TRAINING MATREIAL ON

PRE ENGINEERED BUILDING

INTRODUCTION TO PRE ENGINEERED

BUILDINGS

MOHAMMAD RAHMATULLA

Mobile no: 9966440094 [email protected]

[email protected]
 CHAPTER-1
PRE ENGINEERED BUILDINGS
1. 1 INTRODUCTION TO PRE ENGINEERED BUILDINGS
A pre-engineered building(PEB) is designed and or PEB fabricated using best suited
inventory of raw materials available from all sources and manufacturing methods that can
efficiently satisfy a wide range of structural and aesthetic design requirements.
The designs were ready-made but the building components were either ready-made or
manufactured against specific orders. These buildings were pre-designed or 'pre-engineered' into
standard sizes, spans, bays and heights, and use standard details for fixing cladding, roofing,
gutters, flashing, windows, doors etc taking advantage of industrial practices of mass production
of components economically.

Fig 1.1: A PEB structure

In other words a pre-engineered building (PEB) is designed by a PEB supplier or

manufacturer, using sophisticated design software which takes into account the strength and
thickness of available steel, the building loading criteria like wind resistance, snow loading,
seismic zone, and a host of other loads that the building may be subjected to. In addition to the
design integrity, the corrosion resistance of the steel materials used is of great importance. The
building components are manufactured to exacting standards so assembly at the site is not
hampered. Today's PEBs can efficiently satisfy a wide range of structural and aesthetic design
requirements. Ideally, the available material inventory is added to the software database and the
software selects the appropriate materials for optimum design. It does include the flexibility to
specify the preferred material thickness and mechanical properties.
Steel is the material of choice for design because it is ductile and flexible. Steel members have
high strength per unit weight and the properties of the steel members mostly do not change with
time. Also addition and alteration can be made easily steel structures. Historically, the primary
framing structure of a pre-engineered building is an assembly of I-shaped members, often
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referred as I beams. In pre-engineered buildings, the I beams used are usually formed by welding
together steel plates to form the I section. The I beams are then field-assembled (e.g. bolted
connections) to form the entire frame of the pre-engineered building. Some manufacturers taper
the framing members (varying in web depth) according to the local loading effects. Larger plate
dimensions are used in areas of higher load effects. In conventional steel building, hot rolled
sections are used. The size of each section is selected on the basis of maximum internal stress in
the member. Frames of pre-engineered building are according to bending moment diagram. Thus
the BM is maximum at mid span and at fixed support. Thus at maximum BM the depth of
section is large and depth is reduced depending on BM. Cold formed Z and C-shaped members
as secondary structural elements to fasten and support the external cladding.

1. 2 HISTORY OF PRE ENGINEERED BUILDINGS

The origins of metal buildings date back nearly 150 years when British metal building
companies developed this application. Walker Construction Company provided its original self-
supporting barrel roof concept in 1832 and Morewood and Rogers provided warehouses to
California during the gold rush in 1850. Similarly Hemming and Company supplied six churches
to the diocese of Melbourne (Australia) in 1853. These church buildings weights about 50 tons
when packaged and included a steel frame covered with galvanized corrugated sheets. An air gap
was provided between the exterior steel and the interior wooden skin for air circulation.
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Fig 1.2: PEB structures during world war-2

During World War II, the need for "ready to erect" structures arose for use as barracks and
maintenance facilities that could be containerized and shipped. Pre-engineered Steel buildings,
which could be bolted together and required no welding at the site, were thus produced in
significant quantities. By the end of the war, it was clear that the industry would not return to its
pre-war product offerings. Metal buildings were here to stay. The post-war construction boom
offered an ideal opportunity to mass produce buildings for a variety of non-residential industries.
Metal building companies learned that partnerships with local contractors across a region, or
even the entire country, were an effective way to deliver a building structure to the end customer
Buildings during this time were still prefabricated as the marketplace adapted to the limited,
standard sizes that were available. However, the industry started offering several "standard sizes"
to meet demand. The increase in standard sizes and the growing demand made prefabrication

