanged elbow.
6. Suction piping has a square edge inlet, 4 feet long, one gate valve and one 90° flanged elbow;
7. The minimum level in the vacuum receiver is 5 feet above the pump centerline.
8. The pressure on top of the liquid in the vacuum receiver is 20 inches of mercury, vacuum.

a) The total suction head (Hs) calculation is:

1. The suction static head is 5 feet above suction centerline. The suction pipe is 4 ft long.

hss = 5 feet

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2. To calculate the suction surface pressure use one of the following formulae:

Feet of Liquid = Inches of mercury x 1.133 / Specific Gravity

Feet of Liquid = Pounds per square inch x 2.31 / Specific Gravity
Feet of Liquid = Millimeters of mercury / (22.4 x Specific Gravity)

Then, using the first formula, the suction surface pressure is:

hps = - 20 Hg x 1.133 / 0.98 = - 23.12 feet water

3. The suction friction head (hfs). Friction loss in 6" pipe, at a flow rate 1000 GPM, considering the
Hazen-Williams equation is 12.26 feet per 100 feet of pipe.

The friction loss for a 6”diameter x 4 ft long pipe is = 4/100 x 12.26 = 0.49 feet.

The friction loss coefficients (K factors) for the inlet, elbow and valve can be added together and multi-
plied by the velocity head. There is no K factor for the square inlet, assume K = 0.45.

Fittings K From Table

6" – Square edge inlet 0.45
6" - 90º flanged elbow 0.45 Page 24
6" - Gate valve 0.12

Total coefficient, K = 1.02

The total friction loss (hfs) on the suction side is:

hfs = 0.49 + 1.02 = 1.51 feet

4. The total suction head (Hs) then becomes:

Hs = hss + hps - hfs =

Hs = 5 + (- 23.12) – 1.51 = - 19.6 feet

b) The total discharge head (Hd) calculation is:

1. Static discharge head = hsd = 40 feet

2. Discharge surface pressure = hpd = 0 feet gauge
3. Discharge friction head = hfd = sum of the following losses:

The friction loss for a 6" pipe at 1000 GPM from table indicated above is: 6.17 feet / 100 feet of pipe.

Considering the 440 feet of pipe, the friction loss = 440/100 x 6.17 = 27.2 feet

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The friction loss for a 6" elbow, K = 0.45

Q = 1000 GPM = ~2.3 ft³/s, and pipe radius = 3” /12 = 0.25 ft;
The flow velocity, v = Q / A = 2.3 ft³/s / π. 0.25² = 11.36 ft/s;
From equation, Vh = v2 / 2g = 11.36² / 64.34 = 2.0 ft.

Friction loss = K x Vh = 0.45 x 2.0 = 0.9 feet

The friction loss in the sudden enlargement at the end of the discharge line is called the exit loss. Then
the velocity in discharge tank friction loss at exit is:

Vh = v2 / 2g = 2.0 feet

The discharge friction head (hfd) is the sum of the above losses, that is:

hfd = 27.2 + 0.9 + 2.0 = 30.1 feet

4. The total discharge head (Hd) becomes:

Hd = hsd + hpd + hfd = 40 + 0 + 30.1 = 70.1 feet

c) The Total Dynamic Head (TDH) calculation:

TDH = Hd - Hs = 70.1 - (- 19.6) =

TDH = 89.7 feet.

IV. CALCULATING THE NPSH:

The term NPSH means Net Positive Suction Head. The motive to calculate the NPSH of any pump is
to avoid the cavitation or corrosion of the parts during the normal process. The main concepts of NPSH
are: the NPSHr (required) and NPSHa (available), Vapor Pressure, Static Head, Atmospheric Pres-
sure, Specific Gravity and Friction Loss:

a) NPSHr: Can be found in a manufacturing catalog of pumps, a technician or an engineer is choos-

ing to apply in a project or installation. The manufacturer always shows the graphic curves of all line
pumps manufactured by the company, indicating the required NPSH for each product.

b) NPSHa: Is the normal calculation the technician or the engineer has to perform to find which of pump,
from that manufacturing catalog, will better fit in his project or installation. Then, to calculate the available
NPSH of a pump is necessary to know the following concepts: NPSHa (available) > NPSHr (required).

c) Vapor Pressure: The vapor pressure units, commonly given in feet or meters, depend completely
from the temperature and the altitude. At 212°F or 100ºC (boiling point of water) the water vapor
pressure is 33.9 feet (14.7 psia) or 10.33 m (1.033 kg/cm²). See the basic tables below:

