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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION 5
CHAPTER 2
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 9
CHAPTER 3
3.1 RESEARCH GAP 69
3.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROPOSED WORK 69
CHAPTER 4
4. METHODOLOGY 70
4.1 PROCUREMENT OF MATERIALS 70
4.2 TEST RESULTS OF MATERIALS 72
CHAPTER 5
5. MIX DESIGNS 74
5.1 MIX DESIGN OF M40 GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE 74
5.2 MIX DESIGN OF M40 OPC CEMENT CONCRETE 78

CHAPTER 6
6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 79
CHAPTER 7
7.1 CONCLUSIONS 85
7.2 FUTURE SCOPE 85
CHAPTER 8
8. REFERENCES 86

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CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
The main ingredient to produce concrete is Portland cement. The production of cement means
the production of pollution because of the emission of CO2 during its production. The cement
industry contributes about 5% of total global carbon dioxide emissions. The cement is
manufactured by using the raw materials such as lime stone, clay and other minerals. Quarrying
these raw minerals also causes environmental degradation. So to overcome this problem, the
concrete to be used should be environmental friendly.

1.2 NEED OF GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

To produce environmental friendly concrete, we have to replace the cement with some other
binders which should not create any bad effect on environment. In terms of reducing the global
warming, the geo polymer technology could reduce the CO2 emission to the atmosphere caused
by cement and aggregate.

` 1.3 GEOPOLYMER
1.3.1 TERMINOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY
The term geo-polymer was first coined by Davidovits in 1978 to represent a broad range of
materials characterized by chains or network of inorganic molecules. Geo-polymers are chains
of networks of mineral molecules linked with covalent bonds. Geopolymer is produced by a
polymeric reaction of alkaline liquid with source material of geological origin or by product
material such as fly ash, rice husk ash, GGBS etc. Because the chemical reaction that takes place
in this case is a polymerization process, Davidovits coined the term ‘Geopolymer’ to represent
these binders. Geo-polymers have the chemical composition similar to zeolites but they can be
formed an amorphous structure. He also suggested the use of the term ‘poly (sialate)’ for the
chemical designation of Geo polymers based on silico-aluminate. Sialate is an abbreviation for
silicon Oxo-aluminate

Fig 1.1 - General Polymeric structures from polymerization of monomers.

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Poly (sialate) are chain and ring polymers with Si4+ and AL3+ in IV-fold coordination with
oxygen and range from amorphous to semi-crystalline with the empirical formula: Mn (-(SiO2)
z–AlO2) n. wH2O Where “z” is 1, 2 or 3 or higher up to 32; M is a monovalent cation such as
potassium or sodium, and “n” is a degree of polycondensation (Davidovits, 1984, 1988b, 1994b,
1999). Davidovits (1988b; 1991; 1994b; 1999) has also distinguished 3 types of polysialates,
namely the Poly (sialate) type (-Si-O-Al-O), the Poly (sialate-siloxo) type (-Si-O-Al-O-Si-O)
and the Poly (sialate-disiloxo) type (-Si-O-Al-O-SiO). The structures of these polysialates can be
schematized as in Figure 1.1.

Fig 1.2- Chemical Structures of Polysiliate

Geo polymerization involves the chemical reaction of alumino-silicate oxides (Si2O5, Al2O2)
with alkali polysiliate yielding polymeric Si–O–Al bonds. The most common alkaline
polysiliate used in the geo-polymerization is the combination of Sodium hydroxide/ Potassium
hydroxide and Sodium silicate/ Potassium silicate. This combination increases the rate of
reaction. Among 15 Alumino-silicate minerals, all the Al-Si minerals are more soluble in NaOH
solution than in KOH solution.

Fig 1.3- Equation of polycondensation

Equation shows an example of polycondensation by alkali into poly (sialate siloxo). The last
term of Equation indicates that water is released during the chemical reaction that occurs in the
formation of geo-polymers... This water, expelled from the geopolymer matrix during the curing
and further drying periods, leaves behind discontinuous nano-pores in the matrix, which provide

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benefits to the performance of Geopolymers. The water in a geopolymer mixture, therefore,

plays no role in the chemical reaction that takes place; it merely provides the workability to the
mixture during handling. This is in contrast to the chemical reaction of water in a Portland
cement mixture during the hydration process. Unlike ordinary Portland/pozzolanic
cements, geo-polymers do not form calcium silicate- hydrates (C-S-H) for matrix formation and
strength, but utilise the polycondensation of silica and alumina precursors and a high alkali
content to attain structural strength. Therefore, geo-polymers are sometimes referred to as alkali
activated alumino silicate binders (Davidovits, 1994 Palomo et. al., 1999; Roy, 1999; van
Jaarsveld et. al., 2002). However, Davidovits stated that using the term ‘alkali-activated’ could
create significant confusion and generate false granted ideas about geopolymer concrete.

1.3.2 DEFINITION
Geopolymer concrete is a type of concrete that is made by reacting aluminate and silicate
bearing materials with a caustic activator. Commonly, waste materials such as fly ash or slag
from iron and metal production are used, which helps lead to a cleaner environment.
Geopolymer concrete does not require heat to make it and it does not produce carbon dioxide.
Standard Portland cement-based concrete requires both heat and produce carbon dioxide.

1.4 FLYASH
Fly ash is manufactured by the burning of coal in an electrostatic precipitator, a by-product of
industrial coal. The cementitious properties of fly ash were discovered in late 19th century and it
has been widely used in cement manufacture for over 100 years. In UK, fly ash is supplied as a
separate component for concrete and is added at the concrete at the mixer. It generally replaces
between 20 to 80% of the normal Portland cement.

1.4.1 PRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF FLYASH:

A thermal station is a power plant in which the prime movers steam driven. Water is heated,
turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes
through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated;
this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations
is due to the different fossil fuel resources generally used to heat the water. Some prefer to use
the term energy enter because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy.
Certain thermal power plants also are designed to produce heat energy for industrial purposes of
district heating, or desalination of water, in addition to generating electrical power. Globally,
fossil fuelled thermal power plants produce a large part of man-made CO2 emissions to the
atmosphere, and efforts to reduce these are varied and widespread.
Two types of fly ash are commonly used in concrete: Class C and Class F. Class C are often
high calcium fly ashes with carbon content less than 2%; whereas, Class F are generally low-
calcium fly ashes with carbon contents less than 5% but sometimes as high as 10%. In general,
Class C ashes are produced from burning sub-bituminous or lignite coals and Class F ashes
bituminous or anthracite coals. Performance properties between Class C and F ashes vary
depending on the chemical and physical properties of the ash and how the ash interacts with
cement in the concrete. Many Class C ashes when exposed to water will react and become hard
just like cement, but not Class F ashes.
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1.5 ALKALINE SOLUTIONS

The solutions of Sodium hydroxide and Sodium silicate are used as alkaline solutions in the
present study.
Sodium Hydroxide is available in market in various forms as flakes, pellets and in powder
forms. In the study, commercial grade Sodium Hydroxide in flakes form (97%-100% purity) is
used.
Sodium Silicate is available in powder form. By using sodium silicate, we may prepare solution
of required molarity. In this study, Sodium Silicate used in solution form having the following
chemical proportion is used.

1.6 FIBRES
Glass Fibres - Glass Fibre is a material consisting of numerous extremely fine fibres of glass.
Glass makers throughout history have experimented with glass fibres but mass manufacture of
glass fibre was only made possible with a invention of finer machine tooling. In 1893 Edward
Drummond Libby exhibited address at the world’s Columbia Exposition incorporating Glass
Fibres with a diameter and texture of silk fibres. The glass fibre was added in varying
proportions of 0.1-0.5% (in steps of 0.1%) by weight of concrete.
Steel Fibres - It is defined as short discrete lengths of steel fibres with an aspect ratio from
about 20 to 100 with different cross sections and that are sufficiently small to be randomly
dispersed in an unhardened concrete mixture using usual mixing procedures.
Natural Fibres - Coir fiber is a natural fiber extracted from the husk of the coconut. It is
thickest and most resistant of all commercial natural fibres.

1.7 ADMIXTURES
An admixture is defined as material other than water, aggregate, cementatious materials and
fibre reinforcement. These are natural or manufactured chemical or additives added during
concrete mixing to enhance properties of the fresh or hardened concrete such as workability,
durability or early and final strength.

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CHAPTER 2

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Prakash R. Vora, Urmil V. Dave; “Parametric Studies on Compressive

Strength of Geopolymer Concrete”, Nirma University conference on
Engineering, [2012].

OBJECTIVE

It can be observed from the above discussion that the geopolymer concrete has not been studied
much in detail in India. India also is facing the problem of depletion on natural resources such as
limestone which is the most important ingredient to produce cement and in turn the concrete in
India. In this situation, detailed study of geopolymer concrete which is the concrete with zero
cement in concrete naturally becomes very important. Therefore, an attempt has been made in
the present investigation by casting 20 geopolymer concrete mixes with 100% replacement of
OPC with processed fly ash in each concrete mix [5]. Indian standards have always
emphasized on the importance of compressive strength amongst various mechanical properties
of concrete. Hence, the effect of various parameters affecting the compressive strength i.e., ratio
of alkaline liquid to fly ash, concentration of sodium hydroxide, ratio of sodium silicate to
sodium hydroxide, curing time, curing temperature, dosage of superplasticiser, rest period and
additional water content in the Geopolymer concrete mixes has been investigated in order to
enhance its overall performance.

MATERIALS

Fly ash used in this study was low calcium class F processed fly ash from Dirk India private
limited under the name of the product POZZOCRETE 60. Chemical compositions of the fly ash
used.
Table 2.1- Composition of class F fly ash (POZZOCRETE)

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO SO3 Na2O CaO LOI

57.30 % 27.13% 8.06 % 2.13 % 1.06 % 0.73 % 0.03 % 1.60 %

The alkaline liquid used was a combination of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate solution
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in flakes form with 98% purity purchased from local chemical
supplier was used and Sodium silicate solution (Na2O = 16.84%, SiO2 = 35.01% and water
=46.37% by mass) was used as alkaline liquid. Sodium hydroxide solution is prepared by
dissolving the flakes in water. Tap water available in laboratory was used to prepare NaOH
solution. The activator solution was prepared at least one day prior to its use. Locally available

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10 mm and 20 mm crushed aggregates have been used as coarse aggregates. Locally available
river sand is used as fine aggregate in the concrete mixes. To improve the workability of the
fresh geopolymer concrete, naphthalene sulphate based super plasticiser was used in all of the
geopolymer mixes.

RESULTS

1. Ratio of alkaline liquid to fly ash

Two concrete mixes Mix-1 and Mix-2 with the alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio 0.35 and 0.4 have
been cast using the ingredients as given in Fig 2.1. The effect of alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio
by mass on compressive strength of concrete at age 3 days has been evaluated by comparing
results of both mixes. The results are presented in Fig 2.2. It has been observed that the ratio of
alkaline liquid to fly ash, by mass, is not much effective in varying the compressive strength of
the geopolymer concrete.

Fig 2.1- Effect of alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio on compressive strength

2. Ratio of sodium silicate solution to sodium hydroxide solution

The effect of sodium silicate solution to sodium hydroxide solution by mass on compressive
strength of concrete has been observed by comparing results of Mix-1 and Mix-3 having
ingredients as given in Fig 2.2. The results are presented in Fig 2.2. Higher Compressive
strength has been observed in concrete Mix-3 as compared to that of concrete Mix-1.

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Fig 2.2- Effect of sodium silicate solution to sodium hydroxide solution ratio on
compressive strength

CONCLUSIONS

Following concluding remarks have been made on basis of the work conducted:

The ratio of alkaline liquid to fly ash, by mass does not affect the compressive strength
of the geopolymer concrete. The sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide ratio by mass equal
to 2 has resulted into the higher compressive strength as compared to the ratio of 2.5 for
the geopolymer concrete.

The compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete increases with increase of

concentration in terms of molarities of sodium hydroxide.
The compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete increases with increase in the
curing time. However, the increase in strength beyond 24 hours is not much significant.
Workability of the geopolymer concrete mix increases with the addition of
superplasticiser up to 4% of fly ash by mass. Minor reduction of compressive strength of
the geopolymer concrete is observed when the superplasticiser dosage used is greater
than 2%.
1 day rest period increases the compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete as
compared to that for the concrete without the rest period.
Compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete decreases with increase in the ratio of
water to geopolymer solids by mass.
The workability of the geopolymer concrete in fresh state increases with the increase of
extra water added to the mix. With increase in the curing temperature in the range of
600C to 900C, the compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete also increases.
It has been observed from the above discussion that wide variety of parameters affect the
compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete. Therefore, parametric study of various
factors affecting the compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete is strongly
recommended first before conducting any further investigations related to mechanical
properties and durability of the geopolymer concrete in order to get the desirable benefits
from the further investigations.

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2.2 Mr.Gidd M.M, Birajdar B.V; “Study of Geopolymer Concrete-A

Cement less Concrete and it’s Durability”, International Journal of
Scientific Development and Research, [2017].

METHODOLOGY

The materials and their properties, mixture proportions, manufacturing and curing of test
specimens are described.

2.1 Materials
The materials used for making geopolymer concrete specimen are alkaline liquids, aggregates,
water, and low-calcium fly ash.

2.1.1 Alkaline Liquid

Generally alkaline liquids were prepared by mixing of the sodium hydroxide solution and sodium
silicate at the room temperature. When the solution mixed together the both solution start to
react, it is recommended to use it in next 36 hour.

2.1.2 Sodium Silicate

The advantages of sodium silicate adhesives include their ability to expand and make contact; a
controllable index adjustment across broad ranges; and the formation of a rigid layer that is a
strong, permanent seal resistant to tearing, bugs (i.e., pests) and moderately resistant to heat and
water. They are used for paper, wood, metal, sheet metal and other materials, except plastic.

2.1.3 Sodium Hydroxide

The sodium hydroxide used was in the flakes form with 99% purity.

Table 2.2- Chemical ingredients of sodium hydroxide

Chemical ingredients Percent

Carbonate 2%
Chloride 0.01%
Sulphate 0.05%
Potassium 0.1%
Silicate 0.05%
Zinc 0.02%

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Aggregates
For this Project work, locally available aggregates, comprising 20 mm and 14 mm coarse
aggregates, in dry surface condition were used. Locally available river sand was used as fine
aggregates.

2.1.5 Water
The water used for the preparation of the solutions was mineral water. And water was used only
for the preparation of sodium hydroxide solution.

2.1.6 GGBS
The GGBS which was obtained from quenching molten iron slag from a blast furnace in water
or stream, to produce a glassy, granular product that is then dried and ground into a fine powder.

2.1.7 Fly Ash

The mineralogical and chemical composition is dependent to a large extent on the composition of
the coal. It having same physical properties and chemical compositions.

2.2 Mixture Proportion

The development and manufacture of geopolymer concrete had taken place at Curtin University
when the present work was undertaken. Some results of that study which was already been
published by several authors were referred. Based on that study, mixture proportions were
formulated. For preparing the following mixture proportion IS 456 was used.

