Alternative design approach for thermal effects

27 August 2013

AUTHOR
Sungjin Bae (mailto:[email protected])

Presented
August 18-23, 2013
22nd International Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor
Technology, 
San Francisco, California, USA

Abstract
Stresses resulting from thermal effects are self-relieving. Thermal forces and moments
are greatly reduced or completely relieved with the progress of concrete cracking or
reinforcement yielding. The dependence of thermal effects on concrete cracking and
reinforcement yielding implies that thermal loads will be influenced by mechanical
loads because conditions of concrete cracking and reinforcement yielding will be
different for each mechanical load.

Various approaches have been used to account for thermal effects in design, but the
design consideration for thermal effects has remained a challenge for structural
engineers due to the nature of complexity for accurate assessment of thermal effects.
 
This paper provides an alternative design approach for thermal effects. Unlike the
conventional approaches used in ACI 349 and ACI 359, where the main emphasis was
given for estimating thermal loads and combining them with mechanical loads, the
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Introduction
Thermal effects refer to response of a structure when the structure is exposed to
varying temperature at its surface or temperature gradient through its cross section.
Thermal effects generate deformations and internal forces and moments are
secondary products which occur when constraints are provided against
deformations. The amount of restrained thermal deformations is a function of
imposed temperature distribution, details of a concrete section and restrained
condition. In other words, the amount of restrained deformations, which can be
presented in terms of strains and curvatures, is not affected by either concrete
cracking or reinforcement yielding or mechanical loads. 

The design approach for thermal effects given in ACI 349 (2006), ACI 349.1R (2007)
and ACI 359 (2010) require estimating internal loads induced by temperature effects
and combining them with mechanical loads. The challenge of this design approach is
the dependence of thermal loads on mechanical loads. For an accurate estimate of
thermal loads, they need to be calculated for each load combination as thermal loads
may vary with mechanical loads.
 
In order to account the impact of concrete cracking and reinforcement yielding for
mechanical and thermal loads, a nonlinear finite element analysis may be considered.
However, it requires complex and iterative calculations. More realistic approach to
account for concrete cracking is a hand-calculation method presented in ACI 349.1R.
This hand calculation method calculates thermal moment using a set of formulas.
Since thermal moments are calculated based on mechanical loads and thermal
gradients, reasonable solutions can be obtained. However, the solution of this method
is only valid when mechanical loads produce a cracked section and reinforcement
does not yield. It is important to note that both nonlinear finite element analysis
method and the hand calculation method calculate thermal loads by considering
mechanical loads and thermal deformations, which makes possible accurate
assessment of thermal loads. However, thermal loads may have to be repeatedly
calculated under different load combinations. 

Another design approach is the use of an elastic finite element analysis method with a
reduced modulus of 0.50Ec for concrete in ACI 349.1R. A value of 0.5Ec is
recommended based on past practice, which accounts for various effects of cracking,
creep and yielding. Estimated thermal loads are not dependent on mechanical loads
due to the use of elastic analysis. This method is considered a simple and
approximate approach but the rational of using the value of 0.5Ec is often
questioned. 

Even though the hand calculation method and the elastic finite element analysis
method with a reduced modulus of 0.50Ec are convenient for calculating thermal
moments, they have limited capability for accounting for cracking of concrete and
yield of reinforcement and, thus, the optimum design is difficult to achieve. On the
other hand, a nonlinear finite element analysis may provide accurate estimate of
thermal loads, but is complex and computationally expensive. Moreover, thermal
loads need to be evaluated for each load combination due to the dependency of
thermal loads on mechanical loads. 

This paper introduces an alternative design approach for thermal effects, which
provides an elegant yet more economical solution for considering thermal effects on
designing concrete structures. 

Proposed design approach for thermal effects 

Fig. 1(a) illustrates the effect of thermal gradient on a moment and curvature
response. Thermally-induced moments vary with concrete cracking and
reinforcement yielding. However, it is important to note that restrained thermal
curvatures are constant unless changes of restrained conditions occur. Gurfinkel
(1971) and Kohli and Gürbüz (1975) developed analytical tools to estimate thermal
moments using a constant restrained thermal curvature. Gurfinkel (1971) also found
that a thermal curvature induces smaller moment with the increase of mechanical
moment. The same trend can be observed in Fig. 1(a). 

Total moment, Mu, is the sum of mechanical and thermal moments. The total moment
should be equal to or less than the design flexural strength ϕMn, in order to meet the
strength requirements given in ACI 349. Considering that thermal moments reduce
with the increase of mechanical moments, the thermal moment at which the total
moment is equal to the design flexural strength, ϕMn, will be the minimum thermal
moment which satisfies the code strength requirement of ϕMn > Mu. This minimum
thermal moment is referred as design thermal moment, Mth', in this paper. The use of
design thermal moment enables to calculate a usable design flexural strength, which
can be defined as design flexural strength minus (factored) design thermal moment
(ϕMn' = ϕMn – Mth'). As such, the remaining concrete design can be conducted using
mechanical moments and usable design moments, ϕMn'. Note that the design flexural
strength, ϕMn, will be replaced by Mallow in ACI 359, which are calculated based on
allowable stress and strain limits.
 