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uneconomical and gave way for custom designed buildings. At this time, still well before the
computer age, the process came to be known as the "pre-engineered" metal buildings (PEB).
The Indian Scenario: Pre-engineered metal buildings were introduced in India in the mid-
1990s. This rapidly growing industry has enormous growth potential in India. As mentioned
earlier, the economics and speed of pre-engineered metal buildings is much superior to the
traditional concrete and masonry structures that dot the Indian landscape. Steel buildings are
typically safer than the conventional masonry structures, especially in earthquakes because steel
structures do not collapse. The safety of steel buildings is more readily visible if the steel
building is properly designed, bolted and diagonally braced. The concrete structures rely on
"fixed bracing" meaning they often do not have diagonals as bracing but depend on the
connection of the column to the foundation, concrete slabs for floors, and the roof. The strength
of concrete buildings depends on the proper mixing of concrete which is generally done at the
site and unscrupulous contractors can get away with less than specified cement content or lower
slab thickness.

India has quickly embraced the modern PEB design software; the two main types of software
used are MBS and STAAD PRO. While MBS is more user friendly and has virtually unlimited
potential and design flexibility, the STAAD PRO software requires more manual inputs. From
the software availability perspective, the Indian PEB industry is fully tuned to world standards.
However, as will be described later, the Indian PEB manufacturers are not using the software for
optimum designing and are restricting the true potential of the MBS software.

In India, most PEB projects are managed by Consultants who may be architects or engineers.
They drive the project and are responsible for the architectural design, structural integrity, and
costs. Not all consultants are well versed in the structural design aspects of PEBs. Given that
PEB's were introduced in India in the mid-1990s and its long history and experience with
conventional masonry construction, many consultants feel comfortable in applying the design
criteria of conventional construction technology to steel buildings. This practice denies the
deployment of the true benefits of the PEB technology.

In recent years, the introduction of Pre Engineered Building (PEB) design of structures has
helped in optimizing design. The construction of PEB in the place of Conventional Steel
Building (CSB) design concept resulted in many advantages as the members are design as per
bending moment diagram and thus reducing the steel requirement. In this study, an industrial
structure PEB Frame & CSB Frame is analyzed and designed according to the Indian standards,
IS 800-1984, IS 800-2007 .In this study, a structure with length 80m, width 60m,with clear
height 11.4m and having R-Slope 5.71 Degree for PEB & 18 Degree for CSB is considered to
carry out analysis& design for 2D frames . The economy of the structure is discussed in terms of
its weight comparison, between Indian codes (IS800-1984, IS800-2007) & in between PEB &
CSB building structure.

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 The introduction of PEBs has improved the construction market in India. Additionally, with the
increased approval of FDIs and the Make in India campaign initiated by the government of India,
and Smart City initiative, there has been a rise in the demand for infrastructure from all sectors in
the country.

Three main types of PEB manufacturers are serving the Indian market – the fully integrated
global players with manufacturing facilities in India, domestic integrated manufacturers, and
many small scale manufacturers who either own some sort of limited manufacturing facilities or
get the components manufactured by third parties. Due to the fierce competition, the Indian PEB
industry is primarily driven by cost. Consultants use a rule of thumb whereby the weight of the
building is multiplied by a conversion factor that accounts for the price of steel and fabrication
costs to arrive at the project cost. This approach favors the small non-integrated players who
have low overheads and do not consider safety as their main priority.

1. 3 ADVANTAGES OF PRE ENGINEERED BUILDINGS

a)Construction time: Buildings are generally constructed in just 6 to 8 weeks after approval of
drawings.PEB will thus reduce total construction time of project by at least 40%.This allows
faster occupancy and earlier realization of revenue.This is one of the main adavantages of using
Pre-engineered buildings.

b) Construction cost: The labour cost on PEBs is also less as most of the building comes
partially constructed. In the case of industrial and commercial projects, prefabrication allows,
minimization of onsite workload, since a vast majority of the work is carried out offsite,
eliminating most of the onsite works such as welding and bolting of connections, pre-assembling
of smaller components and also a reduction in the number of onsite lifting requirements. All
these lead to a significant saving in project costs to developers, a factor that has become crucial
in these days and times of economic turbulence. PEBs enable all this without any compromise on
the quality front.