Table 2.3- Mixture Proportion for 8 Molarity of NaOH for one Specimen

Materials Quantity
Fly ash 1.5 kg
Fine Aggregate(Sand) 2.25kg
Coarse aggregate 4.5 kg
Sodium silicate solution 450 ml
Sodium Hydroxide Solution 167 ml
Potable water 520 ml

Preparation of Test Specimens

The sodium hydroxide flakes were dissolved in water to make the solution. The mass of NaOH
flakes in a solution is varied according to the molarity required. NaOH solution with a
concentration of 8M consists of 320 grams of NaOH flakes per litre of the solution. It was noted
that mass of the NaOH solids was only a fraction of the mass of the NaOH solution, and water
was the major component. When sodium hydroxide is mixed with water, solution kept for 24
hours as it produces large amount of heat. Sodium silicate is already in liquid state and hence no
requirement any special procedure.

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Preparation of Concrete
1. First fly ash, GGBS and the aggregates were mixed together in the pan for 3 minutes.
2. The liquid component of the mixture was then added to the dry materials and mixed it
thoroughly for approximately 4-5 minutes to manufacture fresh geopolymer concrete.
3. The fresh concrete was cast into the moulds immediately after mixing, in three layers for
square block.
4. For compaction of the specimens, each layer was given 25-30 strokes using tamping rod.
5. Before the fresh concrete was cast into the moulds, the slump value of fresh concrete was
measured.
6. It was kept for 24 hours in oven at 90 degrees temperature.

2.4 Curing
Curing of concrete must begin as soon as possible after placement & finishing and must continue
for a reasonable period of time as per the relevant standards, for the concrete to achieve its
desired strength and durability. Uniform temperature should also be maintained throughout the
concrete depth to avoid thermal shrinkage cracks. Also protective measures to control moisture
loss from the concrete surface are essential to prevent plastic shrinkage cracks.

3.1 Results
Results of this dissertation work are summarized in this chapter. Results for average strengths are
calculated by change in proportion of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate of GPC. Further
dissertation work concludes results average strengths for 8 molar and 16 molar with NaOH
solution. Also average strengths are calculated by considering change in temperature and change
in curing period. Mainly this dissertation work consists of study of average strength for optimum
percentage of GGBS. Effect of acid attack, sulphate attack and high temperature is also studied in
this dissertation work.

3.2 Proportion Variation

While preparing the alkali activated solution the proportion of sodium hydroxide solution to
sodium silicate solution has to be maintained. Variation in this proportion has shown variation in
strength of geopolymer concrete. In experimental work those proportions were 30:70, 40:60, and
50:50.

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Table 2.4- Result for Chemical Proportion Variation of GPC

Sl.no Proportion Molarity Curing Curing Load Strength Ave rage

temp period (KN) ( MPa )
(oC) (hours)

1 50 : 50 8 90 72 478 21.24 21.27

8 90 72 476 21.15
8 90 72 482 21.42
2 60 : 40 8 90 72 541 24.04 23.78
8 90 72 529 23.51
8 90 72 535 23.77
3 70 : 30 8 90 72 408 18.13 18.00
8 90 72 402 17.86
8 90 72 405 18.00

Fig 2.3- Variation in Chemical proportion of GPC

3.2.1 Result
It had been seen from the above figure (Fig 2.3) for M 20 proportion of concrete mix, varying
results were found for the varying chemical proportion between sodium hydroxide and sodium
silicate. It can be seen that for proportion 60:40 gives the maximum strength compared to 50:50
and 70:30.

3.2.2 Molarity
Molarity of NaOH solution plays a vital role in the strength of geopolymer concrete. With a
higher concentration of NaOH solution a higher compressive strength can be achieved. Tests
were made for the 8 Molarity and 16 Molarity of NaOH and had provided satisfactory results.

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Table 2.5- Results for 8 Moles and 16 Moles of GPC

Sr. Proportion Molarity Curing Curing Load Strength Average

no temperature period (KN) ( MPa )
(oC) (hours)

1 8 90 72 535 23.78
24.05
8 90 72 568 25.24
60 : 40
8 90 72 521 23.15
2 16 90 72 541 24.04
25.97
16 90 72 610 27.11
16 90 72 602 26.75

Fig 2.4- Variation in Strength of GPC

3.3 Result
When molarity of NaOH is changed from 8 Mole to 16 Mole, strength of the geopolymer
increased up-to 25.97. Hence to increase the strength of geopolymer slightly molarity of NaOH
can be increased up-to some limit.

3.4Curing Temperature
While taking the tests for compressive strength of the concrete, the curing temperature of the
specimen was varied. This test will be able to provide the efficient temperature required for the
specimen to provide desired value of strength. Temperature was varied between 60 oC to 90 oC.

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Table 2.6- Results for Strength Due to Change in Temperature

Sl.no Curing Curing Load Strength Average

Temp(oC) period (KN) ( MPa )
(hours)

1 60 72 478 21.24
60 72 462 20.53 21.28
60 72 297 22.08
2 70 72 515 22.88
70 72 533 23.68 23.32
70 72 527 23.42
80 72 538 23.91
3 80 72 516 22.93 23.53
80 72 535 23.77
90 72 521 23.15
4 90 72 535 23.77 24.05
90 72 568 25.24

Fig 2.5- Variation in Strength due to change in curing Temperature of GPC

3.4.1 Result
Initially when temperature was 60 oC strength was near 20MPa but as the temperature increased
to 70oC it was increased up-to 23. Same increment was found for 80 oC and 90 oC. At 90 oC
strength reaches up to 24.05MPa.

3.5 Curing Period

Curing period of the test specimen has shown considerable effect on strength of the geopolymer
concrete. As curing period increases, the strength of the concrete increases. Tests were made for
various curing periods, such as 4, 24, 48, 72 and 144 hours.

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Table 2.7- Results for Strength Due to Change in Curing Period

Sl.no Curing Curing Load Strength Average

Temp(oC) Period (KN) ( MPa )
(hours)

1 90 04 472.0 20.97
90 04 476.2 21.16 21.02
90 04 470.9 20.92
2 90 24 482 21.42
90 24 476 21.15 21.41
90 24 488 21.68
90 72 535 23.77
3 90 72 525 23.33 24.06
90 72 564 25.07

90 144 588 26.13

4 90 144 538 23.91 24.44
90 144 524 23.28

Fig 2.6- Variation in Strength Due to Change in Curing Period of GPC

RESULTS
It has been seen from the above figure results for Geopolymer Concrete under acid attack. It can
be seen that initially percentage decrease in strength of GPC is less under acid attack. Above
graph shows varying strengths of GPC under acid attack.
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions for dissertation work are as follows:
Concluding remarks for Geopolymer concrete are as follows:

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1. Proportion of sodium hydroxide to sodium silicate, 60:40 gives the maximum compressive
strength compared to 50:50 and 70:30.
2. When molarity of NaOH is changed from 8 Mole to 16 Mole, strength of the Geopolymer
increased up-to 7.98%.
3. As the curing temperature increases, compressive strength of Geopolymer concrete increases.
But after the 90 ˚C there is no effective result regarding the compressive strength of concrete.
4. Minimum required curing period is 4 hours, sufficient strength of concrete is gained during 72
hours. GPC gives better compressive strength as compared to conventional concrete at mix
proportion of M20.
GPC can effectively withstand sulphate attack with a very low loss in its compressive strength.
GPC can be used in the structures which are subjected to light fire resistance temperature.
The proportion of GGBS to Fly ash, 60: 40 gives the maximum strength compared to 50:50 and
40:60.

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2.3 Dr. Mrs. S. A. Bhalchandra, Mrs. A. Y. Bhosle; “Properties of Glass Fibre

Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete”, International Journal of Modern
Engineering Research (IJMER), Vol. 3 – (Issue. 4, Jul - Aug. 2013 pp-2007-
2010), [2013].

OBJECTIVE
An experimental program to determine mechanical properties of Glass fibre reinforced
Geopolymer Concrete which contains fly ash, alkaline liquids, fine & course aggregates & glass
fibres. The effects of inclusion of glass fibers on density, compressive strength & flexural
strength of hardened geopolymer concrete composite (GPCC) was studied. Alkaline liquids to
fly ash ratio were fixed as 0.35 with 100% replacement of ordinary Portland cement by fly ash.

1. Materials
The materials used for making glass fibres reinforced geopolymer concrete are Low calcium dry
fly ash as source material, alkaline liquids, course & fine aggregates, glass fibres & water.

2. Fly ash
Fly ash is a residue from the combustion of pulverized coal collected by mechanical or
electrostatic separators from the flue gases of thermal power plants. The spherical form of fly ash
particles improves the flow ability & reduces the water demand. In this experimental work low
calcium dry fly ash (Pozzocrete-83) procured from Dirk India limited Nashik obtained from
Ekalahare (Nashik) thermal power station was used as source material Fineness of fly ash
particles in terms of Specific surface was 430 m2/Kg .

3. Alkaline liquids
A combination of Sodium hydroxide solution & Sodium silicate solution was used as alkaline
activators for geopolymerization. Sodium hydroxide is available commercially in flakes & pellets
form. For this experimental program Sodium hydroxide flakes with 98% purity were dissolved in
distilled water to make NaOH solution.
Sodium silicate is available commercially in solution form which was used as such. The chemical
composition of Sodium silicate is Na2O=16.37%, SiO2=34.35% (total solids=50.72%. ),
water=49.28%

4. Aggregates
Course aggregates comprising of 160Kg/m3 , specific gravity of 2.603 were used. Fine
aggregates (sand) is clean dry river sand was sieved through 4.75mm sieve to remove pebbles,
confirming to grading zone I as per IS 383-1970 having specific gravity 2.576, bulk density of
1793 kg/m3, & fineness modulus of 3.35 was used. Both aggregates were in saturated surface dry
condition.

5. Glass Fibres
Glass fibres are made of silicon oxide with addition of small amount of other oxides Glass fibres
are characteristic for their high strength, good temperature resistance, corrosion resistance &

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available at low price. In this investigation alkali resistance glass fibres of 12mm length & 14
microns nominal diameter having density of 2680Kg/m 3 were used.

2.2 Mix design for Glass fibre reinforced Geopolymer concrete

The basic mixtures proportions used for the trial mixtures was based upon previous research on
geopolymer mixture proportions. In this investigation mix design procedure developed by Shri
S. V. Patankar for their PhD thesis work was adopted. An alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio by mass
was fixed as 0.35. For alkaline liquid combination ratio of Sodium hydroxide solution to Sodium
silicate solution was fixed as 1.00. Mix proportions for characteristic strength of 30Mpa are
described in table 1

Table 2.8- Mix proportions for geopolymer concrete with & without glass fibres

Mix ID Fly Ash Fine Course NaOH Na2SiO3 Extra water Glass fibers
in Kg/m3 aggregates aggregates in Solution in Solution in in Kg/m3 in gm/m3
in Kg/m3 Kg/m 3
Kg/m 3
Kg/m 3

GPC
0.00% 360.00 692.53 1287.78 63.00 63.00 73.68 0.00
fibres
GPCC1
0.01% 360.00 692.53 1287.78 63.00 63.00 73.68 268.00
fibres
GPCC2
0.02% 360.00 692.53 1287.78 63.00 63.00 73.68 536.00
fibres
GPCC3
0.03% 360.00 692.53 1287.78 63.00 63.00 73.68 804.00
fibres
GPCC4
0.04% 360.00 692.53 1287.78 63.00 63.00 73.68 1072.00
fibres

2.3 Preparation of Geopolymer concrete composites

To prepare 13 molarity concentration of Sodium hydroxide solution 520gm of Sodium hydroxide

flakes was dissolved in distilled water & make up to one litre. The mass of NaOH solids was
measured as 38.5%. The Sodium hydroxide solution was prepared 24 hours prior to use, because
after dissolving flakes of NaOH in water, temperature of solution goes up to 700to 800C, hence it
is necessary to cool it at room temperature & then it can be used. The Sodium hydroxide solution
thus prepared was mixed together with Sodium silicate solution to get desired alkaline solution.
The solid constituents of geopolymer concrete mix i.e. fly ash, fine & course aggregates, were
dry mixed in drum mixer for about three minutes. The extra water was added to alkaline solution
prior to mixing of concrete. Then alkaline solution along with extra water added to dry mix
thoroughly for four minutes to get homogeneous mix. For glass fibres reinforced geopolymer
concrete mixes, fibres were added to dry mix in four different proportions such as 0.01%.0.02%,
0.03%, & 0.04%by volume of concrete. In this experimental work, 100 X 100 X 100mm size

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cubes, & 100 X 100 X 500mm size prisms were cast for testing of compressive & flexural
strength. After 24 hours of casting all specimens were demoulded & then placed in an oven for
thermal curing (heating) at specified temperature of 900C for eight hours duration. Then
specimens were removed from oven & kept at room temperature. After 3 days, weight of
specimens was taken to determine density & tests for compressive strength & Flexural strength
were conducted

RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Density
Average density values of geopolymer concrete with & without glass fibres were 2650 kg/m 3

3.2 Compressive strength test

The average compressive strength of geopolymer concrete with & without glass fibres at the age
of 3 days & 28 days with heat curing of eight hours at 900C are described in Table 2.9 & Fig 2.7.

Table 2.9- Compressive strength of Geopolymer concrete

Mix ID Age of concrete Av. Comp load in KN Av. Comp strength in MPa % increase in strength
GPC 3 days 336.67 33.67 -
GPCC- 1 3 days 363.33 36.33 7.9 %
GPCC- 2 3 days 390.00 39.00 15.83 %
GPCC- 3 3 days 423.33 42.33 25.72 %
GPCC- 4 3 days 360.00 36.00 6.98 %
GPC 28 days 363.33 36.33 -
GPCC- 1 28 days 383.33 38.33 5.5 %
GPCC- 2 28 days 400.00 40.00 10.10 %
GPCC- 3 28 days 436.67 43.67 20.20 %
GPCC- 4 28 days 403.33 40.33 11.01 %

50
45 42.3343.67
39 40 40.33
38.33
40 36.33 36.33 36
33.67
35
30
3 days
25
28 days
20
15
10
5
0
0.00 % 0.01 % 0.02 % 0.03 % 0.04 %
Volume of glass fibres

Fig 2.7- Compressive strength of GPCC

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Compressive strength of GPCC was increased with respect to increase in percentage volume
fraction of glass fibres Addition of 0.03% volume fraction of glass fibres shows maximum
increase in compressive strength i.e. 20.2%with respect to GPC mix without fibres.