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Temperature, 32 40 50 60 70 122 149 167 212

F°/ C° 0 5 10 15 21 50 65 75 100
Vapor Pressure, 0.204 0.280 0.410 0.591 0.837 4.126 8.384 12.919 33.9
feet / meters 0.062 0.085 0.125 0.180 0.255 1.258 2.555 3.938 10.33
Vapor Pressure, 0.088 0.122 0.178 0,256 0.363 1.789 3.635 5.601 14.7
psia / kg/cm² 0.006 0.008 0.012 0.018 0.025 0.123 0.255 0.394 1.033

Altitude at Sea Level, 0 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 5000 7000 10000
Feet / Meters 0 153 305 458 610 915 1526 2136 3050
Pressure, 33.9 33.28 32.65 32.08 31.50 30.37 28.20 26.15 23.29
feet / meters 10.33 10.15 9.56 9.78 9.60 9.26 8.60 7.97 7.10
Pressure, 14.7 14.43 14.16 13.91 13.66 13.17 12.23 11.34 10.10
psia / kg/cm² 1.033 1.015 0.956 0.978 0.960 0.926 0.860 0.797 0.710

Note: Imperial and Metric Relations:

1 foot of head = 0.433 psi = ~0.030 kg/cm²

1.0 psi = 0.0703 kg/cm² = 2.31 feet

d) Static Head: Is positive when liquid line is above pump centerline and negative when liquid line is
below pump centerline.

Head, feet = psi x 2.31, or, Vapor Pressure (psi) x 2.31 =

Sg Sg

e) Atmospheric Pressure: When the pump to be installed is according to altitude from sea level (see
table above).

Pressure, psi = Head x Sg =

2.31

f) Specific Gravity: Is the substance density compared to water. The density of water at standard
temperature is 1 g/cm3 = 1 g/liter. So, the Specific Gravity (Sg) of water is 1.0.

g) Friction Loss: Is a measure of the reduction in the total head (sum of elevation head, velocity head
and pressure head) of the fluid as it moves through a fluid system.

Head Loss, Hf = f L v2 =
D 2g

The technician or engineer also needs to know the formulae that show how to convert vacuum read-
ings to feet of head. The main formulae to convert vacuum readings to feet of head are:

Feet of Liquid = Inches of mercury x 1.133 / Specific Gravity;

Feet of Liquid = Pounds per square inch x 2.31 / Specific Gravity;
Feet of Liquid = Millimeters of mercury / 22.4 x Specific Gravity.

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The side graphic shows the conditions of each item in a complete NPSH process:

Calculating the NPSH Process: As explained above the calculation for the NPSHa is:

NPSHa (converted to head):

NPSHa = + - Static Head + Atmospheric Pressure Head -

Vapor Pressure – Friction Loss in piping, valves and fittings:

NPSHa = +- H + Pa – Pv – Hf =

H = Static Suction Head (positive or negative), in feet

Pa = Atmospheric pressure (psi x 2.31/Sg), in feet

Pv = Vapor pressure (psi x 2.31/Sg), in feet.

Hf = See tables indicating friction loss. Fittings friction loss is

(K x v²/2g), in feet.

Example: Find the NPSHa from below data:

Steel Piping = suction and discharge - 2 inch diameter, total length10 feet, plus 2 x 90° elbow;
Cold water pumping, Q =100 gpm @ 68°F;
Flow velocity, v = 10 ft/s (maximum);
Specific gravity, Sg = 1.0 (clean water).

H = Liquid level is above pump centerline = + 5 feet

Pa = Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 psi - the tank is at sea level
Pv = Water vapor pressure at 68°F = 0.339 psi.

According to pump manufacturer the NPSHr (required), as per the pump curve) = 24 feet.

Using the above formula:

NPSHa = +- H + Pa – Pv – Hf

H - Static head = +5 feet

Pa - Atmospheric pressure = psi x 2.31/Sg. = 14.7 x 2.31/1.0 = +34 feet absolute
Pv – Water vapor pressure at 68°F = psi x 2.31/Sg = 0.339 x 2.31/1.0 = 0.78 feet
Hf - 100 gpm - through 2 inches pipe shows a loss of 36.1 feet for each 100 feet of pipe, then:

Piping friction loss = Hf1 = 10 ft / 100 x 36.1 = 3.61 feet

Fittings friction loss = Hf2 = K x v²/2g = 0.57 x 10² (x 2) = 1.77

2 x 32.17

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Total friction loss for piping and fittings = Hf = (Hf1 + Hf2) = 3.61 + 1.77 = 5.38 feet.