Fig 1.3:Erection of PEB structure

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c) Durability: PEBs are extremely durable, strong enough to withstand every kind of climatic
conditions, ranging from heavy snowfall to high winds or heat, a factor that has made them a
favorite for industrial and commercial buildings, with demand picking up on the residential side
too, in recent times. The technology also enables lower lifecycle cost, as compared to
conventional methods of construction, a fact that is not lost on the modern day Indian contractor.
The foundation for one is easier to construct, being lightweight and consisting of standard
sections and connections. This saves erection cost and time. Erection is typically around 20%
PEB and metal building technology is now finding an increasing number of takers in the
commercial buildings market segment.

d) The Green factor: Today, whether it is residential, commercial or industrial construction,

going green seems is the trend. While it is well known that PEBs are inherently green, so far as
environmental sustainability is concerned, they are also economically sustainable, as compared
to conventional construction methods. This is because in their case, precise estimations based on
computer generated models are used. The resulting calculations lead to no or very little material
wastage. Steel is one of the world’s most recycled material and at the end of any steel product’s
life, almost 100% of it can be recycled without losing its engineering properties, making PEB
technology one of the preferred and sustainable construction methods. The system emancipates
the use of the skylights and solar panels on rooftops to meet the daylight and captive power
requirements. So, they reduce emissions and gain carbon credits unlike the conventional methods
for powering these buildings.

e) Flexibility of expansion: These can be easily expanded in length by adding additional bays.
Also expansion in width and height is possible by pre designing for future expansion.

f) Large clear spans: Long Span, Column free structures are the most essential in any type of
industrial structure and Pre-Engineered Buildings (PEB) fulfill this requirement along with
reduced time and cost as compared to conventional structures. Buildings can be supplied to
around 90m clear span.

g) Quality Control: Buildings are completely manufactured in the factory under controlled
conditions, and hence the quality can be assured.

h) Seismic capability: The low weight flexible frames offer higher resistance to seismic forces.
Owing to the huge rise pollution across the globe, natural disasters have become very common
nowadays. The Tsunami has been a prime example of one such incident. For a stabilized solution
all the structural members have to be strongly fixed to the frame and then to the foundations, to
prevent the mishaps.

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i) Low Maintenance: PEB Buildings have high quality paint systems for cladding and steel to
suit ambient conditions at the site, which in turn gives long durability and low maintenance
costs.

j) Retailing Demand: The buzz around PEBs has been on the rise in the recent past. For
instance, take the case of the retail sector. This is one sector that has embraced PEBs in a major
way in the western world and it could be the same in the case of India. Apart from the boom in
the retail sector in the metros, huge untapped lies located in the hinterlands of the country. Rural
retailing is an area that offers an immense scope of growth for the PEB industry. A few sporadic
steps have been taken by some of the leading players to tap this vast market and it could well
prove the trigger for bigger things in the future.

k) Warehousing Demand: The warehousing sector has been one of the key demand drivers for
the PEB industry in India over the last decade. The good old concept of“godowns” has been all
but buried in India. There has been growing realization that a warehouse is much more than a
place to stock goods. It is sometimes specialized to store a certain type of goods, for e., cold
storage units that are typically a part of the pharmaceutical and food & beverage industry. It can
also be a place where the final customer sorting takes place in this day and age of e-commerce,
where customers can order products online. It is also a place in certain types of industries where
even the final fabrication takes place. All these factors have increased focus on specialized
solutions and this is where the PEB suppliers with their readymade solutions have stepped in.
Warehouses, along with industrial buildings presently constitute a huge market share of PEBs in
India. The warehousing sector is fast catching the growth path mainly because of government’s
support of creating dedicated food parks across India; setting up of warehouses in rural and semi-
urban areas for storage of food grains, vegetables, fruits, etc.; recent e-commerce boom leading
to dedicated warehouses for storage of products across India to be delivered within fraction of
time by all these companies; dedicated logistics parks by private logistic players; warehouses by
all other companies from various industry segments for their own purposes and many other
reasons.