3.3 Flexural strength

The flexural strength of Geopolymer concrete with & without glass fibres at 3 days & 28 days

Table 2.10- Flexural Strength for geopolymer concrete with & without glass fibres

Mix ID Age of concrete Av. Flexural Av. Flexural strength in MPa % increase in
load in kgf Flexural strength
GPC 3 days 970 3.81 0.0 %
GPCC- 1 3 days 1320 5.17 35.69 %
GPCC- 2 3 days 1480 5.81 52.49 %
GPCC- 3 3 days 1520 5.96 56.43 %
GPCC- 4 3 days 1300 5.10 33.85 %
GPC 28 days 1020 4.00 0.00%
GPCC- 1 28 days 1380 5.41 35.25%
GPCC- 2 28 days 1520 5.96 49.00%
GPCC- 3 28 days 1600 6.28 57.00%
GPCC- 4 28 days 1400 5.49 37.25%

7 6.28
5.81 5.96 5.96
6 5.41 5.49
5.17 5.1
5
4
3.81
4 3 days
3 28 days

0
0.00% 0.01% 0.02% 0.03% 0.04%

Volume of glass fibres

Fig 2.8- Flexural strength of GPCC

From test results it can be observed that flexural strength of geopolymer concrete was increased
as the volume fraction of glass fibre is increased. Addition of glass fibres increased flexural
strength by 57 % with respect to GPC mix without fibre. Flexural strength was highest at 0.03%
of glass fibres.

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CONCLUSIONS

Geopolymer concrete is an excellent alternative to Portland cement concrete.

Density of Geopolymer concrete is similar to that of ordinary Portland cement concrete.
Low calcium fly ash based Geopolymer concrete has excellent compressive strength within
Short period (3 days) & suitable for structural applications. Inclusion of glass fibres in
Geopolymer concrete shows considerable increase in compressive, & flexural strength of
GPCC with respect to GPC without fibres.
Compressive strength & Flexural strength of glass fibre reinforced geopolymer concrete increases
with respect to increase in percentage volume fraction of glass fibres from 0.01%,0.02%,
0.03% & 0.04%.

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2.4 Sathish Kumar. V, Blessen Skariah Thomas, Alex Christopher; “An

Experimental Study on the Properties of Glass Fibre Reinforced Geopolymer
Concrete”, International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
(IJERA), Vol. 2 – (Issue 6, November- December 2012, pp.722-726), [2012].

MATERIALS
The materials used for making fibre reinforced fly ash geopolymer concrete
specimens are low-calcium dry fly ash as the source material, aggregates, glass
fibre, alkaline liquids, water, and super plasticizer.

2.1 Fly Ash

Fly ash is the residue from the combustion of pulverized coal collected by mechanical or
electrostatic separators from the flue gases of thermal power plants. One of the important
characteristics of fly ash is the spherical form of the particles. This shape of particle improves
the flow ability and reduces the water demand. In this experimental work, low calcium, Class F
(American Society for Testing and Materials) dry fly ash obtained from the silos of Ennore
Thermal Power Station, Chennai, was used as the base material.

2.2 Alkaline Liquid

A combination of sodium silicate solution and sodium hydroxide solution was chosen as the
alkaline liquid. Sodium-based solutions were chosen because they were cheaper than Potassium-
based solutions. Sodium hydroxide solution with a concentration of 8M consisted of 8x40 = 320
grams of sodium hydroxide solids (in pellet form) per litre of the solution. The chemical
composition of the sodium silicate solution was Na2O=8%, SiO2=28%, and water 64% by mass.

2.3 Aggregates
Coarse aggregates comprising maximum size of 20mm having fineness modulus of 6.60, bulk
density of 1515 kg/m3 and specific gravity of 2.68 were used. Fine aggregates having a specific
gravity of 2.75, bulk density of 1672 kg/m3 and fineness modulus of 2.41, in saturated surface
dry condition, were used.

2.4 Glass Fibre

Glass fibres are made of silicon oxide with addition of small amounts of other oxides. Glass
fibres are characteristic for their high strength, good temperature and corrosion resistance, and
low price. Alkali resistant E-glass fibres of 12mm length, 0.014mm nominal diameter, specific
gravity of 1.9 and density of 2650 kg/m3 were used.

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Fig 2.9- Glass Fibre in Strand Form Fig 2.4.2- Glass Fibre in Mat Form

2.5 Super plasticizer

Use of super plasticizer permits the reduction of water to the extent up to 30 Percent without
reducing the workability, in contrast to the possible reduction up to 15 Percent in case of
plasticizers. The use of super plasticizer is practiced for production of flowing, self-levelling,
self-compacting, and for production of high strength and high performance concrete. The
sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde (super plasticizer) is used in this experiment.

3. Material Testing
3.1 Aggregate Crushing and Impact Value Aggregate Crushing value obtained as 26.13 % and
Aggregate Impact Value 13.99 %. Since the values are less than 30%, the aggregate can be
used for all purpose.

3.2. Test for Determination of Fineness Modulus

Table 2.11- Sieve Analysis for Fine Aggregate

Cumulative Cumulative
Weight Cumulative
Weight % Weight
IS Sieve Retained % Passing
Retained Retained
Size (gm)
(gm)
10mm 0 0 0 100
4.75mm 8 8 1.6 98.4
2.36mm 43 51 10.2 89.8
1.18mm 58 109 21.8 78.2
600micron 87 196 39.2 60.8
300micron 180 376 75.2 24.8
150micron 92 468 93.6 6.4
PAN 31 499 - 0.2
Total 499 241.6

The Fineness modulus is 2.41. Sand having a fineness modulus more than 3.2 will be
unsuitable for making satisfactory concrete.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

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The results from the ultrasonic pulse velocity test and Rebound hammer test prove that the Glass
fibre reinforced concrete have Good quality.
The density of geopolymer concrete composites was found approximately equivalent to that of
conventional concrete.
The increase in compressive strength was about 10% and 20% for GPCC1 and GPCC2 with
respect to GPC mix and decrease in compressive strength was about 5% for GPCC3 with respect
to GPCC2 mix.
The increase in tensile strength was about 18% and 29% for GPCC1 and GPCC2 with respect to
GPC mix and decrease in tensile strength was about 10% for GPCC3 with respect to GPCC2
mix.

CONCLUSIONS

Geopolymer concrete can be widely used in the manufacture of precast structures.

It can be used in areas where faster strength achievement is needed.
Fibre reinforced geopolymer concrete completely eliminates the use of cement in concrete and
helps to prevent global warming and to utilize the fly ash effectively

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2.5 J Asanammal Saral, S Gayathri, M Tamilselvi, and B Raghul Raj; “An

Experimental Study on Fibre Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete Composites-
Glass Fibre, Copper Slag”, International Journal of Engineering &
Technology, [2018].

MATERIALS
Experimental Programme Materials: Low calcium class F fly ash used in the experimental
program was obtained from Tuticorin Thermal Power Plant, Tamilnadu, India. The specific
gravity of fly ash is 2.73. The most commonly used alkaline activator as a mixture of sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate solution. For preparation of alkaline liquids, sodium hydroxide
with 98% purity and sodium silicate is obtained from local manufacturer. In order to get 14
molarities, 616 grams of sodium hydroxide were distilled in 1ltr water. According to IS:383-
1970, Locally available river sand was purchased, having a specific gravity of 3.73 and fineness
modulus of 2.75. Copper Slag used is obtained from sterillite industries limited, Tuticorin,
Tamilnadu, the specific gravity of the slag is 3.05. Locally available 20mm crushed aggregate
having specific gravity of 2.85.

MIX DESIGN AND SPECIMEN PREPARATION

Mix Design and Specimen Preparation In this study the replacement of sand with copper slag
in geopolymer concrete varying the percentage of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% .For these
proportions to take an optimum value , then added glass fibre in the mix of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%
and 2%.The concentration of sodium hydroxide solution is 14M. The conventional concrete
and geopolymer concrete composites mixture was designed as per IS 10262-1982.

Table 2.12- Mix quantity of geopolymer concrete

70
60
50
40
30 3 days
20 7 days
10 28 days
0

Mix Identity

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Table 2.13- Quantities required for mix poroportion

Fly F.A Kg/m3

Mix Ash kg/m3 CA Alkaline
Water
Identity kg/m3 Liquids
Sand CS
GP0 570 486.9 0 861.9 347.69 11.4
GP1 570 292.14 194.7 775.7 347.69 11.4
GP2 570 146.07 340.8 775.7 347.69 11.4
GP3 570 146.07 340.8 775.7 347.69 11.4
GP4 570 146.07 340.8 775.7 347.69 11.4
GP5 570 146.07 340.8 775.7 347.69 11.4

Table 2.14- Compressive strength of FRGPC specific gravity

Mix Oven curing in N/mm2

Identity
3 days 7 days 28 days

GP0 27.54 39.45 41.56

GP1 35.45 55.34 45.39

GP2 34.56 46.47 47.54

GP3 35.43 49.54 51.25

GP4 37.34 50.35 55.34

GP5 38.45 54.85 59.26

CONCLUSIONS

The geopolymer concrete is a best alternative to ordinary Portland cement concrete. Class F fly
ash based geopolymer concrete has excellent compressive strength within short periods and
suitable for structural applications.
From the test result, the compressive strength and Split tensile strength of 2% glass fibre
reinforced geopolymer concrete found to be increase in strength decreased in water absorption
when compared to conventional geopolymer concrete with and without copper slag. Hence 2%
concentration of glass fibre is found to be optimum dosage for our research .

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2.6 Thangaraj Sathanandam, Paul O. Awoyera, Venkudusamy Vijayan,

Karupannan Sathishkumar; “Low carbon building: Experimental insight `on
the use of fly ash and glass fibre for making geopolymer concrete”,
Sustainable energy research, [2017].

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The fly ash used in this study was a low-calcium (ASTM class F) of approximate particle size of
16 mm and specific surface of 420 m2 kg1. It was sourced from Mettur thermal power station.
The environmental consideration on the use of fly ash can be a major concern during its reuse;
however, when fly ash is to be used in concrete, its effect on the environment can be monitored
through a process known as beneficiation, which entails the reduction of the amount of heavy
metals content in fly ash. Low calcium fly ash was preferable due to its slow setting time
compared to the class C fly ash (having high calcium). Rapid setting on the other hand was
reported as not suitable.

For geopolymer concrete, because it affects the strength development. The chemical composition
of the fly ash is presented in. the amount of carbon present in the fly ash is very low, based on the
obtained low Loss on Ignition (LOI) value. The molar Si-to-Al ratio of the fly ash was about 2.
River sand (finer than 425 mm BS sieve) having specific gravity of 2.65, water absorption of
6.5% and fineness modulus of 2.36 was used as fine aggregate. Granite of nominal sizes of 10
mm, having specific gravity of 2.66, aggregate crushing value of 26.13%, aggregate impact value
of 13.99%, and water absorption of 2.5% was used as coarse aggregate. The granite and the river
sand were obtained from a quarry near Tamil Nadu, India.
The fly ash was activated using an alkaline solution which comprised of NaOH and Na2SiO3,
followed the procedure by TorresCarrasco and Puertas Thus, alkaline solutions of 12, 16 and 20
M were prepared and utilized for fly ash activation.
The glass fibres (GF) used is of E categories, which are mostly characterized by their high
strength, and high resistance to temperature and corrosion. The glass fibre was added in varying
proportions of 0.1e0.5% (in steps of 0.1%) by weight of concrete. Glass fibre was added to the
mixture after the chemicals were mixed with the aggregate. Some of the materials used are
presented in Fig. 1. The weight ratio of alkaline liquid to fly ash was fixed as 0.43. The sodium
hydroxide solution was prepared 1 d before use, so as to control temperature rise caused by its
dissolution in water. Thereafter, sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) solution and the sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) were mixed to form the alkaline liquid. This study adopted the mixing procedure
reported by Zhao and Sanjayan. The mix proportion includes: 0% GF, 0.1% GF, 0.2% GF, 0.3%
GF, 0.4% GF, and 0.5% GF, and the materials proportions were: river sand (570 kg m 3), granite
(680 kg m3), and fly ash (350 kg m3), NaOH (75.3 kg m3), Na2SiO3 (75.3 kg m3), and additional
mixing water (60.6 kg m3). Only glass fibre content was varied as a percentage of the weight of
concrete.
The workability of the fresh concrete mix was determined by slump and compaction factor tests,
following BS EN 12350.

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The slump and compacting factor values obtained for the mixes were in ranges of 100e130 and
0.8e1, respectively. Concrete cubes of 150 mm dimension were cast for compressive strength test
in accordance with BS EN 12390-6 , concrete cylinders of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height
were cast for split-tensile test in accordance with BS EN 12390-6, and prisms of 100 100 500
mm dimension were cast for flexural strength test, following BS EN 12390-5 procedure.

Fig 2.10- Materials used in experiment

CONCLUSIONS

This study has determined the strength characteristics of glass fibre reinforced flash based
geopolymer concrete, the following conclusions are drawn:

For most of the specimens, there was no significant increase in the compressive strength of
thermally cured geopolymer concrete with the curing age. Thermally cured concrete specimens
achieved more than 60% of its total compressive strength within the early age (7 d).
The geopolymer concrete specimens which were cured in the natural conditions, developed
compressive strength with increasing curing age. The compressive strength result of specimens
cured in natural specimens depends largely on the average temperature and intensity of light the
specimen received during the first week after casting. When the average room temperature was
high, there was appreciable increase in the compressive strength.
Thermally-cured geopolymer concrete achieved higher compressive strength when compared to
the naturally cured concrete specimens. Thermally cured concrete specimen containing 0.3%
glass fibre and 16 M NaOH achieved a maximum compressive strength of 24.8 MPa after 28 d,
while naturally cured samples achieved strength of 22.2 MPa.
Molarity of the alkaline solution also had significant effects in the mechanical properties of the
concrete specimens. Concrete specimens with 16 M alkaline solutions achieved maximum
compressive, flexural and tensile strength when compared to the concrete with the 12 and 20 M
alkaline solutions. So, 20 M alkaline solution is not preferred for geopolymer concrete.
Fibre addition in geopolymer concrete resulted in variations in the mechanical properties of
concrete. Addition of 0.3% of glass fibre gained maximum results in most concrete specimens.
Further addition of glass fibre reduced the strength of concrete. Adding 0.3% of fibre increased
the compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete by 16%, when compared to the
conventional geopolymer concrete.

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2.7 B. Sri Umniati, Puput Risdanareni, Fahmi Tarmizi Zulfikar Zein;

“Workability enhancement of geopolymer concrete through the use of
retarder”, Green Construction and Engineering Education for Sustainable
Future, [2017].
MATERIALS AND METHOD

Materials needed in this research were class F fly ash obtained from Paiton Steam Power Plant
(PLTU) in Probolinggo, aquadest and NaOH to create an activator solution, and aggregates,
which were Lumajang sand used as fine aggregates and split stone (with maximum diameter of
20 mm) used as coarse aggregates. The experiment used Type D Water Reducing and Set
Retarding Plastocrete RT6 Plus as an additive. The experiment conducted in Material Mechanics
Laboratory, D9 Building of Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, the State
University of Malang. The independent variable involved in the experiment was the ratio of
retarder used in geopolymer concrete (0%, 0.2%, 0.4%, and 0.6%), while the dependent variables
were the workability and the compressive strength of the concrete. The workability of the
concrete was measured from its setting time and its slump test value. The setting time is
consisted of initial setting time and final setting time. The test that conducted were the tests on
the properties of the materials, normal consistency test, setting time test, testing of slump and its
flow, and compressive strength testing on the age of 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days.