NPSHa (available) = +- H + Pa – Pv – Hf =

NPSHa (available) = + 5 + 34 - 0.78 – 5.38 =

NPSHa (available) = 32.34 feet (NPSHa) > 24 feet (NPSHr), so, the system has plenty to spare.

Example: Using the same data above, find the NPSHa in metric numbers:

Steel Piping = suction and discharge - 2 inch diameter, total length 3.0 m, plus 2 x 90° screwed elbow;
Cold water pumping - 100 gpm = 0.379 m³/min (22.7 m³/h) at 20º C (68º F);
Flow velocity - 2 inches piping = 10 ft/s = ~3.0 m/s

H = Liquid level above pump centerline = +1.5 m

Pa = Atmospheric pressure = 1.033 kg/cm² = at sea level
Pv = Vapor pressure at 20º C = 0.024 kg/cm²
Sg – Specific gravity = 1.0 (1000 kg/m³)

According to pump manufacturer the NPSHr (required), as per the pump curve) = 7.32 m

1) Converting Pa =1.033 kg/cm² in kg/m² we have - 1.033 kg/cm² x 10,000 = 10330 kg/m²

Pa = Water density 1000 kg/m³, then – 10330 kg/m² = 10.33 m of water column (WC);
1000 kg/m³

2) Converting Pv = 0.024 kg/cm² in kg/m² we have – 0.024 kg/cm² x 10,000 = 240 kg/m²

Pv = Water density 1000 kg/m³, then – 240 kg/m² = 0.24 m of water column (WC);
1000 kg/m³
3) Total Friction Loss, Hf:

Piping 2 inches, total length = ……………………………….3.0 m

Equivalent length - 2 inches elbows = 1.1 m (x 2) = ………2.2 m
Total equivalent length = ………………………………………………5.2 m

a) According to the metric tables: for a flow rate 22.7 m³/h (100 gpm) using piping diameter 2 inches
(0.05 m) and length of 100.0 m, the total friction loss is = ~25%

Hf = 5.2 x 25/100 = 1.30 m

b) Using the Darcy - Weisbach formula:

Hf = f. L. v² =
Di. 2 g

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Where:

f = Friction = 0.019 (see table);

Di = Pipe inside diameter = 0.052 m;
L = Piping length = 5.2 m;
v = Velocity rate = 3.2 m/s;
g = Velocity due gravity = 9.8 m/s².

Hf = 0.019. 5.2 x 3.2² = ~1.0

0.052 x 2 x 9.8

The calculated product, Hf = 1.0 will be used in this example:

Then:

NPSHa = +-H + Pa – Pv – hf =

NPSHa = +1.5 + 10.33 – 0.24 – 1.0 = 9.69 m (NPSHa) > 7.32 m (NPSHr).

Cavitation: Associated with head loss, a relationship between NPSHr and Total Dynamic Head. In
1920 the German engineer Dieter Thoma described a parameter known as, Thoma´s cavitation factor:

σ = (Pa – Pv – Hs) / H = (Thoma´s Formula)

Where:

σ = Thoma´s number;
Pa = Atmospheric pressure (at sea level = 33.90 ft);
Pv = Vapor pressure (ft);
Hs = Suction head (ft);
H = Total dynamic head (ft).

Specific Speed (Ns) and Suction Specific Speed (S): Are terms that are no longer limited to the inter-
est of pump designers. The equation for specific speed is:

Ns = n x √ Q =
H 0.75

Suction specific speed is an indicator of impeller inlet geometry.

s=nx√Q=
NPSHr 0.75

In Imperial system, when the NPSHr from a pump manufacturer is not available, evaluation experi-
ences have shown that s = 9000 is a reasonable value of suction specific speed. Then, NPSHr can be
estimated by the following equation:

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9000 = n x √ Q =
NPSHr 0.75

The common calculation to find the NPSHa should be 50% bigger than the NPSHr.

In Metric system, as described above, when the NPSHr from a pump manufacturer is not available, it
can also be estimated by the following equation:

NPSHr = φ x n 4/3 x Q 2/3 =

Where:

φ = 0.0011 for centrifugal pumps;

n = Impeller rotation (RPM);
H = Suction head, ft (m);
Q = Flow rate, CFS (m³/s).

Example: Given data: Pump flow 2,000 GPM; head 600 ft. What NPSHa will be required?