l) Hybrid Buildings: Another popular demand pertaining in the recent time aligning to the
growth of demand for steel structures are the Hybrid buildings. These buildings incorporates the
use of fabric and metal in a unified structure. The Hybrid Building combines the strength and
other gratifications of the Metal Buildings, and it provides a more traditional look that comprises
of a fabric roof and choice of metal or fabric sidewalls. Hybrid Building provides the same
durability, versatility, and economic prices. They can be built at a low cost per square foot. These
buildings can be used across all industries and designed to meet even the most specific
applications. The Building is made from the finest materials that provide the utmost strength.
Hybrid Buildings utilize triple-galvanized structural steel frame that can withstand even the most

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corrosive environments. Hybrid Buildings can be structured to meet local building codes and
weather requirements.

m) Similar designs: It also needs to be remembered that in the case of PEBs the basic designs
can be used over and over again, leading to cost savings. The earlier misconception that PEBs
meant dull and drab industrial sheds is also gone. There has been increasing realization that
outstanding architectural designs can also be achieved using PEBs. This apart, PEB systems can
also be designed keeping in mind future expansion plans. Another Important thing to remember
with PEBs is that since a single supplier can coordinate all facets including, design, erection, and
installation, superior after sales service support is virtually assured in case of PEBs, a factor that
has again, contributed to their rising popularity.

n)Architectural Versatility: Buildings can be supplied with various types of fascias, canopies,
and curved eaves and designed to receive pre-cast concrete wall panels, curtain walls, block
walls and other wall systems.

o)Single Source Responsibility: As the complete building package is supplied by a single

vendor compatibility of all the building components and accessories is assured. This is one of the
major benefits of the pre-engineered building systems.

Although PEBs have many advantages in the field of Industrial structure but still there are some
demerits of Pre Engineered Buildings, which are as follows:

a)Rusting / Corrosion Sensitive: If the quality of steel used or paint used for coating of steel
members is not of good quality, then it can damage the structure and thus reduces the life of
structure.

b)Insulation Cost: As insulating the building to an agreeable benchmark will furthermore add
to your construction costs.

c)Appearance: Steel Sections can be unattractive when left exposed.

In nutshell, the benefits may be summarized as under:

 Increased speed of construction, quicker return on investment
 Ensured quality of material, Design and construction
 Unlimited architectural possibilities
 Enhanced Durability and seismic reliability
 Easy construction, maintenance and refurbishing
 Increased Life cycle performance and cost competitiveness
 Environment–friendly structures

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  Better value for money
 Cleaner and unencumbered sites
 Sustainability in construction through reuse of most materials
 Suitability for Hilly regions and other geographically difficult areas
 Hassle Free
 Optimized design of steel reducing weight
 Better Earthquake & Wind pressure resistant.
 Energy efficient roof and wall system using insulations.
 Easy integration of all construction materials
 The building can be dismantled and relocated easily.
 Future extensions, expansion modification can be easily accommodated without much
hassle.
 Faster delivery and erection, saving around 30-40% of project time
 Column-free large spans, up to 90 m.
 Virtually maintenance free
 Single-source responsibility
 'Systems approach' ensures integrity and safety of all building components
 Lighter weight; savings in foundation cost of 10-20 percent
 Insulated from sound and heat, as per the requirement
 Better rainwater harvesting through gutters and down-take arrangements
 Overall economy

1. 4 APPLICATIONS OF PRE ENGINEERED BUILDINGS

 Industrial Buildings & Workshops
 Warehouses
 Commercial Complexes & Supermarkets
 Showrooms
 Corporate Office Buildings
 Schools
 Indoor Stadiums
 Outdoor Stadiums with canopies
 Fuel Stations
 Metro Stations, Bus Terminals, Parking Lots
 Highrise Buildings
 Customized Housing
 Large Exhibition Centers
 Aircraft Hangers
 Labor Camps
 Community Centers

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  Railway Stations & Railway Storage yards
 Equipment housing/shelters
 Telecommunication shelters
 "Almost" any low-rise building

1. 5 COMPONENTS OF PEB

Fig 1.4:Components of PEB structure

1. 6 VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF PRE ENGINEERED BUILDINGS

1.6.1 Primary System:

Primary system consists of tapered or parallel columns and tapered beams which are called as rafters. The
base of the columns can be either pinned or fixed based on the load requirements. Lengths of these
members are generally restricted to 12m for ease of transports. Joints are connected with high tensile
bolts.