Geopolymer Concrete Mix Designing

To make geopolymer concrete, initially the molarity of NaOH solution used as activator needed
to be calculated. This experiment uses NaOH 10M. The steps to obtain NaOH 10M are as
follows the mass of NaOH needed were calculated using following formula:

n=VxM Mr NaOH, = Na + O + H NaOH, mass = n mol x Mr

= 1 litre x 10mol = 23 + 16 + 1 = 10 mol x 40gram

= 10 mol = 40 mol = 400 gram

Note:
Mr = Relative mass

Then, 400 grams of NaOH were prepared inside 1000 cc volumetric flask before being poured
by aquadest until reaching 1 litre. The solution then left still for 24 hours before used as
activator.

The overall activator was made by weighing Na2SiO3 and NaOH according to the mix design
and then mixing them. Mix design used in this experiment was obtained from the optimum ratio
of geopolymer concrete in previous research by Ekaputri. The mix design chart of geopolymer
concrete without retarder is presented on Fig 2.11 while the mix design chart of geopolymer
concrete with retarder is shown on Fig 2.12.

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75 x 150 mm2 geopolymer concrete

75%of aggregate 25% (fly ash+mixtures)

26% of mixtures 74%of fly ash

NaOH 10 M solution

Na 2SiO3 = 1.5
NaOH

Fig 2.11- Mix Design of Geopolymer Concrete without Retarding Admixture

75 x 150 mm2 geopolymer concrete

75% of aggregate 25% (fly ash+mixtures) Type D Retarding admixture

26% of mixtures 74% of fly Ash Plastocrete RT6 Plus

0.2%, 0.4%, & 0.6%
NaOH 10M Solution

Na2SiO3
=1.5
NaOH

Fig 2.12- Mix Design of Geopolymer Concrete with Retarding Admixture

CONCLUSIONS

According to the result and discussion of the experiments, the conclusions of this research are:
Retarder admixture addition (Plastocrete RT6 Plus) affects the initial setting time of the
geopolymer concrete, where the more retarder added, the initial setting time will increase.
Geopolymer concrete with 0.6% retarder has the longest initial setting time (405 minutes), while
concrete without retarder has the shortest initial setting time (225 minutes).
Retarder admixture addition (Plastocrete RT6 Plus) also affects the final setting time of the
geopolymer concrete the same way as it affects the initial setting time—the more retarder added,
the final setting time will increase. Geopolymer concrete with 0.6% retarder has the longest
final setting time (570 minutes), while concrete without retarder also has the shortest final
setting time (390 minutes).
The geopolymer concrete with 0.6% of retarder has the largest value of slump degradation (8.8
cm) with slump flow of 24 cm. This showed that the geopolymer concrete with 0.6% of retarder
has the highest workability, moreover if compared with the geopolymer concrete without
retarder which has no slump (0 cm slump) with slump flow of 20 cm.

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Using retarder (Plastocrete RT6 Plus) increases the compressive strength of geopolymer
concrete but not significant. In this experiment, geopolymer concrete with 0.6% of retarder is the
strongest, with the compressive strength of 47.21 MPa, where the one without retarder is 38.29
MPa, both after 28 days.

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2.8 Chithambar Ganesh A, Sowmiya K and Muthukannan M; “Investigation

on the effect of steel fibers in geopolymer concrete”, IOP Conference Series:
Materials Science and Engineering, ICMSMT, [2020].

MATERIALS

In this work GGBS is used as the alumino silicate source material. GGBS slag was obtained
from the JSW cements. Specific gravity of GGBS was found to be 2.94. Manufactured sand was
used as the fine aggregate. Specific gravity of M-sand was found to be 2.63. Locally available
coarse aggregates of size 10mm are utilized as the coarse aggregate. Specific gravity of coarse
aggregate was determined to be 2.8. A concoction of Sodium silicate solution and sodium
hydroxide solution was used as the alkaline activator solution. The molarity of the solution was
fixed as 13M. These fibers are available in packs of around 30 strands, which were fibrillated
with water-dissolvable paste to guarantee prompt scattering in concrete during mixing. All the
materials are mixed in a pan mixer for about 4-5 minutes. The quantities of the material are
determined from the previous work carried out by the researcher. The mix proportion adapted in
this work is tabulated in Table 1.

Table 2.15- Mix details

Materials Mass (kg/m3)

GGBS 610
M-Sand 517.88
Coarse aggregate 851.36
Sodium silicate 265.79
Sodium hydroxide 106.31
Water 18.3

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

1. Compressive Strength:

Compressive strength test was carried out as per IS: 516 -1959 [16] over cubical specimens of
size 100 x 100 x 100 mm. The cubes were tested for compression testing at the age of 7, and 28
days. The average compressive strength of fibre reinforced geopolymer concrete specimens are
tabulated in Table 2.

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Table 2.16- Mechanical Properties Test Result

Flexural
Fibre Compressive strength Split Tensile
Specimen Specimen Strength
volume (MPa) strength (MPa)
name name (MPa)
fraction
7 days 28 days 7 days 28 days 28 days
GPC 0 GPC 36.5 43 3.1 3.6 6.1
SFRGPC1 0.25 SFRGPC1 40 46.9 3.5 4.1 6.5
SFRGPC2 0.50 SFRGPC2 43.5 51.4 3.9 4.5 6.8
SFRGPC3 0.75 SFRGPC3 47 55.3 4.1 4.8 7.1
SFRGPC4 1 SFRGPC4 49.2 58 4.4 5.1 7.4
SFRGPC5 1.25 SFRGPC5 47.9 56.3 4.1 4.9 7.2

Compressive strength of SFRGPC and Control specimens are compared in Fig 2.11

70
60 7 days

50
40
30
20
10
0
GPC SFRGPC1 SFRGPC2 SFRGPC3 SFRGPC4 SFRGPC5

Fig 2.11- Compressive strength Graph

From Fig 2.11, it is evident that there is a gradual increase in compressive strength of
Geopolymer with the augmentation of steel fibres for various proportions. From Table SFRGPC
of different volume fraction SFRGPC1, SFRGPC2, SFRGPC3, SFRGPC4 shows an increase in
compressive strength of about 10%, 20%, 29%, 35% at 7 days and about 10%, 20%, 30% and
35% at 28 days respectively than control specimen GPC. The increase in strength is attributed to
the improved microstructure of the matrix with reduced porosity. The increase in compressive
strength is due to the improved structural integrity provided by the increased fibre content. The
decrease in strength after the optimum percentage is due to the excess fibre content that affects
the adhesion inside the matrix. Some research work carried out in the vicinity of steel fibre
reinforced concrete reported increase in compressive strength with volume fractions ranging
from 0.5% to 2.0%.

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2. Split tensile strength:

Split tensile strength test was carried out over cylindrical specimens of 150 mm diameter and
300 mm length after 7 days and 28 days as per IS : 5816 -1999. The average Tensile strength of
fibre reinforced geopolymer concrete specimens are tabulated in Table 2.

6
7 days 28 days
5

0
GPC SFRGPC1 SFRGPC2 SFRGPC3 SFRGPC4 SFRGPC5
Specimen type
Fig 2.12- Tensile strength graph

From Fig 2.12, it is evident that there is a gradual increase in tensile strength of Geopolymer
with the augmentation of steel fibres for various proportions. From Table 2, it is inferred that
SFRGPC of different volume fraction SFRGPC1, SFRGPC2, SFRGPC3, SFRGPC4 shows an
increase in Split tensile strength of about 13%, 25%, 33%, 42% at 7 days and 14%, 25%, 35%,
42% at 28 days respectively than control GPC. It is clear that steel fibre reinforced geopolymer
concrete specimens gains about 86 Percent of the 28 days strength at 7 days. Prateek et al., stated
that the maximum split tensile strength of SFRGPC is achieved at 14 days under ambient curing
when compared with conventional concrete.

3. Flexural Strength Test:

Flexural strength was determined by testing the prismatic specimens of size of 500 X 100 X 100
as per IS: 516 -19. The average values are tabulated in Table 2. The average values are plotted in
the graph for better interpretation. The variations of flexural strength for the various percentages
of steel fibre are depicted in Figure 3.

From Table 2, it is inferred that SFRGPC of different volume fraction SFRGPC1, SFRGPC2,
SFRGPC3, SFRGPC4 shows an increase in flexural strength of 7%, 12%, 17%, and 22% at 28
days than control GPC. The increase in flexural strength of the specimens is due to the bridging
effect exhibited by the fibres. The fibres act as a bridge and transfer the stress across them there
by increasing the flexural strength capacity of the section. Islam et al claimed that the addition

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of 0.5% steel fibers enhanced the splitting tensile and flexural strength of geopolymer concrete
by about 19%–38% and 13%–44%, respectively.

8
7
6
flexural strength in 28
5 days
4
3
2
1
0
GPC SFRGPC1 SFRGPC2 SFRGPC3 SFRGPC4 SFRGPC5
Percentage of Fiber addition
Fig 2.13- Flexural strength graph

4. Ductility Factor:

Ductility measures the flexibility of the prism specimens. Ductility factor for the various dosages
are determined by testing the prismatic specimens using Universal Testing Machine as per IS:
516 -1959. The ductility index μ is then calculated as the ratio of ultimate deflection to the yield
deflection. The ultimate and yielding deflections determined were tabulated in Fig 2.14.
From Figure 4, it is inferred that SFRGPC of different volume fraction SFRGPC1, SFRGPC2,
SFRGPC3, SFRGPC4 shows an increase in Ductility factor of 5%, 13%, 15%, and 18% at 28
days than control GPC. It is inferred that the presence of steel fibres increased the ductility of the
specimens till 1 Percent beyond which it reduced. There was a significant increase in ultimate
deflection than the yield deflection thereby increasing the overall ductility of the geopolymer
concrete specimens. Jang et al. claimed increase in ductility of the Steel fibre reinforced concrete
with an increase in fibre content. Utilization of steel fibre as transverse reinforcement proved to
enhance the confinement and ductility.

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4.5 1.45
4 1.4
3.5 1.35
3
1.3
2.5
1.25
2 Yield deflection (mm)
1.2
1.5
1 Ultimate deflection 1.15
(mm)
0.5 1.1
0 1.05
GPC SFRGPC1 SFRGPC2 SFRGPC3 SFRGPC4 SFRGPC5
Specimen Type

Fig 2.14- Ductility Factor graph

Table 2.17- Ductility factor test result

Specimen Ultimate yield Ductility factor

name deflection(δu) deflection(δy) μ= (δu /δy)
GPC 3.16 2.65 1.19
SFRGPC1 3.35 2.71 1.24
SFRGPC2 3.7 2.77 1.34
SFRGPC3 3.8 2.8 1.35
SFRGPC4 3.92 2.82 1.4
SFRGPC5 3.98 2.97 1.34

5. Impact strength test:

Impact strength of the steel fibre reinforced geopolymer concrete specimens was determined as
per ACI Committee 544 over specimens of 152 mm diameter and 62 mm thickness. The impact
resistance of the concrete was determined using instrumented drop-weight testing equipment.
The number of blows required to cause initial crack and ultimate failure are noted for the
different dosages of steel fibres and are tabulated in Table 2.18.

Table 2.18- Impact Strength test result

Number of blows for Number of blows Impact Strength

Specimen name
first crack for ultimate crack (Nm)
GPC 3 3 587.0711
SFRGPC1 4 6 1174.142
SFRGPC2 7 9 1761.213
SFRGPC3 8 11 2152.594
SFRGPC4 11 14 2739.665
SFRGPC5 12 16 3131.046

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18
16
Ultimate
14 crack
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
GPC SFRGPC1 SFRGPC2 SFRGPC3 SFRGPC4 SFRGPC5
Specimen Type

Fig 2.15- Impact Strength Graph

GPC specimen without any fibre content exhibited first crack and suffered ultimate failure at the
same number of blows. From Fig 2.15, it is evident that impact energy increases with increase in
the steel fibre content. This increase is due to the reason that steel fibers have high tensile
strength and modulus of Elasticity than the concrete. This increases the integrity of the matrix
there by increasing the impact strength. Zhang stated that incorporating steel fibre into concrete
improved the impact resistance and increased the maximum bending load and fracture energy
under impact loading considerably.

CONCLUSIONS

From the above discussions the following conclusions could be drawn,

With the increase in the steel fibre content, there has been a significant increase in the
mechanical properties of the Geopolymer concrete. Compressive strength increased about 35
Percent split tensile strength increased about 42 Percent and flexural strength about 22 Percent.
Addition of steel fibres increased the ductility of the concrete. However the increase in the
ultimate deflection was more than the increase in the yield deflection. Post yielding behaviour of
Geopolymer concrete increased at the optimum utilization of steel fibres in the matrix.
Impact strength measured the real performance of steel fibres. Addition of steel fibres increased
the impact strength about 433.33 Percent.

This paves way for the effective utilization of steel fibers in Geopolymer concrete by reducing its
brittleness and increasing the energy absorption capacity with the overall increase in the
mechanical properties.

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2.9 N. Ganesan, P.V. Indira and Anjana Santhakumar; “Engineering

properties of steel fibre reinforced geopolymer concrete”, Advances in
Concrete Construction, [2013].