Considering that with a head of 600 ft., 3500 RPM operation will be required, then:

9000 = 3500 x √ 2000 =

NPSHr 0.75

NPSHr 0.75 = 3500 x √ 2000 =

9000

NPSHr = 17.4 1.333

NPSHr = 45 ft.

Thus, the NPSHa will become:

NPSHa = 45 x 1.5 (factor) = 67.5 ft.

Obs.: Remember that - (NPSHa) = 67.5 ft > (NPSHr) = 45 ft.

Example: Calculate the specific speed (Ns) of a centrifugal pump with 1750 RPM, a flow 0.045 m³/s
and total dynamic head of 45.61 m. Consider Pa = 9.5 m, Pv = 0.235 m, Hs = 2.40 m.

Q = 0.045 x 1000 x 60s / 3.78 liters = 714 GPM

H = 45.61m / 0.305 m = ~150 ft

Ns = n x Q 0,5 / H 0,75 =
Ns = 1750 x 714 0,5 / 150 0,75 = 1090

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Considering the Thoma´s formula:

σ = (Pa – Pv – Hs) / H =
σ = (9.5 – 0.235 – 2.40) / 45.61 = 0.15

Example: Estimate the NPSHr: centrifugal pump flow rate = 50 m³/h (0.0139 m³/s); Impeller rotation =
3000 RPM

NPSHr = 0.0011 x 3000 4/3 x 0.0139 2/3 =

NPSHr = 0.0011 x 43152 x 0.058 = 2.75 m

Example: Given the data: pump with 1750 RPM e flow rate 0.045 m³/s. Estimate the NPSHr.

NPSHr = 0.0012 x n 4/3 x Q 2/3 =

NPSHr = 0.0012 x 1750 4/3 x 0,045 2/3 = 0.0012 x 21088 x 0.1265 = 3.2 m

Practical Example: The sketch below is a clean water pumping system to be sized in order to feed a
reservoir:

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Given the data:

Static suction head is negative, hss = - 6 feet;

Suction piping length: 10 ft;
Static discharge head, hsd = 125 feet;
Discharge piping length: 9800 ft;
Flow rate: 480 GPM;
Galvanized steel piping, C = 100;
Elevation = 3000 ft (915 m) - atmospheric pressure, Pa = 13.17 psi; 30.37 ft (table page 39);
Water temperature = 77 °F (25 °C) – vapor pressure, Pv = 0.46 psi; 1.06 ft (table page 24).

1) Minimum recommended suction diameter calculation:

D = (0.0744 Q) 0.5 =
D = (0.0744 x 480) 0.5 =

D = 6 inches – ID 6.07 inches - Sch. 40 steel piping.

2) Flow rate velocity evaluation:

v = Q x 0.4085 / d2
v = 480 x 0.4085 / 6.07² = 5.3 ft/s.

3) Suction fluid velocity should not exceed 4 ft/s then, the next larger pipe diameter that will result
in acceptable pipe velocities, thus:

a) Suction and discharge piping diameter & velocity:

D = 8 inches – ID 7.98 inches – 0.665 ft - Sch. 40 steel piping;

v = 480 x 0.4085 / 7.98² = 3.0 ft/s – this flow velocity is adequate.

b) Suction piping friction loss:

a) Darcy-Weisbach equation associated with piping length:

Hf = f. L v2 = 0.014 x 10 x 3.0² = 0.029 ft

D 2g 0.66 x 64.34

Where:

f = Friction factor (8 inches pipe) = 0.014 (Table page 15)

L = Suction piping length = 10 ft
D = Internal diameter of pipe = 7.98 in = 7.98 / 12 = 0.66 ft
v = Velocity of fluid = 3.0 ft/s
g = Acceleration due gravity = 32.17 ft/s²

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b) The coefficient “K” of fittings to be used according to tables:

Hf = v² = 3.0 ² = 0.14
2g 64.34

1 foot valve 8” with Strainer Hinged Disc - (K = 1.10) = 1.10 x 0.14 = 0.154 ft
1 elbow 8”, 90° - (K = 0.42) = 0.42 x 0.14 = 0.056 ft
1 reduction 8” x 6” – (K = 0.34) = 0.34 x 0.14 = 0.047 ft

Hf (suction) = 0.029 + 0.154 + 0.056 + 0.047 = 0.29 ft

c) Discharge piping friction loss:

1) Darcy-Weisbach with piping length:

Hf = f. L v2 = 0.014 x 9800 x 3.0² = 29.0 ft

D 2g 0.66 x 64.34

2) The coefficient “K” according to tables:

Hf = v² = 3.0 ² = 0.14
2g 64.34

1 reduction 8” x 6” – (K = 0.34) = 0.34 x 0.14 = 0.047 ft;

1 swing check valve 8” – (K = 1.40) = 1.40 x 0.14 = 0.196 ft;
1 gate valve 8” – (K = 0.11) = 0.11 x 0.14 = 0.015 ft;
1 elbow 8”, 90° - (K = 0.42) = 0.42 x 0.14 = 0.056 ft.