Fig 1.5: Typical Rafter and column of PEB structure

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 Fig 1.6: Components of a typical PEB frame

1.6.2 Secondary System:

Secondary structural system consists of Purlins (roof), Girts (side cladding) and Eave struts (at eaves)
stiffened with sag rods. This also includes the flange stiffeners which connects the untied flanges of the
PEB primary structure to secondary system. Some of the commonly used secondary system are Lipped C
or Lipped Z purlins, MS rods and Lipped Angles. These are generally cold formed sections conforming to
IS:801.

Fig 1.7: Secondary structural system of PEB

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 Fig 1.8: Roof purlins and side wall girts

Fig 1.9
1.6.3 Wind Bracing System:
There are two types of wind bracing systems. The first one is Rod bracing system and the second one is
portal system. Each type of system is chosen based on the design and functional requirement of the
structure.

Fig 1.10:Wind Bracing System

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1.6.4 Roofing & Cladding System:

High Rib:
It is important to keep your Roof sheet strong and well designed. Our High rib bare galvalume sheeting is
well suited for same, this High rib profiles are with 28 mm rib and of 26 guages. These panels are fixed
on Roof with SDS (Self Drilling screws). This high rib sheeting can be profiled with variable depths and
sizes. This high rib profiles are best suited roofing solution for all industrial buildings. This profiles have
higher capacity to shed water and have higher strength too.

Low Rib:
It is important to keep your Cladding strong and well designed. Low ribs are helpful for this purpose.
Low ribs can also be suitable for partition walls and linear panels. Our Low rib profiles are with 15 mm
rib and of 26 guages. If you are looking for a low rib, which is easy to install, it is a low rib panel,which
gives an attractive and clean finish to your building. It contains minimally visible stitching screws, which
makes it more suitable to fix on the wall. This panel maximizes the potential of steel frames to support the
building structure.

Fig 1.11: Roofing and cladding system

Standing Seam:
Standing Seam is where the roof panel seam is mechanically field rolled to complete the 360 degree
double lock seam creating the tightest seam available today, thus assures weather tightness and eliminates
the chances for even tiny capillary leaks.This roof system is the most specified and most reliable standing
seam roof system in the market. Standing Seams consists of vertical metal panels comprised of two
vertical seams in each panel. While these seams are crimped , the joints get sealed. It prevents the
collection of water and moisture on the roof surface th at stops the leakage. The installation process of
standing seam roof is easy.They can be attached with the help of clips underneath the roofs. The clips
provide the space for expansion and contraction of the roof, which is a natural process during changing
weather.Since standing seams use metal in its production with double llocking system, you can ensure its
durability for using as roofing material much more than normal Bare Galvalume.

Fig 12

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 Fig 1.13: Standing seam
Roofing and cladding system can be with single skin zinc and aluminum coated steel sheets, GI sheets,
both of which could be bare or color coated; It could with double skin sheets with or without insulation
material in between; It could be sandwich panels with steel sheets outside and PUF/PIR/Mineral
Wool/Glass wool core inside. Roofing and cladding could have skylights with Poly Carbonate/ PVC or
FRP sheets.

1.6.5 Accessories:
 Turbo Ventilators
 Ridge Ventilators
 Louvers
 Skylight Panels
 Insulation
 Sandwich Panels
 Roof & Wall Panels
 Roofcurb
 Roof jacks
 Sliding or Roll up Door
 Stair case
 Crane systems
 Mezzanine systems
 Bracing system
 Roof monitor

Turbo Ventilators:
Turbo ventilators are round metal vents with fins in them. Even just a little bit of wind can be
just enough for the turbo ventilator to rotate. The faster the wind, the faster the turbine will rotate
and exhaust the heat, smoke, fumes, humidity, etc. The mechanics involved in the air movement
is very simple.These are fixed on the roof top.This is an important component for air ventilation
in industrial buildings.

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 Fig 1.14: Turbo ventilator

Ridge Ventilators:
Elongated ventilators fabricated with Galvalume sheet are fixed on roof top at the ridges.This
is the most important component used for Air ventilation.It can be fixed continous throughout
the ridge of the building and also can be in fixed at definite interval.The Ridge vent allows heat
and humidity to escape out from the building.