Accordingly, a P-M interaction curve for the design axial strength, ϕPn, and the usable
flexural strengths, ϕMn', can be determined, as illustrated in Fig. 1(b). Note that thermal
effects are taken into account in P-M interaction curve, which represents design
strengths. 
Figure 1. Effect of thermal curvature on moment-curvature response and on P-M
interaction curve

Application of Proposed Design Approach in ACI 349 

The proposed design approach can be applied to both ACI 349 and ACI 359. Thermal
moments are calculated in the following steps: 

1. Generate a moment-curvature response for a given axial load. 

2. Calculate a design flexural strength, ϕMn, and measure a corresponding
curvature from the moment-curvature response. 
3. Determine a design thermal moment, Mth', from the design flexural strength, ϕMn
(see Fig. 1). 
4. Repeat steps (1) through (3) by changing the axial load. 

A moment-curvature response is calculated using a Hognestad’s concrete model

(1951) and bilinear stress-strain relationship for reinforcement in this study. A
rectangular concrete section of 36 in. by 12 in. in Fig. 2 is used to illustrate the
proposed design approach for thermal effects. This section is considered as a part of
an axisymmetric structure with the specified compressive strength of concrete, fc', of
5 ksi and the specified yield strength of reinforcement, fy, of 60 ksi. The structure is
exposed to thermal gradient of ΔT = 150oF with hot on the interior face and cold on
the exterior face. Positive moment is defined as one that produce tensile stress on the
exterior face. Accordingly the applied thermal gradient generates a positive moment. 
Figure 2. Section details

Fig. 3 shows the P-M interaction curves for design strengths (ϕMn', ϕPn) and usable
design strengths (ϕMn', ϕPn) for mechanical loads. Note that the design strengths are
reduced for thermal loads associated with the thermal gradient of ΔT = 150oF in the P-
M interaction curves for usable design strengths (ϕMn', ϕPn). As such, when the
mechanical loads within the usable design strengths are combined with thermal
loads, the total mechanical plus thermal loads will not exceed the design strengths
(ϕMn', ϕPn) given in ACI 349. The P-M interaction curve for usable design strengths
(ϕMn', ϕPn) shows that negative flexural strengths increases due to the thermal gradient
because positive thermal moments counteract against negative mechanical
moments. However, Section E.3 of ACI 349 prohibits thermal loads from reducing
mechanical loads. Therefore, mechanical loads should be located within the shaded
area to satisfy both requirements for mechanical loads only and mechanical plus
thermal loads.
 
Figure 3. Effects of thermal gradient ΔT = 150oF on P-M design curve

In order to examine the validity of usable design strengths (ϕMn', ϕPn), thermal loads are
calculated for actual mechanical loads, as shown in Fig. 4. The examined mechanical
loads are widely distributed within the design interaction curve (ϕMn', ϕPn). Note that
mechanical loads (2.4), (3.5), (4.6), (5.5), (6.4), (7.3) and (7.4) are located outside of the
usable design strengths (ϕMn', ϕPn). Therefore, when these mechanical loads are
combined with thermal moments due to ΔT = 150oF, they are expected to exceed the
design interaction curve (ϕMn', ϕPn). Fig. 5 presents the results of the total loads, which
combine mechanical loads and thermal loads in the design interaction curve (ϕMn', ϕPn).
This figure confirms that mechanical loads (2.4), (3.5), (4.6), (5.5), (6.4), (7.3) and (7.4)
exceeds the design strengths when thermal moments due to ΔT = 150oF are
combined. Thermal moments for each mechanical load are calculated using a
moment-curvature response. Calculated thermal moments vary with mechanical axial
loads and moments (see Fig. 4 and Fig. 5).
Figure 4. Mechanical loads on P-M design curve
Figure 5. Mechanical plus thermal loads on P-M design curve

Application of Proposed Design Approach in ACI 359 

ACI 359 specified allowable stress and strain limits for members subjected to axial
forces and moments. Different stress and strain limits are specified for different load
category: (1) factored primary loads, (2) factored primary and secondary loads, (3)
service primary loads, and (4) service primary and secondary loads. Primary loads are
those which require equilibrating applied loads. Secondary loads are not required for
equilibrating the applied loads. Examples of secondary loads are internal forces due to
shrinkage and temperature changes. Therefore design strengths can be calculated for
each load category. 

Design strengths for factored loads are used to study thermal effect on P-M
interaction curve. Similar with ACI 349, a moment-curvature response is generated
using a Hognestad’s concrete model and bilinear stress-strain relationship for
reinforcement. The stress in reinforcement is limited to 0.9fy per ACI 359. Design
strengths for factored primary plus secondary loads are determined using allowable
stress and strain limits of concrete and reinforcement from moment-curvature
responses. The concrete section in Fig. 2 is evaluated for thermal gradient of ΔT =
150oF. Usable design strengths (Mdesign', Pdesign) are also calculated by reducing
design strength for factored primary plus secondary loads by thermal loads
associated with the thermal gradient of ΔT = 150oF. 