Hf (discharge) = 29 + 0.047 + 0.196 + 0.015 + 0.056 = 29.32 ft

Obs.: When the Hazen-Williams are preferred, the equation is as indicated below:

Hf = 0.2083 (100 / C)1.85 x Q1.85 =

D4.8655
Where:

f = Friction head loss in feet of water (per 100 ft of pipe); C = Hazen-Williams roughness constant;
Q = Volume flow (gpm); D = Inside pipe diameter (inches); L = Length of pipe, (in. or m).

1. The Darcy-Weisbach calculation resulted in 0.029 ft for suction piping and 29.0 ft for discharge
piping respectively. The above online friction loss resulted in 0.04 ft and 37.36 ft respectively.

2. However, as can be seen in the figures above, the online calculation uses the parameters of the
Moody Chart. Thus, surely is much more efficient.

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3. As can be noticed the piping head loss calculation is empirical and many times, trial and error. Us-
ing the acceptable results of the link “light my pump” (http://www.pumpfundamentals.com) the piping
friction loss becomes:

Hf (suction) = 0.04 + 0.154 + 0.056 + 0.047 = ~0.3 ft

Hf (discharge) = 37.36 + 0.047 + 0.196 + 0.015 + 0.056 = ~37.7 ft

I) Total Dynamic Head (TDH) calculation:

a) Suction head (Hs):

1. The suction head is negative, hss = - 6 feet;

2. The suction surface pressure, hps = 0 feet, gauge (tank is open, equals atmospheric pressure);

3. The suction friction head is, hfs = 0.3 feet;

4. The total suction head is, (Hs = hss + hps – hfs) then, Hs = -6 + 0 – 0.30 = - 6.3 feet

b) Discharge head (Hd):

1. The static discharge head is, hsd = 125 feet

2. The suction surface pressure, hpd = 0 feet, gauge (tank is open, equals atmospheric pressure);

3. The discharge friction head is, hfd = 37.7 feet

4. The total discharge head is, (Hd = hsd + hpd + hfd) then, Hd = 125 + 0 + 37.7 = 162.7 feet

The Total Dynamic Head (TDH) is, (TDH = Hd – Hs) then, TDH = 162.7 - (- 6.3) = 169.0 feet

II) Brake Horsepower (BHP) calculation:

BHP = Q x H x SG = 480 x 169 x 1.0 = 27 HP

3960 x Pη 3960 x 0.75

Consider, BHP = 30 HP

Q = Capacity, 480 GPM

H = Total Differential Head, 169 ft
SG = Specific gravity, 1.0
Pη = Pump efficiency, assume 75%.

III) NPSHa calculation:

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H - Static head = - 6 feet;

Pa - Elevation = 3000 ft (915 m) - atmospheric pressure, Pa = 13.17 psi; 30.37 ft (table page 39);
Pv - Water temperature = 77 °F (25 °C) – vapor pressure, Pv = 0.46 psi; 1.06 ft (table page 24);
Hf (suction) = 0.3 ft

NPSHa (available) = +- H + Pa – Pv – Hf =

NPSHa (available) = - 6 + 30.37 – 1.06 – 0.3 = 23.0 ft

When the NPSHr is not known, it can be estimate:

9000 = n x √ Q = 3500 x √ 480 =

NPSHr 0.75 NPSHr 0.75

NPSHr 0.75 = 3500 x √ 480 =

9000

NPSHr = 8.5 1.333 = 17.0 ft

NPSHa (available) = 23.0 feet (NPSHa) > 17 feet (NPSHr). The system is acceptable.

Centrifugal Pump Parts: There are a few components that virtually every centrifugal pump has in com-
mon. These components include; an impeller, a volute or diffuser casing, a shaft, shaft sleeves, bearings
and a sealing arrangement. These parts can be subdivided into the wet end and the mechanical end:

Wet End: Includes those parts that dictate the hydraulic performance of pump. An impeller rotates at a
high speed and imparts velocity to the water. The impeller is positioned within the casing, and the casing
converts the velocity generated by the rotation of the impeller into pressure.