Fig 1.15: Ridge ventilator

Louvers:
Louvers are made of steel or aluminium and are available with variable designs.The blades of
louvers are designed in such a way that it helps in air ventilation and also restricts dust and water
to enter inside the building. Louvers are designed, supplied and installed as per client’s
requirements.

Fig 1.16: Louvers

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 Skylight Panels:
Sky Light are made of translucent fiberglass reinforced polyester to the profile of rib panel
called skylight and wall panel called wall light and are available only in2.44 Kg/m2 (8
ounces/ft2). Each panel has coverage of 1 meter. Standard length for skylight is 3305 mm and for
wall light is 4140mm. Panel shall be of 1.5mm thick. Color of the panel shall be white with
smooth surface finish with a light transmitting capacity of 60 % ± 5%.
Installation of light panels is similar to that of steel panel, it can be worked with ordinary tools
and may be drilled, sawed, punched without damage to panel and are shatter resistant.
Light panels have low heat transmission acts as insulation and are not affected over a
temperature range of 50°F below zero to 200°F. Panels are corrosion resistant and most
chemicals do not affect the panels.

Fig 1.17: Skylight panels

Insulations:
These buildings can be properly insulated by providing fibrous insulation slabs/rolls of non-
combustible Rockwool, Aluminum foil laminated, placed over a metal mesh bed created between
the purlins, and then the roofing steel sheet fixed over it. The siding walls can also be insulated
by providing a double skin profile steel sheet wall cladding having Rockwool Insulation slab
sandwiched in between and held in position with the help of 'Z' spacers in between the two
profile steel sheets. In similar pattern a double skin insulated roofing system can also be erected.

Fig 1.18: Insulation to walls and roofs

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 Sandwich Panels:
These panels are intended for use as thermally efficient roof and wall claddings for buildings
e.g., in high altitude areas and cold storages. In addition to the above sandwich panels also find
extensive use in residential as well as non-residential buildings. The panels provide sufficient
insulation and noise reduction properties. Nowadays large cold storage units (Potato, Onion,
vegetables, processed foods etc.) are also made with this pre-engineered building technique.

Roof & Wall Panels:

Metallic plain or color coated profiled steel sheets are used as roof and wall sheeting. The steel
sheets are generally made from Zincalume or Galvalume coils in thickness range of 0.47mm to
0.55mm. The base steel is either galvanized having a zinc coating varying from a minimum Mass
of 120 gsm./m2 to a maximum of 275 gsm./m2 (total of both sides) or a base steel coating of zinc
– aluminum (zinc 45%, aluminum 55%) of total Mass of 150 gsm./m2 (total of both sides) are
available with permanent color coating. The color coating is also available in various options in
polyester paint coating like regular modified polyester, silicon modified polyester and super
polyester coatings. Special organic coatings like PVF2 (Poly Vinyl Fluoride) are also made
available. These various color coatings on the base steel with galvanized or zinc aluminum
coating provides suitable resistance for various kinds of environment hazards. Metal roofing and
siding profiles can be manufactured to any length – limited only by transportation constraints
(usually to 12 meters). Lap joints with 150mm to 200mm overlap virtually eliminate water
ingress.

Fig 1.19: Roof and wall panels

Roofcurb:
Specific prefabricated roof curbs and related products by a roof curb manufacturer (not with, or
by, the equipment manufacturer). Specify prefab roof curbs for use with all roof penetrations and
roof mounted equipment including, and not limited to, HVAC units, duct openings, pipe
penetrations, power roof exhauster, intake and relief vents, flues, or job fabricated items. All roof
curbs, equipment rails, pipe and duct mounting pedestals, and pipe penetration systems to be

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specified together, bought by one contractor, and installed by one contractor. All curbs to be
provided by one roof curb manufacturer.
Curbs shall be a one-piece construction manufactured from a self-extinguishing glass fiber
reinforced polyester, 3mm thick, with 15 mil polyester gel coated weathering surface on exterior.
Unit shall be white in color and opaque to light. The roof curbs are designed for installation on
rib profile. Care should be taken in using either type unit in areas where the temperature exceeds
93 deg C. The top of the curb provides a level surface at the 1:10 roof slope.