MATERIALS AND MIX PROPORTION

Low-calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash obtained from Mettur Thermal Power Plant in Tamil
Nadu was used as the base material. Table 1 shows the chemical composition of fly ash as
revealed by scanning electron microscope. Fig. 1 shows the SEM image of fly ash. River sand
passing through 4.75 mm IS sieve conforming to grading zone II of IS: 383-1970 (reaffirmed
2002), having a fineness modulus of 2.83 and specific gravity of 2.50 was used. The maximum
size of coarse aggregate was 20 mm with a fineness modulus of 7.69 and specific gravity of
2.72. The results of sieve analysis for fine and coarse aggregates are shown in Table 2 and Table
3. The activator solution consists of sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide as indicated by
Rashad et al. (2013). In order to improve the workability of concrete naphthalene based super
plasticizer (Conplast SP 430) was employed during mixing operations. Crimped steel fibres (Fig.
2) having a length of 30 mm, diameter of 0.45 mm and an ultimate tensile strength of 800 MPa
with an aspect ratio of 66 were used for the present study. So far no standard mix design
approaches are available for GPCs, since they are a new class of construction materials. In the
present experimental work, GPC mix proportion for M 40 grade was obtained by trial and error
method, based on the guidelines given by Rangan (2008). The objectives for performing the trial
and error procedure was to obtain the desired compressive strength at the end of 28 days and to
obtain a good cohesive mix with satisfactory workability (slump of 75 to 125 mm). The ratio of
sodium silicate-to-sodium hydroxide by mass was kept as 2.5 as reported by Mustafa et al.
(2012) and the ratio of activator solution-to fly ash was selected as 0.39. Same mix proportion
was maintained with the increase in the percentage of steel fibres. Dosage of super plasticizer
was adjusted to maintain the workability of SFRGPC mixes. The details of mix proportions are
given in Table 2.20.
Table 2.19- Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate

Weight
retained % Weight Cumulative %
Sl.No Sieve size (mm) % Passing
(grams) retained weight retained

1 20.00 0 0 0 100
2 16.00 1428 28.56 28.56 71.44
3 12.50 1545 30.90 59.46 40.54
4 10.00 1323 26.46 85.92 14.08
5 4.75 668 13.36 99.28 0.72
6 2.38 0.00 0.00 99.28 0.00
7 1.18 0.00 0.00 99.28 0.00
8 0.60 0.00 0.00 99.28 0.00
9 0.30 0.00 0.00 99.28 0.00
10 0.15 0.00 0.00 99.28 0.00

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Table 2.20- Mix proportion of GPC

Materials Quantity (kg/m3)

Coarse aggregates 975

Fine aggregate 285

Fly ash 639

Sodium silicate solution 180

Sodium hydroxide solution (14Molar) 72

Extra water 53

Super plasticizer 7.67

Fig 2.16- SEM image of fly ash (2000 magnification)

Fig 2.17- Crimped steel fibres

Casting of specimens

For the preparation of test specimens, fly ash, river sand, coarse aggregate, sodium silicate
solution and sodium hydroxide solution were used. Sodium hydroxide was available in the pellet
form which was mixed with water to form 14 Molar solutions (Rangan 2008 and Vanchai et al.
2013). All the aggregates were prepared in saturated surface dry condition. Sodium hydroxide
solution and sodium silicate solution were mixed together one day before adding to the dry
materials. Firstly mixing of dry materials was carried out in a drum type mixer with 1.5 cft
(0.062 m3) capacity. Super plasticizer was mixed with alkaline solution and was then added to

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the dry materials. The required quantities of steel fibres were added during mixing. The freshly
mixed SFRGPC was poured layer by layer, into standard cubes of size 150 × 150 × 150 mm for
compressive strength test, 150 × 300 mm cylinders for splitting tensile test, modulus of elasticity
and Poisson’s ratio and into 100 × 100 × 500 mm prisms for finding modulus of rupture. Total
number of layers was three. Each layer was vibrated for 15 seconds in a vibrating table. The top
surface was levelled using a smooth trowel after compaction. The moulds were then covered by
plastic sheets in order to prevent loss of moisture. The covered specimen were given a rest
period of 3 days and were then transferred to the steam curing chamber (Fig. 3). Curing was
done for 24 hours at a temperature of 60°C.

Test methods

The compressive strength tests were carried on 15 concrete cubes of 150 mm size as per IS: 516-
1959 (reaffirmed 2004). The cubes were loaded in the Universal testing machine of 300t (2942.1
KN) capacity and the rate of loading was kept constant (140 kg/cm2/minute) for all the
specimens until failure. The splitting tensile tests, were carried on 15 concrete cylinders of 150
mm diameter and 300 mm height, in accordance with IS 5816: 1999 (reaffirmed 2004) and was
split along its length in the Universal testing machine of 300t (2942.1 kN) capacity. For finding
the modulus of rupture, tests were conducted on 15 prisms of 100 × 100 × 500 mm in size, under
third point loading, as per IS: 516-1959 (reaffirmed 2004). In this investigation, for finding the
modulus of elasticity, test samples were cast using steel cylinder moulds of 150 mm diameter
and 300mm high specially prepared for this purpose. In order to measure core deformation, two
steel flats were inserted through slots made in the cylinder moulds before casting as shown in
Fig. 4. At the time of testing, LVDTs were attached to the flats and deformations were
measured. Tests were carried out on 15 concrete cylinders as per IS: 516-1959 (reaffirmed
2004).

Fig 2.18- Specimens in steam curing chamber

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Fig 2.19- Steel mould with flat plates

Fig 2.20- Effect of fibre volume fraction on compressive strength

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the investigation of the engineering properties of steel fibre reinforced geopolymer
concrete, following conclusions were arrived at.
The compressive strength of GPC improves slightly with the addition of steel fibres at
Various volume fractions. The strength increases from 3.22% for 0.25% volume fraction of
fibres up to 8.51% for 1% volume fraction.
The splitting tensile strength, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of
SFRGPC increases significantly with increase in fibre volume fraction. The splitting tensile
strength varied from 23.26% up to 61.63% for the increase in fibre volume fractions from 0.25%
up to 1 %. The modulus of rupture varied from 9.4% up to 24%, the modulus of elasticity varied
from 13.70% up to 64.92% and Poisson’s ratio varied from 14.28% to 50%. iii. The strength
models developed for SFRGPC predicts the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength,
modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity satisfactorily.

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2.10 G.Ramkumar, S.Sundarkumar, A.Sivakumar; “Development of steel fibre

reinforced geopolymer concrete”, International Journal of Advance Research
in Science and Engineering, [2015].

OBJECTIVES
Efforts will be earnestly in progress all over the world to develop construction materials, which
make least utility of quick decreasing common assets and help to decrease greenhouse gas
emanations Geopolymers are indicating extraordinary potential and a few scientists have
basically analysed the different perspectives of their feasibility as binder framework.
Geopolymer concretes (GPCs) are new class of building materials that have risen as an elective
to Ordinary Portland cement concrete (OPCC) and have the potential to change the building
development industry. Significant research has been done on improvement of Geopolymer
concretes (GPCs), which include ambient temperature curing and use of stainless-steel fibre and
mild steel fibre. In this paper an attempt is made to study steel fibre reinforced geopolymer
concrete. Three GPC mixes of fly ash (50%) and GGBS (50%) in the binder stage were
considered. with control GPC mix, GPC mix with added stainless steel fibre and mild steel
fibres. The studies showed that the load carrying capacity of most of the GPC mix was in most
cases more than that of the conventional OPCC mix. The deflections at diverse stages including
service load and peak load stage were higher for GPC beams.

METHODOLOGY
Materials used
The GPC was acquired by blending distinctive mixes of Ground Granulated blast Furnace Slag
(GGBS), Fly Ash (FA), fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and alkaline activator solution
(AAS). FA fitting in with grade 1 of IS 3812 and GGBS from Andhra cements, Vishakhapatnam
conforming to IS 12089 were utilized. Stream sand available in Chennai was utilized as fine
totals. They were tested according to IS 2386. In this investigation, generally accessible blue
granite crushed stone aggregates of maximum size 12mm and down was utilized and
characterization tests were done according to IS 2386.The properties of the materials utilized are
indicated as a part of Table 2.21. Potable water was utilized for the GPC and distilled water was
utilized for the RGPCs. The alkaline activator solution (AAS) used in GPC mixes was a
combination of sodium silicate solution (SiO2/Na2O=2.2), sodium hydroxide pellets and
distilled water. The part of AAS is to break down Si and Al present in the reactive portion of
source materials, for example, FA furthermore GGBS and give a high alkaline liquid medium
for condensation polymerization reaction. The sodium hydroxide was taken as form of flakes of
3mm in size. The sodium hydroxide (NaOH) arrangement with obliged concentration was
arranged by dissolving the processed measure of sodium hydroxide flakes in distilled water. The
NaOH solution and sodium silicate solution were prepared independently and mixed at the time
of casting. Since lot of heat is created when sodium hydroxide chips respond with water, the
sodium hydroxide arrangement was prepared a day prior to casting. It ought to be noted here that
it is crucial to attain to the desired level of workability of the GPC concrete. Notwithstanding,

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overabundance water can bring about development of pore system, which could be the source of
low quality and low toughness. Experimental work is designed to study the effect of steel fibres
on mechanical and elastic properties on geopolymer concrete. The materials used for making fly
ash geopolymer concrete composite specimens are low-calcium fly ash, course and fine
aggregates, steel fibres, alkaline solution, and water.

Fly Ash
Fly ash is the residue from the combustion of pulverized coal collected by mechanical or
electrostatic separators from the flue gases of thermal power plants. The spherical shape of
particle improves the flow ability and reduces the water demand. In this experimental work, the
fly ash used is obtained from the silos of Enmore Thermal Power Station, Chennai, India, which
is of low calcium; Class F. Low calcium fly ash makes substantial contributions to the
workability, chemical resistance, and reduction in thermal cracking. Table 2.21 shows the
chemical composition.

Table 2.21- Chemical Composition of Fly Ash

Compou SiO Al2O Fe2O Ca Mg Na2 K2 TiO Mn2O SO3 P2O
nd 2 3 3 O O O O 2 3 5

Fly Ash 49.4 29.6 10.7 3.4 1.3 0.31 0.5 1.7 0.17 0.2 0.5
5 1 2 7 4 6 7 3

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

GGBS is a by-product from Iron smelting Industry, Chennai. Table 2.22 describes the
composition of GGBS.

Table 2.22- Chemical Composition of GGBS

Compoun SiO2 Al2O Fe2O CaO MgO Na2O K2O TiO2 Mn2O SO
d 3 3 3 3

GGBS 33.45 13.46 0.31 41.7 5.99 0.16 0.29 0.84 0.40 2.74

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

The most common alkaline activator used in geo polymerisation is a combination of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium silicate or potassium silicate.
The type and concentration of alkali solution affect the dissolution of fly ash. Leaching of Al3+
and Si4+ ions are generally high with sodium hydroxide solution compared to potassium
hydroxide solution. Alkali concentration is a significant factor for controlling the leaching of

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alumina and silica from fly ash particles, geo polymerization process and mechanical properties
of hardened geopolymer. Ducheneaux confirmed that in presence of NaOH in the alkaline
activating solution, the reaction takes place more rapidly and the gel is less smooth.

Sodium Silicate Solution (Na2SiO3)

Sodium silicate is the common name for a compound sodium metasilicate, Na 2SiO3, also known
as water glass or liquid glass. It is available in both aqueous solution and solid form and is used
in cements, passive fire protection, refractories, textile and lumber processing, and automobiles.
Sodium carbonate and silicon dioxide react in molten state to form sodium silicate as well as
carbon dioxide.

Alkaline Solution
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in the form of flakes and sodium silicate are used as alkaline
activators to give a good binding solution for the geopolymer mix. The alkaline liquid used in
geo polymerisation is a combination of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate as
activators. Sodium silicate solution was purchased from a local supplier in bulk. The sodium
hydroxide in flakes or pellets was purchased from a local supplier in bulk.
Alkaline liquid is prepared by mixing sodium silicate solution and sodium hydroxide solution
with proper proportion.
∙ Sodium-based solutions were selected because they were cheaper than potassium-
based solutions. ∙ The sodium hydroxide solids were a commercial grade in pellets
form (3 mm).

Aggregates
Locally available river sand sieved through 4.75mm is used as fine aggregates and crushed
stones of nominal size 10mm coarse aggregates is used.

Steel Fibres
Use of crimped steel fibres of aspect ratio (a/d) 60 is used. For the geopolymer mix we have
used crimped stainless-steel fibres and crimps mild steel fibres. The use of fibres in concrete has
the property to resistance against cracking and crack propagation. The fibre composite
pronounced post cracking ductility which is unheard of in ordinary concrete. The transformation
from a brittle to a ductile type of material would increase substantially the energy absorption
characteristics of the fibre composite and its ability to withstand repeatedly applied shock or
impact loading. These fibres are short, discrete lengths having an aspect ratio in the range of 20-
100, with any cross section that are sufficiently small to be randomly dispersed in an unhardened
concrete mixture using usual mixing procedures.

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TEST SPECIMENS AND TESTING

Preparation of Specimens
Before casting, the inward walls of moulds were covered with greasing up oil to avoid
adhesion with the solidifying concrete. GPC were mixed in a tilting drum mixer machine of
350kg limit for around 5-8 minutes. The concrete was put in the shape in three layers of
equivalent thickness and every layer was vibrated until the concrete was completely
compacted. Three no s’ of 100mm cubes were casted to focus the 28-day compressive
strength. specimens were demoulded after 24 hrs. The split tension test was conducted on
cylinder specimen after 28 days. The flexure test conducted on beam specimens showed
higher results because of the addition of steel fibres and the high bondage strength. Table 4
briefly explains the test analysis values.

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

Table 2.23- Test Results on Compressive Strength

Mix Compressive Strength, MPa Split Tense Flexure

Strength, Strength
MPa (28 Test,
3rd 7th day 28th days) MPa
day day (28
days)

GPCM 21.21 32.37 44.16 3.372 6.61

GPCS 34.61 37.21 52.164 5.317 8.14

GPCMS 32.15 38.313 53.13 5.91 8.19

Fig 2.21- Plot between Geopolymer Mixes and Duration (Days)

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Load-Deflection Behaviour
As the load was applied on the notched beam specimen (100*100*500mm) slowly no
cracks were formed until the peak load was attained. A crack started to propagate at the end
of the notched part faster in the ligament when the load reached its peak value. Failure
started to propagate by opening a single crack in the geopolymer concrete specimens. The
typical load–deflection diagrams of GPC concrete specimens are given. It is seen from
these figures that the peak load of geopolymer concrete specimen was higher similar to its
compressive strength. Figure Load deflection curves for each batch

a) Load Deflection Curve for Control Mix

b) Load Deflection Curve for Steel Fibres Mix

Curing of Geopolymer Concrete

The Geopolymer samples were cured under ambient temperature. Water curing is not
required. Geopolymer concrete attains its full strength only after 28 days.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table demonstrates the compressive strength developed by different mixes at 3, 7 and 28
days of age. It might be seen that the mixes accomplished the normal level of 28-day
strength. In spite of the fact that all in all it is required for geopolymer concrete to achieve
strength at a speedier rate, in the present mixes. Consequently, it can be normal there would
be some unreacted fly ash in the mix which could credit to further strength pick up with
age. However, the present goal was to attain to a workable mix with strength of around 30
MPa at 28 days with no extraordinary curing necessities, since the vast majority of the
concrete utilized as a part of India are in this evaluation and are in situ made.

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Alkali activated slag based geopolymer concrete with ambient air curing with a
compressive strength at 28 days in abundance of 30 MPa was attained to for all the mixes.
From the perception all the mixes have sufficient retention period and it can be embraced
for making of GGBS based geopolymer concrete. The most essential parameter of
workability and slump maintenance for sufficient time was attained to in these mixes.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental work the following conclusions are drawn
There is no need of exposing geopolymer concrete to higher temperature to achieve most
extreme strength. With the addition of steel fibres in GPC diminished the workability of concrete
mix. The necessity of water substance is reduced because of the addition of alkaline solution
which helps in increasing the compressive strength of concrete.
The compressive strength is increased by 2.25% (appx) when steel fibres are utilized. ∙ GPC mix
with added steel fibres is approximately 20% more than GPC control mix in compression
behaviour.
GPC mix with added stainless steel fibres is 57% more than control mix and GPC mix with
added mild steel fibres is 75% more than control mix in split tensile strength behaviour.
82.3% of compressive strength was attained by control mix in only 7days and 70-73% of
compressive strength was accomplished in just 7 days.
Flexural strength of GPC with added fibres is approximately 24% more than control mix. ∙ The
addition of fibres diminishes the crack prorogation in concrete and can achieve higher peak
value.