Mechanical End: The mechanical end includes those parts that support the impeller within the casing,
seal the casing where the shaft passes and enable rotation, that is, the means by which the wet end cre-
ates flow and pressure. The mechanical portion of the pump includes the pump shaft, shaft sleeve, seal-
ing arrangement, and the bearings.

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Pump Shaft: The shaft is usually made of steel or stainless steel and is sized to support the impeller. An
undersized shaft can result in increased pump vibration, shorter bearing life, the potential for shaft
breakage, and an overall reduced pump life. However, an oversize shaft can increase the cost of the
pump unnecessarily.

Shaft Sleeve: Is a sealing arrangement as a sleeve inserted in a shaft to avoid corrosion or erosion. The
shaft sleeve may be arranged as a gasket packing, or metal (usually bronze or stainless steel), also
called the stuffing box. Sometimes is used a sophisticated mechanical sealing, designed to either slide
or thread onto the shaft, also used to position the impeller correctly on the shaft, beyond protection.

Mechanical Seals: May vary in design, performance, and cost. The simplest seal consists of just a few
parts: a stationary face, a rotating face, a gland, and a spring. The gland fits around the pump shaft and
bolts directly to the face of the stuffing box directly onto the pump casing. The stationary seal ring, some-
times called the mating ring, is sealed to the gland and held in place around the pump shaft by the gland.

The rotating seal ring, sometimes called the primary ring, is sealed to the shaft by an elastomeric ele-
ment, and is pressed against the stationary mating ring by the spring. The spring applies pressure to the
rotating primary ring by pressing against a retaining clip or collar fastened to pump shaft. The stationary
mating ring is sealed to the gland, and the rotating primary ring is sealed to the shaft.

As the pump shaft rotates, the rotating face rotates against the stationary face. A small amount of the
pumped liquid does make its way between the faces but evaporates due to the heat generated by the
rotating seal faces. This small bit of liquid is enough to keep the seal faces cool and lubricated. As long
as the seal faces stay clean, smooth, and lubricated they will eliminate virtually all leakage between the
shaft and the wall of the stuffing box.

Pump Bearings: The final part of the mechanical end is the bearing arrangement, generally standard
ball-type anti-friction bearings. Bearing failures are one of the most common causes of pump downtime,
so design engineers and end-users will often be particularly interested in the specific details about the
design of the bearing arrangement.

Pump Standards: Centrifugal pumps can be segmented into groups based on design, application,
models and service type. Pumps can belong to several different groups depending on their construction
and application. The following examples demonstrate various segments:

ANSI Pump - ASME B73.1 Specifications (chemical industry);

API Pump - API 610 Specifications (oil & gas industry);
DIN Pump - DIN 24256 Specifications (European standard);
ISO Pump - ISO 2858, 5199 Specifications (European standard);
ANSI/API 610-1995: Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery Service;
DIN EN ISO 5199: Technical Specifications for Centrifugal Pumps;
ASME B73.1 - 2001: Specification for Horizontal End Suction Centrifugal Pumps for Chemical Process;
ASME B73.2 - 2003: Specifications for Vertical In-Line Centrifugal Pumps for Chemical Process;
BS 5257 – 1975: Specification for Horizontal End-Suction Centrifugal Pumps (16 bar);
HI - Hydraulic Institute Standards;
Nuclear Pumps, UL/FM Fire Pumps and NFPA Specifications.

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V. REFERENCES:

1. Centrifugal Pumps- University of Sao Paulo, Engineering Lab;

2. Fluid Mechanics – Munson, Young, Okiishi, 4th Edition, 2004;
3. Hydraulics – Horace W. King, 4th Edition, 1945.
4. API: American Petroleum Institute - http://api-ep.api.org/
5. ANSI: American National Standards Institute - http://www.ansi.org/
6. ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers - http://www.asme.org/
7. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: www.asme.org.
8. DIN: Deutsches Institut für Normung - http://www.din.de/
9. NFPA: National Fire Protection Association: www.nfpa.org
10. The North America Pump Inc. - http://www.americapumps.com/

Links:

http://www.tasonline.co.za/toolbox/pipe/veldyn.htm
http://www.lightmypump.com
http://www.mcnallyinstitute.com/
https://www.introtopumps.com/
http://www.engineersedge.com/pumps/pump_components.htm

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