The results are shown in Fig. 6. The shaded area represents the code permitted area
to factored primary plus secondary loads minus thermal loads due to ΔT = 150oF.
Design strengths for factored primary loads only can be also calculated using its
allowable stress and strain limits. Comparison of the P-M curves between the code
permitted area to factored primary plus secondary loads minus thermal loads and the
design strengths for factored primary loads only suggests that the concrete section is
governed by the requirements for factored primary loads only. In order words, the
thermal effect due to ΔT = 150oF does not control the design because the design
strength increase due to the inclusion of secondary loads exceeds the thermal load
demand. It is important to note that the allowable stress limit of 0.9fy for
reinforcement is used in the bilinear stress-strain relationship per Paragraphs CC-3422
and CC¬3511 of ACI 359. As a result, ACI 359 does not permit moment increases after
the stress in reinforcement reaches 0.9fy, which is different from ACI 349.
Figure 6. Effects of thermal gradient on P-M design curve
 
In order to demonstrate the conclusion that the design of the concrete section in Fig.
2 is governed by factored primary loads only, mechanical loads are applied to the
extent that they are just located at the design boundary, as shown in Fig. 7. Thermal
loads are calculated for each mechanical load using moment-curvature response and
added to the mechanical loads. The results are presented in Fig. 8. It can be observed
that all mechanical plus thermal loads are within the design curve for factored primary
plus secondary loads, which proves that thermal loads due to ΔT = 150oF do not
control the section design per ACI 359.
Figure 7. Mechanical loads on P-M design curve for factored loads
Figure 8. Mechanical plus thermal loads on P-M design curve for factored loads

Conclusion
A novel alternative design approach for thermal effects is proposed in this paper. Based on the fact that
thermal moments reduce with the increase of mechanical moments, design thermal moments are
calculated based on the design flexural strength, Mdesign. As such, the calculated design thermal
moments will be the minimum thermal moment which satisfies the code strength requirement. Design
strengths are reduced by the design thermal moments, which are defined as usable design strength. The
remaining concrete design can be performed using mechanical moments and usable design moments.
The validity of the proposed design approach for thermal effects is examined per ACI 349 and ACI 359.

Unlike the conventional methods for calculating thermal moments, the design thermal
moment enables to account for cracking of concrete and yield of reinforcement and,
thus, provides the minimum estimate of required thermal moment within each code
context. Therefore, the proposed design approach provides a simple, elegant yet
more economical solution for considering thermal effects on designing concrete
structures.

Nomenclature

Ag  gross area of concrete section

As area of longitudinal tension reinforcement

As'   area of longitudinal compression reinforcement

Ast   total area of longitudinal reinforcement

fc'  specified compressive strength of concrete

fy  specified yield strength of reinforcement

Mdesign  design flexural strength

M'design usable flexural strength, Mdesign ‒ Mth'

 design thermal moment at factored primary plus secondary

MF[p+s],th '
loads

MF[p]  flexural strength for factored primary loads (ACI 359)

flexural strength for factored primary plus secondary loads

MF[p+s]
(ACI 359)

Mn nominal flexural strength

Mn '  usable flexural strength, Mn ‒ Mth'

Mth  moment due to temperature effects

Mth'  design thermal moment

Mu  factored total moment

Pdesign  design axial strength

 P'design  usable axial strength, Pn ‒ Pth'

PF[p]  axial strength for factored primary loads (ACI 359)

 axial strength for factored primary plus secondary loads

PF[p+s]
(ACI 359)

 nominal axial strength at zero eccentricity, 0.85fc' (Ag ‒ Ast) +

Po
fyAst

ϕ  strength reduction factor

ϕm   curvature due to mechanical loads

ϕth  curvature due to temperature effects

 curvature corresponding to design flexural

ϕdesign
strength

ΔT  temperature gradient

ϕMn   design flexural strength

References
■ ACI Committee 349. (2006). Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety-Related Concrete
Structures (ACI 349-06) and Commentary. American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, USA.

■ ACI Committee 349.1R. (2007) Reinforced Concrete Design for Thermal Effects on
Nuclear Power Plant Structures (ACI 349.1R-07). American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, USA.

■ ACI-ASME Joint Technical Committee 359. (2010). Code for Concrete Containments
(ACI 359-10).  American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, USA. (Part of
Division 2 of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III).

■ Gurfinkel, G. (1971). “Thermal Effects in Walls of Nuclear Containments ‒ Elastic and

Inelastic Behavior,” Proceedings of 1st Conference on Structural Mechanics in
Reactor Technology
■ (SMiRT), J 3/7, Berlin, Germany, 277-296.

■ Hognestad, E. (1951). “A Study of Combined Bending and Axial Load in Reinforced

Concrete Members,” Bulletin Series No. 399, University of Illinois Engineering
Experiment Station, Urbana, IL, USA.

■ Kohli, T.D. and Gürbüz, O. (1975). “Optimum Design of Reinforced Concrete for Nuclear
Containments, Including Thermal Effects,” Proceedings of the Second ASCE
Specialty Conference on Structural Design of Nuclear Plant Facilities, New
Orleans, LA, 1292-1319.

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