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2.11 Prateek paveen, Gaurav Jawale, Vishwajeeth Ghadge, Akbar Nakedar,

Yasmeen Tadvi, Amit Jha, Dr. N.K. Gupta; “Effects of Steel Fibres on
Mechanical Properties of Geopolymer Concrete”, International Journal of
Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, [2018].

OBJECTIVES
1. To overcome this problem compete cement replacing agent called GEO-POLYMER
concrete. Geo-polymer is a concrete where there is no cement is used instead Fly ash and
GGBS is used as the binding elements.

2. To study Fly ash which is residue from the coal manufacturing industry and blast furnace
slag are the key constituents for preparing geo-polymer concrete. And also, fine aggregates,
coarse aggregates and finally water is added to make a Geopolymer concrete.

3. To study an attempt is made to know the strength geo-polymer concrete by adding holed
steel bars in the mix.

4 .To test specimens will be tested for compression test, flexural test and split tensile test and
finally strength of geopolymer concrete with steel fibres will be determined.

METHODOLOGY

Explanation
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Water is the most essential part in both geopolymer concrete and conventional concrete. As the
utilized of water in geopolymer is to improve the workability, and also to permeable in solid
since it is dissipation of liquid amid curing procedure at lifted temperature. Increase in sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate fixation will decrease the stream of concrete furthermore it will
help the geopolymer concrete to improve compressive strength. Workability of concrete super
plasticiser or additional water can be included. Be that as it may, the utilization of super
plasticiser to improve the more than 4% had an unfriendly impact on the strength of geopolymer.
As being what is indicated, additional water will give higher strength than expansion of super
plasticiser.

Strength
It is the property of material which opposes the deformation or breakdown of material in presence
of external forces or load. Material which we finalize for our engineering product, must have
suitable mechanical strength to be capable to work under different mechanical forces or loads.

Toughness
It is the ability of material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed without fracturing.
Its numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per unit volume. Its unit is Joule/ m3.
Value of tough ness of a material can be determines by stress-strain characteristics of material.
For good toughness material should have good strength as well as ductility.

For example: brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility is not tough enough.
Conversely, materials having good ductility but low strength are also not tough enough.
Therefore, to be tough, material should be capable to withstand with both high stress and strain.

Hardness
It is the ability of material to resist to permanent shape change due to external stress. There is
various measure of hardness – Scratch Hardness, Indentation Hardness and Rebound Hardness.

Scratch Hardness Scratch Hardness is the ability of material to oppose the scratch to outer
surface layer due to external force.
Indentation Hardness It is ability of material to oppose the dent due to punch of external had and
sharp object. 3. Rebound Hardness Rebound hardness is also called as dynamic hardness. It is
determined by the height of “bounce” of a diamond tipped hammer dropped from a fixed height
on the material.

Hardenability
It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment processing. It is determined
by the depth up to which the material becomes hard. The SI unit of hardenability is meter (similar
to length). Hardenability of material is inversely proportional to the weld-ability of material.

Brittleness

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Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it is subjected to a force
or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a stress is observes very less energy and gets
fractures without significant strain. Brittleness is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of
material is temperature depended. Some metals which are ductile at normal temperature become
brittle at low temperature.

Malleability
Malleability is property of solid material which indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized by the ability of material to
be formed in the form of a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is an
aspect of plasticity of material. Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise of
temperature, the malleability of material increases.

Ductility
Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of material to get
stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This mechanical property is also an aspect of
plasticity of material and temperature dependent. With rise of temperature, the ductility of
material increases.

Creep and Slip

Creep is the property of material which indicates the tendency of material to move slowly and
deform permanently under the influence of external mechanical stress. It results due to long time
exposure to large external mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep is more severe in
material that are subjected to heat for long time. Slip in material is a plane with high density of
atoms.

Resilience
Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed elastically by
applying stress and release the energy when stress is removed. Proof resilience is defined as the
maximum energy that can be absorbed without permanent deformation. The modulus of
resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without
permanent deformation. It can be determined by integrating the stress-strain cure from zero to
elastic limit. Its unit is joule/m3.

Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of material. When a material
is subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater than certain threshold value but much below
the strength of material (ultimate tensile strength limit or yield stress limit, microscopic cracks
begin to form at grain boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reached to a critical size.
This crack propagates suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The shape of structure effects the
fatigue very much. Square holes and sharp corners lead to elevated stresses where the fatigue
crack initiates.

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EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

Selection of suitable mix proportion: -As discussed from the beginning geopolymer concrete is
the mixture of fly ash, GGBS, 70% of aggregates and water and where complete replacement of
ordinary Portland cement has done. In this research geopolymer concrete mix is prepared with
different percentages of both Fly ash and GGBS as these two are key elements in the concrete.
Firstly 3 combinations of different percentage of fly ash and GGBS are takes like 1st
combination 70% of fly ash with 30% of GGBS, and 2nd combination where both fly ash and
GGBS are taken equally that is 50% - 50%, and finally the third combination where fly ash is
used is 60 and GGBS is 40%. With these 3 combinations of geopolymer mix hooked steel fibres
were added. When the hooked steel fibres were added in ordinary concrete the 1.5% showed the
best results so the same percentage can be used in the geopolymer concrete as well.

After the geopolymer concrete mix prepared with 1.5% of hooked steel fibres test specimens
were casted like cubes of size 150mm x 150mm x 150mm in size, and cylinders with length
300mm and diameter 150mm, and finally beams of size 100 x 100mm x 400mm each specimen
that is cubes, cylinders and beams each of 24 in number were casted. After that the test
specimens were kept for ambient curing and different tests like compressive test, tensile test and
split test were carried for a period of 7days and 28 days.

Casting: The fresh concrete after mixing was cast into moulds of size 150mmX150mmX150mm
immediately after mixing to find the compressive strength. Compaction of the specimen is
achieved by giving sixty manual strokes for three layers by using tamping rod.

Curing: -After casting all the specimens were kept without demoulding at room temperature for a
rest period. The term ‘Rest Period' demonstrates the time taken from the finishing of casting of
test specimen to the beginning of curing at room temperature. It was found that delaying the
curing for period of time causes an increment in the compressive strength. After the completion
of the rest period, the demoulding procedure was done. The entire test specimen was tested on
seventh from the date of casting.

Tests on Geopolymer concrete:

The basic test on concrete as per the Indian standard code was conducted to study the behaviour
of the concrete. The compression test on cube specimens were conducted as per the IS: 516-
1959(reaffirmed 1999). Tests and discussion on fresh geopolymer concrete:

The fresh geopolymer concrete was dark in colour and the mixes were generally gives good
bonding between the aggregates. The workability is measured by using slump cone test. The
slump results for 8 molarity are tabulated in table 3.10 All the tests are carried out according to
the IS 1199-1999 code guidelines. From the test results we can see that slump value decreases
with increase in binder content and it decreases with increase in molarity of NaOH solution. The
fresh geopolymer concrete is more cohesive compared to the ordinary Portland concrete cement
and it is bit difficult to handle.

Tests and discussion on hardened geopolymer concrete:

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The tests conducted on the harden geopolymer concrete are

1. Compressive Strength Test.

2. Split Tensile Strength Test.
3. Flexural Strength.

Compressive strength test: For compressive strength test, cube specimens with M40 grade of
concrete with dimensions 150 x 150 x 150 mm were casted. Super plasticizer (0.2% to 0.6% by
weight of cement) was added to this. 1.5% of fibre is filled in the moulds. Using table vibrator air
voids were removed in the moulds. The specimen top surface is levelled and finished. The
moulds were kept for curing after 24 hours the specimens were remoulded and they were allowed
to cure for 14days, 28 days. After 14 days, 28 days curing, these cubes were tested on digital
compression testing machine as per I.S. 516-1959. Cubes were tested and their values are
reported and failure load is noted.

Flexural strength test: For flexural strength test beam specimens of dimension 100x100x500 mm
were cast. After24 hrs specimens were remoulded and were kept into the ambient curing and
allowing the specimens to cure for 14days and 28 days. The specimens over an effective span of
400mm which are used for flexural strength test were tested under two points loading as per I.S.
516-1959, on Flexural testing machine. Failure loads and corresponding failure deflections were
noted. Three beams were used and their average value in the test is reported.

Split Tensile strength test: For Split tensile strength test, cylinder specimens of dimension 150
mm diameter and300 mm length were cast. The specimens were demoulded after 24 hours of
casting and were kept into the ambient curing wherein they were allowed to cure for 14days,28
days. Three cylinders were used for testing compression test and their average value is reported.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

1. Compressive strength of conventional concrete:

As per IS 516-1959, Cubes of size 150 x 150 x 150mm0were cast to evaluate the
compressive0strength of concrete. Aspect ratio (l/d) 60
Compressive0strength = load/area

Fig 2.22 - Results of compressive strength of SFRC (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0% of fibres on 28days of
curing.

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In the above chart X- axis represents % of steel fibre used and Y- axis represents Compressive
load and it is observed that the cubes made with 1.5% of steel fibres gives better results
compared to other % of steel fibre.

Flexural strength of conventional concrete:

The flexural strength was obtained as follows.
Flexural strength (MPa) = (P x L) / (b x d2),
Where, P = Failure load, L = Centre to centre distance between the support = 400 mm = width
of specimen=100 mm, d = depth of specimen= 100 mm

Fig 2.23- Results of Flexural strength of SFRC (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0%) of fibres on 28
days of curing.

In the above chart X- axis Fig: Tensile test represents % of steel fibre used and Y- axis
represents Flexural load and it is observed that the cubes made with 1.5% of steel fibres gives
better results compared to other % of steel fibre.
Split tensile strength of conventional concrete:
Split Tensile strength were obtained as follows as split tensile strength:
Split Tensile strength (MPa) = 2P / π DL,
Where, P = failure load,
D = diameter of cylinder, L = length of cylinder

Fig 2.24- Results of Split Tensile strength of SFRC (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% of fibres
on 28 days of curing.

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In the above chart X- axis represents % of steel fibre used and Y- axis represents Split tensile
load and it is observed that the cubes made with 1.5% of steel fibres gives better results
compared to other % of steel fibre.

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

Geo-polymer0concrete is excellent alternative to Portland0cement0concrete.

Mix0design was done with an assumption that the0density of GPC is 2400kg/m3 the total mass
of the aggregate which was0considered as 77% of the entire concrete mix over mass.
The density of GPC with and0without fibres is same as that conventional0concrete.
Hand0mixing and ambient0curing of GPC concrete preparation is used.
Additional of steel fibres in GPCC effects workability of steel fibre reinforced GPC decrease the
% volume fraction of steel fibres increases to enhance the0workability super0plasticizer is used.
6. The use of water is reduced because of addition of alkaline0solution, which helps in increasing
in the strength of GP concrete.
The optimum0dosage of steel fibres is 1.5% from table 4.1, the maximum compression0strength
at 28 days is 51.64 N/mm2.
The maximum compressive0strength, flexural0strength and split tensile0strength at 14 days is
49.41, 8.20, 3.33 respectively. From these results it can be concluded that the SFGPC for non-
strength is achieved at 14days under ambient0curing when compared with
conventional0concrete.

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2.12 Jagadeesh, Melitia d’mello (July 2018); “An experimental investigation

on the mechanical properties and performance of hybrid fiber reinforced
cement free concrete”, International Research Journal of Engineering and
Technology (IRJET), [2018].

OBJECTIVES

To study and evaluate the behaviour of fibre reinforced GPC in its fresh state with and without
the addition of different fibres.
To study and evaluate the behaviour of fibre reinforced GPC in its hardened state with and
without the addition of different dosages of fibres.
To ascertain the structural behaviour of the Geo polymer concrete.
To study the various durability properties of fibre reinforced GPC such as Water permeability,
Captivity, Acid resistance, Rapid chloride penetration (RCP), Water absorption.
To study the improvement in the properties of GPC when GGBS is partially replaced by
Calcined kaolin. To produce an environmentally friendly material for construction.
To make use of industrial by product effectively (Calcined kaolin and GGBS).

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

Materials required for preparing Hybrid Fibre Reinforced Geo-polymer concrete

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS). ∙ Calcined kaolin. (CK)
Potassium hydroxide.
Potassium silicate solution.
Aggregates.
Fine Aggregates
Coarse Aggregates
Jute and Coir Fibres
Water
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS)

GGBS is mainly taken inorganic non-metallic product usually obtained during wrought iron
or pig iron manufacturing which in blast furnace at 14000C to 15000C. About 305 kg of slag
is achieved from one tone of wrought iron. This molten steel by-product is then cooled by
water and then grounded to less than 45 microns with a specific surface area of about
400m2/kg – 600m2/kg. GGBS consists of Silicates of Calcium and other different forms and
Aluminates of Calcium and other different forms.

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Fig 2.25- GGBS

Calcined Kaolin
Calcined Kaolin is an anhydrous form of Aluminium Silicate usually formed by heating the finer
grain sized natural kaolin to greater temperatures in the kiln. The calcination majorly increases
the whiteness and then the hardness improves the electrical properties. The particle size
distribution of the Calcined kaolin is normally found to be finer and hence it leads concrete to
achieve and attain more strength by filling up the major to minor voids in the concrete.
In the current work Calcined kaolin was obtained from the M/s Britex Enterprises, Delhi.

Fig 2.26- Calcined kaolin

Potassium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide used in current project work is flakes. Commercial grade Potassium
Hydroxide is effectively utilized to produce FRGPC. The purity of which is 92%. The major role
of Potassium Hydroxide is to enhance strength of FRGPC.

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Fig 2.27- Potassium hydroxide

Potassium silicate solution

Potassium Silicate is usually called as liquid glass. Potassium silicate is a whitish pale yellow
semi gel. It has applications in waste water treatment plants, textile
manufacturing industries and soaps producing industries.

Fig 2.28- Potassium silicate

Jute and Coir Fibres

The introduction of fibres in concrete develops good tensile strength, which can be considered
as a new type of binder which could combine OPC in bonding with the cement matrices. It is
normally one of the cheapest fibres and also the strongest of all natural fibers.

Coir fibre used in the current project work was collected from the local market
(commercially) which were then cut into tiny pieces of size 30mm.

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Fig 2.29- Jute and Coir Fibres

Fine aggregates

M sand is utilized as fine aggregates to produce FRGPC. M sand used was totally surface
dried and free from inorganic organic impurities content. Fine aggregates for this current
work were tested as per Indian Standards.
The sieve analysis of M sand was carried out as per the specifications provided in IS 383 –
1970.

Table 2.24- Properties of M sand (fine aggregates)

Sl. No Tests Results

1. Fineness modulus 2.53

2. Specific gravity 2.65

CONCLUSIONS

Increase in CK content improves the workability properties as CK is finer than GGBS which
helps in filling up the voids which results in improving the concrete properties.
Increase in CK content up to 20% and increase in fibre content improved the mechanical
properties such as compressive strength and split tensile strength as uniformly distributed
discrete fibres improves the load carrying capacity of mix.