Fig 1.20: Roof curb

Roof jacks:
Roof jacks are usually constructed from steel and can be purchased from home centers, lumber
yards or hardware stores. Most roof jacks are adjustable to compensate for different roof pitches.
If the jack does not have an adjustment that will make the walking surface level, tilt the jack
inward instead of outward for safety. Roof Jacks shall be a one-piece construction manufactured
from self-extinguishing glass fiber reinforced polyester, 3 mm thick, with 15 mil polyester gel
coated weathering surface on exterior. Unit shall be white in color and opaque to light.
The Roof Jacks (all sizes) are designed for installation on rib profiles. Care should be taken in
using either type unit in areas where the temperature exceeds 93 degrees C as the strength of the
unit will be reduced. The upper end of the monolithic adapter panel of the curbs is reduced in
thickness to 2 mm to provide nesting under the above splice panel. The upper end splice portion
may be cut off to install the unit as a patch on an existing roof.

Fig 1.21: Roof jacks

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 Sliding or Roll up Doors:
All structural components are from cold formed steel sections. with panels on the outer face, to
match with the building walls. Doors will be provided with liner if the building has also liners.
Doors are suspended by top track system within a header assembly and fitted with guides only at
the base.
No doors or windows may be located within operating limits of slide doors. Doors are not
operable beyond the corner of the building, nor within 500mm of the corner of a side wall with
down spouts. A maximum of one door may be in each bay. Jamb to header member connections
must be field drilled, girt and base angles must be field cut. Slide direction for single slide doors
must always be specified.

Fig 1.22:Sliding or rollup doors

Stair case:
Stair case made up of HR plate/chequered plate. It can also be fabricated through standard ISMC
sections.It can also be made and provided by SS hand rail.Stair cases are used in case of
mezzanine floor building.

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 Fig 1.23: Stair case

Crane systems:
These pre–engineered buildings can be equipped with Overhead EOT cranes, Semi-gantry
cranes, wall mounted cranes, Mono rails and under slung cranes for various material and
equipment handling operations inside. These buildings are being designed for crane capacities
ranging from 1MT to 250MT. The crane runway beams (Gantry Girders) are simply supported
built-up sections with/without cap channels and with maintenance platforms and ladders.
Catwalks for crane maintenance are usually mounted alongside the crane beams, suspended
under rigid frame rafters or elevated above the top of the building roof. Cranes at various levels
can also be provided. PEB vendors generally do not keep the supply of rail and Crane Bridge
with crane in their scope.

Fig 1.24: Crane systems

Mezzanine systems:
Standard mezzanine structure consists of built-up beams that support built-up, hot-rolled or cold-
formed mezzanine joists which in-turn support a metal deck. A concrete slab is cast on the metal
deck as a finished surface. Steel checkered plates may also be used as top surface. These
mezzanines are used for office space, storage or equipment supports in industries. For
commercial buildings and highrise structures several types of light weight panel boards are
available as horizontal surface.

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 Fig 1.25: Mezzanine floor

Bracing system:
Longitudinal cross bracing, used to provide lateral stability to the structure against wind, seismic
or other forces, comprises of rods, pipes, angles or cables with an eye bolt and an adjusting nut at
both ends, located near the outer flange of columns or rafters and attached at the web of the rigid
frame.

Fig 1.26: Longitudinal cross bracing system

Roof monitor:
A monitor in architecture is a raised structure running along the ridge of a double-pitched roof,
with its own roof running parallel with the main roof. The long sides of monitors usually contain
clerestory windows or louvers to light or ventilate the area under the roof. A monitor roof looks
like the roof of a traditional sugar house (building for boiling down maple syrup) but the purpose
of the sugar house roof is to vent steam. Also, some railroad passenger cars historically had
monitor roofs.
A roof monitor is a structure mounted on the ridge of the building and is used for ventilation
purposes. It is fabricated from either cold formed channel sections or hot rolled I-sections.
It is generally used when a standard ridge ventilator is not adequate to give the required number
of air changes inside the building.