The optimum mix for FRGPC is when the CK content is 20% and GGBS content 80% and
0.5% fibres as this mix had better workability and improved compressive strength and split
tensile strength. The durability tests (Water permeability, RCPT, Acid resistance and
Captivity) showed good results compared to normal concrete as combination of GGBS and
CK has better polymerization reaction which results in strong matrix compared to 100%
GGBS mix. It is observed that FRGPC sets gradually at room temperature with the addition
of GGBS which is mainly due to high degree of reaction of GGBS with Sodium Hydroxide
and Sodium Silicate and thus ambient curing conditions can be adopted. The compressive
strength test results for 7 days are 80- 95% of its 28 days strength.
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2.13 Aamir mohamood, Muhammad Tayyab Noman; “Geopolymers and

Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Composites in Civil Engineering, Advanced
Textile Based Polymer Composites: Synthesis, Characterization and
Applications”, [2021].

Fig 2.30- A graphical representation of data published on Geopolymers from 2010 to 2020 based on
its economical and energy consumption benefits.

GEOPOLYMER

Geopolymers are used in many fields ranging from aeronautics and civil engineering to the
plastics industry. The synthesis of geopolymer is based on a chemical reaction between solid
aluminosilicate compounds (Si2O5, Al2O2) and a highly concentrated alkali hydroxide or
polysilicate solution. Kaolin and metakaolin are the examples of naturally occurring
aluminosilicate compounds whereas industrial wastes i.e., fly ash and blast furnace slag, are
considered to be industrial sources. The dissolution of the aluminosilicate compounds by
hydrolysis forms silicate and aluminate due to the presence of alkaline activators. After
dissolution, a reaction with silicates takes place promoted by the presence of activators solution.
At a higher pH, the amorphous aluminosilicate are quickly dissolved and form a highly saturated
aluminosilicate solution that further produces a gel like structure. Large networks are formed by
oligomers in an aqueous media due to condensation. This gel-like structure is bi-phasic due to
the water and aluminosilicate binder. The conversion time from a supersaturated aluminosilicate
solution to gel depends on the synthesis conditions, materials composition and concentration of
activators solution. After the gelation process, the system continues rearranging as the linkages
of the gel network are enhanced, resulting in the three-dimensional (3D) aluminosilicate network
named Geopolymers. A general flow diagram of the synthesis of geopolymer is illustrated in Fig
2.31. However, a chemical view of geopolymerization process shows that Al-O/Si-O bonds are
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broken in the solid alumina/silica rich binder material during the hydrolysis by hydroxyl initiator
[OH]¯ and produces a tetrahedral aluminate and silicate intermediate species i.e., [Al (OH)4] ¯
and [Si (OH)4]4−. Water condenses during gelation and an overall shrinkage occurs in the
structure. Therefore, the system reorganizes and rearranges itself into a 3D network as explained
in Fig 2.32.

Fig 2.31- A general flow of geopolymerization process

Fig 2.32- A chemical view of the geopolymerization reaction mechanism of aluminosilicate

(breakdown of bonds and formation of intermediate species) dissolution in the activator solution.

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Factors Affecting on Geopolymers

Many factors that affect the compressive strength, flexural strength and other mechanical
properties of Geopolymers have been reported by different researchers. These factors, such as
different calcium-containing raw materials, ionic additives, curing procedures and post-curing
chemical treatment, have been considered important for final property. An amorphous structure
of geopolymer is better for realizing anticipated mechanical strength. It is important to note that
the properties of geopolymer greatly depend on the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio, NaOH/Al2O3 or SiO2/KOH
ratio and the liquid–solid ratio. Research works investigating the influence of the C-S-H phase on
the geopolymerization of aluminosilicate with a focus of its role on early-age strength have been
made previously. Phair and Deventer investigated the C-S-H phases and demonstrated C-S-H
phases at different pH levels. According to them, the presence of C-S-H at pH 12 did not
improve the compressive strength significantly as compared to pH 14.

The effect of admixtures on geopolymer is another important factor that alters the overall
properties. It has been noted that sucrose and citric acid, as admixtures that perform the role of
retarder in OPC, have dissimilar mechanisms in fly-ash-based geopolymer. Commercial super
plasticizers such as naphthalene and polycarboxylate based super plasticizers were also
investigated. It is reported that a naphthalene-based super plasticizer is effective when a single
activator is used, rendering a 136% increase in relative slump without disturbing the
compressive strength. When a multi-compound activator is used, a modified polycarboxylate-
based super plasticizer is more effective. The retarding effect of a polycarboxylate-based super
plasticizer in a fly ash/slag blended system is reported in the literature along with a significant
improvement in workability compared to a naphthalene-based super plasticizer.

GEOPOLYMERS AND NATURAL REINFORCED COMPOSITES

Geopolymers exhibit good thermal and durability properties, and at the same time, they are
brittle in nature, show poor resistance to tensile and flexural loadings and undergo sudden
failure, hence are not suitable for several structural applications. To address this issue, research
works have been focused on reinforcing geopolymer with synthetic and natural fibres in order to
increase their ductility and resistance to tensile stresses. The incorporation of natural fibres in
geopolymer gives a feasible solution to counter its initial brittle behaviour. Fibre can be defined
as a hair-like material that is either a continuous filament or discrete elongated piece similar to
thread. Fibres can be broadly divided into natural and man-made ones. Figure 6 describes an
overview of fibre classification.

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Fig 2.33- Classification of fibres

In order to increase the flexural strength and energy absorption, fibres can be used as
reinforcement in geopolymer composites in the form of threads, filaments, whiskers and
nanoparticles. The inclusion of random short fibres in a cementatious medium enhances
toughness, ductility and strength by bridging and reducing the cracks. Moreover, the addition of
fibres in the geopolymer matrix also increases its energy absorption and resistance to
deformation. Geopolymers reinforced with any type of fibre show better toughness results in
comparison with OPC-based composites. Several factors influence fibre performance in
geopolymer composites, including inherent properties of the fibre used, its content, precursors,
curing and age of the composites. Yet, the main role for overall mechanical properties is the
interface between the fibre and matrix, and with a strong contact interface, high loads can easily
be transferred from the matrix to fibres. Most research works concerning fibre-reinforced
Geopolymers have been done using steel fibres, carbon fibres, glass fibres, polypropylene fibres,
polyvinyl alcohol fibres and basalt fibres. Using cellulosic fibres as reinforcement in recent times
has been witnessed as well.

Jute and Its Composites

Jute is one of the natural organic cellulosic fibres finding application in green composites and is
the most used cellulosic fibre after cotton. Jute is a type of bast fibre obtained from two species,
namely Corchorus capsularis and Corchorus olitiau’s, and is mainly grown in tropical regions of
the world including India, Bangladesh and China. Currently, jute production around the world is
estimated as 2300 × 103 tons per year. Jute fibre represents a complex mixture of chemical
compounds that are produced during the growth of fibre in the plant stem by photosynthesis
process. Soil condition, climate, development of the plant and retting process greatly influence
the constituents of fibre. In general, jute fibre is made up of 60% cellulose, 22% hemicellulose,
12% lignin, 1% fatty and waxy matter, 1% nitrogenous matter, 1% mineral matter and 3%
miscellaneous. The main constituents i.e., cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, essentially have
influence on the Fibre’s structure, as others are very minor in proportion. Jute fibre has a
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relatively low density and high strength and stiffness. In general, jute fibre has a density of
around 1.3 g/cm3, tensile strength of 393–773 MPa, Young’s modulus of 26.5 GPa and 1.5–1.8%
elongation. Jute fibre at 65% relative humidity and at 21 °C has a value of 12 for equilibrium
moisture content. Jute is among the most-studied fibres for reinforcement in thermoset and
thermoplastic polymers. Their results are illustrated in Figure

Fig 2.34- SEM micrographs of (a) jute fibres, (b) jute-fibre-reinforced Geopolymers composites
(lower magnification) where 1 shows jute fibril and 2 shows geopolymer aggregates and (c) jute
fibres reinforced Geopolymers composites (higher magnification) where 1 shows jute fibril and 2
shows geopolymer aggregates.

Glass and Its Composites

Glass fibre is one of the most common reinforcements in polymer composites. It is a strong, less
brittle, lightweight and cost-effective material. The application areas of glass fibers include
automobile, marine, sports, leisure goods, aerospace and the construction industry. In the
construction industry, glass fibers are mainly used for the production of fibrocement-based
objects and for external strengthening of existing buildings. The global production of glass fibre
accounts for about 5 million metric tons annually and it is estimated that the global market value
will reach more than $21 billion in 2025. The use of glass dates back to ancient times e.g., many
ancient Egyptian ships were made by winding glass fibres on a rim of clay of appropriate form.
Commercial production of glass fibre started in 1930s by the Owens-Illinois Glass Company.
There exist many groups of glasses including silica, oxynitride, phosphate and halide of which
silica glasses are used for composites reinforcement. Glass fibres are manufactured by using
different types of broken glass that contain silica along with other components like alumina,
oxides of calcium, magnesium and boron. The manufacturing process of glass fibre involves
high-temperature conversion of raw materials into a homogeneous melt that is later converted
into glass fibres. The production process has three phases, namely raw material handling, glass
smelting and refining and fibre formation. Glass fibres are produced in many forms, including
continuous fibre, roving’s, staple fibre and chopped strand. The mixing of continuous and
chopped-strand glass fibres with resin is more common. Depending on the chemical composition
and end use, glass fibres are characterized into many classes, namely C-glass, D-glass, R-glass,
E-glass and S-glass. E-glass, S-glass and C-glass are the leading glass fibres, with E-glass being
most widely used in composites because of its low cost and relatively low moduli. S-glass fibres
are stiffer and stronger than E-glass and have better resistance to fatigue and creep. E-glass are
alumina-borosilicate and are mainly used for glass-reinforced plastics, while S-glass are also
alumina-silicate with no Cao content and the highest value of tensile strength among all glass
fibers and are mainly used in aircraft components and missile casings. AR-glass fibres represent
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good resistance in alkaline media and are being used in cement substrates and concrete. C-glass
fibres have good resistance to chemical resistance

CONCLUSIONS

This paper represents the inclusion of selective cellulosic and non-cellulosic fibres in
Geopolymers-based, fibre-reinforced concrete composites from a construction and civil
engineering perspective. Geopolymers are the relatively new materials being employed in the
construction industry to replace the use of traditional concrete materials. Due to a number of
advantages, interest in developing, characterizing and implementing the use of geopolymer in the
construction industry is growing.

Geopolymer cement-based materials are developed using alumina silicate sources, with fly ash,
metakaolin and GGBFS being the most-used ones. First, the properties and uses of these
alumina-silicate materials were briefly discussed and represented in this paper. Moreover, the
second part discussed the inclusion of fibres as reinforcement in concrete composites. It is well-
known that geopolymer alone cannot respond adequately to certain mechanical properties and
hence need to be employed in combination with other suitable materials.

As discussed in this paper, geopolymer are weak in tension and possess brittle behaviour that
represents poor tensile/flexural properties. To overcome this problem, one such solution is the
inclusion of fibres in geopolymer-based composites. Natural fibers are gaining attention
regarding their use in composites due to a number of reasons, including their relatively low
density, excellent strength and environmental friendliness.

This paper examines the use of cellulosic and non-cellulosic fibres in composites for the
construction industry. A brief description of sisal, jute, basalt and glass fibers are discussed in
this context and represent some recent works conducted in the area.

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CHAPTER 3

3.1 RESEARCH GAP

 After referring the above journal papers, we came to conclusion that the GPC is
much better than OPC.
 In our research we are trying to compare the properties of GPC with different
constituent materials (steel fibre & natural fibres).

3.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROPOSED WORK

 To study the effect of changing in molarities of NaOH solutions on strength of GPC

concrete.
 To study the effect of Varying Different Fibres on strength of GPC concrete.
 To compare the properties of geopolymer concrete with conventional concrete.

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CHAPTER 4

4. METHODOLOGY
4.1 PROCUREMENT OF MATERIALS
CEMENT
Type of cement: OPC
Brand : Birla
Grade : 53
As per IS 8112:1989
Procured from Birla Cement

Fig 4.1- Cement

FINE AGGREGATES
The sand used for experimental program was locally procured and conforming to zone II.
The sand was first sieved through 4.75 mm sieve to remove any particles greater than
4.75 mm. It was tested as per Indian Standard Specification IS: 383-1970. The specific
gravity fine aggregate is 2.6, procured from Purva Infrastructure

Fig 4.2- M-sand

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COARSE AGGREGATES
Locally available coarse aggregates were used in this work. Aggregates passing through
20mm sieve and retained on 16mm sieve were sieved and tested as per Indian Standard
Specifications IS: 383-1970. The specific gravity of coarse aggregate is 2.65, procured
from Purva Infrastructure.

Fig 4.3- Coarse aggregates

FLYASH
Type of Fly ash: CLASS F
The specific gravity of Fly ash is 2.80, procured from Purva Infrastructure.

Fig 4.4- Flyash

ALKALI SOLUTION
Sodium hydroxide which is available in the form of flakes is mixed with distilled water
to prepare a certain molar solution and sodium silicate solution is used.

Fig 4.5- Sodium Silicate Solution and Sodium Hydroxide Flakes

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WATER
The tap water available in the campus was tested for its suitability. Necessary properties
such as pH value, chloride content, total hardness and total dissolved solids were
evaluated.

Fig 4.6- Water

FIBRES
The Steel fibres are used available in market with 3cm length and 0.05cm diameter and
the coconut coir used as fibres.

Fig 4.7- Coconut coir and Steel Fibre

4.2 TEST RESULTS OF MATERIALS

4.2.1 TEST ON CEMENT
Table 4.1- Test on cement

SL. NO TESTS CONDUCTED RESULTS

1. Normal Consistency 30%

2. Initial Setting Time 45 min

3. Final Setting Time 600 min

4. Specific Gravity 3.10

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4.2.2 TEST ON FLYASH

Table 4.2- Test on Flyash

SL. NO TESTS CONDUCTED RESULTS

1. Specific Gravity 2.80

4.2.3 TEST ON FINE AGGREGATE

Table 4.3- Test on Fine aggregate

SL. NO TESTS CONDUCTED RESULTS

1. Specific Gravity 2.56

2. Water Content 56.25%

3. Fineness Modulus of M sand 4.6

4. Bulk Density of Sand 36.15 N/mm2

5. Bulking of M sand 12%

6. Moisture Content of sand 1%

4.2.4 TEST ON COARSE AGGREGATE

Table 4.4- Test on Coarse aggregate

SL. NO TESTS CONDUCTED RESULTS

1. Specific gravity 2.60

2. Water Absorption Test 1%

3. Fineness Modulus of 5.03

Coarse Aggregate

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CHAPTER 5

5. MIX DESIGNS
5.1 MIX DESIGN OF M40 GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE

1. Data Considered –
Characteristic Compressive Strength = 40 N/mm2
Maximum Size of Coarse Aggregates = 10mm
Specific Gravity of Fly ash = 2.88
Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregates = 2.56
Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregates = 2.60
Specific Gravity of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) = 1.47
Specific Gravity of Sodium Silicate (Na₂SiO₃) = 1.60

2. Selection of Fly ash to the Compressive Ratio –

For M40 grade –

Amount of Fly ash = 600 kg/m3 (from above graph)

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3. Selection of Alkaline Liquid Ratio –

For M40 grade –

Ratio b/w Sodium Hydroxide to Sodium Silicate = 1: 2.5 (from above table)
Ratio b/w Amount of Alkaline Liquid to Fly ash Content = 0.6 (from above graph)
Amount of Alkaline Liquid = 0.6 * Fly ash Content
= 0.6 * 600
= 360 kg/m3
Amount of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) = (1/3.5) * 360
= 102.85 kg/m3
Amount of Sodium Hydroxide (Na₂SiO₃) = (2.5/3.5) * 360
= 257.15 kg/m3
4. Selection of water content –
Amount of Water Added Extra = 3% of Fly ash Content
= 0.03 * 600
= 18 kg/m3
5. Molarity Calculation –
For 1 Molar of NaOH = 40g
For 16 Molar of NaOH = 640g dissolved in 1000ml of distilled water
Therefore, For 102.85 kg/m3 of NaOH
0.29 kg of NaOH required for 1 mould
Hence,
For 290 ml, solids dissolved in water = 185.6g

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6. Determination of Aggregate content –

By using above data's and solving above equation –

Amount of Fine Aggregate = 656.8 kg/m3
Amount of Coarse Aggregate = 1105.3 kg/m3

7. Determination of fibres content –

Weight of Concrete = 2362.1 kg/m3
Percentage of Fibres added =1% of weight of concrete
= 0.01 * 2062.1
= 23.621 kg/m3
For 1 Mould,
Amount of Fibres = 20.621 * 1000 * 0.15 * 0.15 * 0.15
= 80 g

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Table 5.1 – Mix Proportion Outcomes for 1 cubic metre

Mix Proportions for 1 cu.m

Sodium Silicate (Na₂SiO₃) 257.15 kg/m3

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) 102.85 kg/m3

Extra water 18 kg/m3

Fly ash 600 kg/m3

Fine Aggregates 656.8 kg/m3

Course Aggregates 1105.3 kg/m3

Fibres 23.621 kg/m3

Table 5.2 – Mix Proportion Outcomes for 1 Mould of 150mm X 150mm X 150mm

For 1 Cube of (0.15m X 0.15m X 0.15m)

Sodium Silicate (Na₂SiO₃) 0.867 kg

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) 0.347 kg

Extra water 0.06 kg

Fly ash 2.025 kg

Fine Aggregates 2.217 kg

Course Aggregates 3.73 kg

Fibres 80g

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5.2 MIX DESIGN OF M40 OPC CEMENT CONCRETE

Design mix of M40 concrete is done by IS 10262 2019

Cement = 400 Kg/m3

Water = 168 Kg/m3

Fine aggregate = 618Kg/m3

Coarse aggregate = 1097 Kg/m3

Water-Cement ratio = 0.42

Ratio of concrete mix = 0.42:1:1.48:2.63

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CHAPTER 6

6. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

6.1 GENERAL
In the present study the experiments carried out on durability of geopolymer concrete of
different molarity and conventional concrete. The durability was studied in terms of
compressive strength. The compressive strength test on geopolymer concrete and
conventional concrete was performed using concrete cubes of 150mm X 150mm X
150mm. Average of three specimens for the same configuration were considered.

6.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF GPC AND CC

Totally 12 Geopolymer concrete (GPC) cubes of 12M, 16M and 3 Conventional concrete
(C.C) cubes were casted and cured. Three cubes from each molarity of GPC and three
cubes from C.C were tested for compressive strength. In this all the GPC cubes are cured
under sunlight and water curing for a period of 14, 27 days and C.C cubes are cured
under water curing for a period of 27 days. Table 6.1 shows the average values of
Compressive strength of GPC with steel fibres and C.C cubes for 14 days and Fig.6.1
shows the variation of Compressive strength of C.C cubes and GPC cubes with Steel
fibres for 14 days and Fig 6.2 shows the variation of Compressive strength of C.C cubes
and GPC cubes with Steel fibres for 27 days.

Table 6.1- Compressive strength of C.C cubes and GPC with steel fibres for 14 days

Sl. Type of Weight Density Load Compressive Average Compressive

No Concrete (kg) (kg/m3) (KN) Strength Strength
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
1 C.C at 27 days 8.09 2397.04 900 40.00

2 8.07 2391.12 890 39.56

40.15
3 8.15 2414.82 920 40.89

1 GPC (12M) 7.98 2364.45 1050 46.67

at 14 days
2 8.06 2388.15 1110 49.33 48.00

3 8.01 2373.34 1080 48.00

1 GPC (16M) 8.11 2402.97 1300 57.78
at 14 days
2 8.05 2385.19 1290 57.34 57.78

3 8.20 2429.63 1310 58.23

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Fig 6.1 shows the average compressive strength of C.C and GPC cubes, it can be seen
that C.C gets its target strength at 28 days of water curing but GPC gets more than target
strength at 14 days sunlight curing. Also GPC with steel fibres of 16M gets higher
compressive strength compared to GPC with steel fibres of 12M, indicating increase in
the molarity of NaOH causes increase in significant compressive strength of GPC.

Average Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

Steel Fibres
80
60 C.C at 27 days
40
57.78 GPC (12M)
20 40.15 48 at 14 days
0 GPC (16M)
C.C at 27 days GPC (12M) GPC (16M) at 14 days
at 14 days at 14 days
Fig 6.1- Compressive strength of C.C cubes and GPC with steel fibres for 14 days
Table 6.2 shows the average values of Compressive strength of GPC with steel fibres and
C.C cubes for 27 days and Fig.6.2 shows the variation of Compressive strength of C.C
cubes and GPC cubes with steel fibres for 27 days.

Table 6.2- Compressive strength of C.C cubes and GPC with steel fibres for 27 days

Sl. Type of Weight Density Load Compressive Average Compressive

No Concrete (kg) (kg/m3) (KN) Strength Strength
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
1 C.C at 27 days 8.09 2397.04 900 40.00

2 8.07 2391.12 890 39.56 40.15

3 8.15 2414.82 920 40.89

1 GPC (12M) 7.98 2364.45 1070 47.55

at 27 days
2 8.06 2388.15 1130 50.22 48.87

3 8.01 2373.34 1100 48.89

1 GPC (16M) 8.11 2402.97 1320 58.67
at 27 days
2 8.05 2385.19 1310 58.23 58.67

3 8.20 2429.63 1330 59.11

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Average Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

Steel Fibres
80
60 C.C at 27 days
40
58.67 GPC (12M)
20 40.15 48.87 at 27 days
0 GPC (16M)
C.C at 27 days GPC (12M) GPC (16M) at 27 days
at 27 days at 27 days

Fig 6.2- Compressive strength of C.C cubes and GPC with steel fibres for 27 days

Table 6.3- Compressive strength of C.C cubes and GPC with coconut coir fibres for 14days

Sl. Type of Weight Density Load Compressive Average Compressive

No Concrete (kg) (kg/m3) (KN) Strength Strength
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
1 C.C at 27 days 8.09 2397.04 900 40.00

2 8.07 2391.12 890 39.56

3 8.15 2414.82 920 40.89 40.15

1 GPC (12M) 7.98 2364.45 930 41.33

at 14 days
2 8.06 2388.15 990 44.00 42.67
3 8.01 2373.34 960 42.67
1 GPC (16M) 8.11 2402.97 1180 52.45
at 14 days
2 8.05 2385.19 1170 52.00 52.45

3 8.2 2429.63 1190 52.89

Fig 6.3 shows the average compressive strength of C.C and GPC cubes for 14 days , it
can be seen that C.C gets its target strength at 28 days of water curing but GPC gets more
than target strength at 14 days sunlight curing. Also GPC with coconut coir fibres of 16M
gets higher compressive strength compared to GPC with coconut coir fibres of 12M,
indicating increase in the molarity of NaOH causes increase in significant compressive
strength of GPC.

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Average Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

60
50
40 C.C at 28
30 days
42.67 52.45
20 40.15 GPC (12M)
10 at 14 days
0
C.C at 28 days GPC (12M) GPC (16M) GPC (16M)
at 14 days at 14 days at 14 days

Fig 6.3- Compressive strength of C.C cubes and GPC with coconut coir fibres for 14 days

Table 6.4- Compressive strength of C.C cubes and GPC with coconut coir fibres for 27 days

Sl. Type of Weight Density Load Compressive Average Compressive

No Concrete (kg) (kg/m3) (KN) Strength Strength
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
1 C.C at 27 days 8.09 2397.04 900 40.00

2 8.07 2391.12 890 39.56 40.15

3 8.15 2414.82 920 40.89
1 GPC (12M) 7.98 2364.45 950 42.23
at 27 days
2 8.06 2388.15 1100 48.89 44.89
3 8.01 2373.34 980 43.55
1 GPC (16M) 8.11 2402.97 1200 53.33
at 27 days
2 8.05 2385.19 1190 52.89 53.33

3 8.2 2429.63 1210 53.78

Fig 6.4 shows the average compressive strength of C.C and GPC cubes for 27 days, it can be
seen that C.C gets its target strength at 28 days of water curing but GPC gets more than target
strength at 14 days sunlight curing. Also GPC with coconut coir fibres of 16M gets higher
compressive strength compared to GPC with coconut coir fibres of 12M, indicating increase in
the molarity of NaOH causes increase in significant compressive strength of GPC.

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Average Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

60
50
40 C.C at 27 days
30
53.33 GPC (12M)
20 40.15 44.89 at 27 days
10 GPC (16M)
at 27 days
0
C.C at 27 days GPC (12M) GPC (16M)
at 27 days at 27 days

Fig 6.4- Compressive strength of C.C cubes and GPC with coconut coir fibres for 27 days

Fig 6.5 shows the comparison of average compressive strength of GPC cubes with steel
fibres and coconut coir fibres, it can be seen that GPC cubes with steel fibres gets high
strength at 14 days more than of GPC cubes with coconut coir fibres.

70.00

60.00 57.78
52.45 Average Compressive
50.00 48.00
Strength (N/mm2)
40.00
40.15 42.67 Steel Fibres
40.15

30.00

20.00
Average Compressive
10.00 Strength (N/mm2)
Coconut coir (fibres)
0.00
C.C at 28 days GPC (12M) GPC (16M)
at 14 days at 14 days

Fig 6.5- Comparison of average compressive strength of GPC cubes with steel fibres
and coconut coir fibres for 14 days

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Fig 6.6 shows the comparison of average compressive strength of GPC cubes with steel
fibres and coconut coir fibres, it can be seen that GPC cubes with steel fibres gets high
strength at 27 days more than of GPC cubes with coconut coir fibres.

70.00

60.00 58.67
48.87
53.33 Average Compressive
50.00 Strength (N/mm2)
44.89
40.15 Steel Fibres
40.00
40.15

30.00

20.00
Average Compressive
10.00 Strength (N/mm2)
Coconut coir (fibres)
0.00
C.C at 27 days GPC (12M) GPC (16M)
at 27 days at 27 days

Fig 6.6- Comparison of average compressive strength of GPC cubes with steel fibres
and coconut coir fibres for 27 days

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CHAPTER 7
7.1 CONCLUSIONS
 It has been observed that from the experimental study as the molarity of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) increases, compressive strength increases.
 The density of GPC specimens ranges from 2385.19 kg/m3 to 2429.63 kg/m3 which
are similar to conventional concrete.
 The test results reveal that the addition of steel fibres and coconut coir fibres
increases the average density of FRGPC specimen significantly as compared to OPC.
 Overall, the addition of fibres improved the compressive strength of geopolymer
concrete.

7.2 FUTURE SCOPE

 Further research is needed to investigate the effect of fibres on flexural strength of
geopolymer concrete.
 Further research is needed to investigate the strengths of geopolymer concrete cubes
in oven-curing condition.
 Further research is needed to investigate the strengths of geopolymer concrete cubes
in acid immersion condition.

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CHAPTER 8
8.1 REFERENCES

1. Prakash R. Vora, Urmil V. Dave; “Parametric Studies on Compressive Strength of

Geopolymer Concrete”, Nirma University conference on Engineering, [2012].
2. Mr.Gidd M.M, Birajdar B.V; “Study of Geopolymer Concrete-A Cement less Concrete and
it’s Durability”, International Journal of Scientific Development and Research, [2017].
3. Dr. Mrs. S. A. Bhalchandra, Mrs. A. Y. Bhosle; “Properties of Glass Fibre Reinforced
Geopolymer Concrete”, International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER),
Vol. 3 – (Issue. 4, Jul - Aug. 2013 pp-2007-2010), [2013].
4. Sathish Kumar. V, Blessen Skariah Thomas, Alex Christopher; “An Experimental Study on
the Properties of Glass Fibre Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete”, International Journal of
Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA), Vol. 2 – (Issue 6, November- December
2012, pp.722-726), [2012].
5. J Asanammal Saral, S Gayathri, M Tamilselvi, and B Raghul Raj; “An Experimental Study
on Fibre Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete Composites- Glass Fibre, Copper Slag”,
International Journal of Engineering & Technology, [2018].
6. Thangaraj Sathanandam, Paul O. Awoyera, Venkudusamy Vijayan, Karupannan
Sathishkumar; “Low carbon building: Experimental insight `on the use of fly ash and glass
fibre for making geopolymer concrete”, Sustainable energy research, [2017].
7. B. Sri Umniati, Puput Risdanareni, Fahmi Tarmizi Zulfikar Zein; “Workability
enhancement of geopolymer concrete through the use of retarder”, Green Construction and
Engineering Education for Sustainable Future, [2017].
8. Chithambar Ganesh A, Sowmiya K and Muthukannan M; “Investigation on the effect of
steel fibers in geopolymer concrete”, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and
Engineering, ICMSMT, [2020].
9. N. Ganesan, P.V. Indira and Anjana Santhakumar; “Engineering properties of steel fibre
reinforced geopolymer concrete”, Advances in Concrete Construction, [2013].
10. G.Ramkumar, S.Sundarkumar, A.Sivakumar; “Development of steel fibre reinforced
geopolymer concrete”, International Journal of Advance Research in Science and
Engineering, [2015].

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11. Prateek paveen, Gaurav Jawale, Vishwajeeth Ghadge, Akbar Nakedar, Yasmeen Tadvi,
Amit Jha, Dr. N.K. Gupta; “Effects of Steel Fibres on Mechanical Properties of
Geopolymer Concrete”, International Journal of Innovative Research in Science,
Engineering and Technology, [2018].
12. Jagadeesh, Melitia d’mello (July 2018); “An experimental investigation on the mechanical
properties and performance of hybrid fiber reinforced cement free concrete”, International
Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), [2018].
13. Aamir mohamood, Muhammad Tayyab Noman; “Geopolymers and Fiber-Reinforced
Concrete Composites in Civil Engineering, Advanced Textile Based Polymer Composites:
Synthesis, Characterization and Applications”, [2021].

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