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1.6.6 Finishing:
Primary structural members are generally finished with short peening, Sand blasting two coats of
anti corrosive primers, followed by two coats of paints to specifications. Secondary members or
either painted after sand blasting or galvanized to 275 gsm or above based on the requirememt.
Sand blasting is the act of propelling very fine particles of an abrasive material at high velocity
toward a surface in order to clean or etch it. Sandblasting is often used as a way to prepare a
surface prior to painting. It is commonly used to strip paintfrom machinery and metal .Processed
work piece will have better fatigue resistance and adhesion force,which will help the coating
have smooth level and last much longer.

Fig 1.27: Sand blasting

Shot blasting takes the centrifugal force of the high speed rotating disk to shot the steel shots to
the work piece surface.After processing, the work piece wil have finishing effect and generate
pressure stress to improve fatigue strength. Compared with sand blasting,shot blasting do not
generate silicon dust and have less pollution to the environment.

Fig 1.28: Shot blasting

Types of paints
 Epoxy paints
Epoxy coatings are two-component paints that offer much greater rust protection than
standard primers, but less than zinc primers. Epoxy paints, which create a protective barrier that
seal the metal surface, are very effective in humid environments such as arenas and pools.
21
Specific epoxy paints are even used to coat the interior of fresh water and saltwater tanks. These
coatings cost twice as much as standard primers due to their higher retail price and the thicker
coats required.
 Red Oxide paints
Red Oxide primer is a specially formulated coating used as a base coat for ferrous metals. Red
Oxide primer serves a similar purpose to interior wall primers in that it prepares your metal for a
top coat, but it also gives iron and steel surfaces a layer of protection. Working with Red Oxide
primer is not difficult but it helps to be aware of some safety precautions and application tips. A
base coat of Red Oxide primer helps to prevent rust formation on ferrous metals.

Fig 1.29: Painting

 Zinc:
Zinc rich primers are divided into two categories: organic and inorganic. Both types offer
cathodic protection against rust since the zinc, which serves as a "sacrificial metal", acts as an
anode to protect the steel from corrosion. When inorganic zinc primers are used in one-coat
applications, the resulting rust protection is similar to that obtained with galvanization. Organic
zinc primers are generally used in multiple coat systems. Note that zinc primers must be applied
to in compliance which specifies a minimum surface profile of two mils.
 Polyurethane:
Polyurethane paints are usually applied as a finish coat on the zinc primer or epoxy. Several
types of polyurethane paints can also be applied directly to steel without the use of primers.
These finishes, which are characterized by their color retention and gloss, are generally not
required for interior environments. Poly siloxane, a type of polyurethane coating, combines the
properties of both epoxy and polyurethane paints and allows for the application of a single coat.
However, it costs at least three times as much as conventional polyurethane paint.

1.7 TECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF PEB

Pre Engineered Buildings are custom designed to meet clients requirements. PEBs are defined
for definite measurements. The produced members fit to the designed dimensions. Measurements
are taken accurately for the requirements. The basic parameters that can define a PEB are
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 1.7.1 Width or Span of Building
The centre to centre length from one end wall column to the other end wall column of a frame is
considered breadth or span of the building. The width between two columns can be measured as
span. The span length for different buildings varies. The design is done on span length given by
customer. The basic span length starts from 10 to150 meters or above with intermediate columns.
Aircraft hangars, manufacturing industries, Stadiums posses major span width. No modifications
or extending span be done.

1.7.2 Length of Building

The length of PEB is the total length extending from one frontend to the rear end of the building.
The length of PEB can be extendable in future.

1.7.3 Building Height

Building height is the eave height which usually is the distance from the bottom of the main
frame column base plate to the top outer point of the eave strut. When columns are recessed or
elevated from finished floor, eave height is the distance from finished floor level to top of eave
strut.

1.7.4 Roof Slope

This is the angle of the roof with respect to the horizontal. The most common roof slopes are
1/10 and 1/20 for tropical countries like India. The roof slope in snowfall locations can go up to
1/30 to 1/60. Any practical roof slope is possible as per customers’ requirement.

1.7.5 Design Loads

Unless otherwise specified per-engineered buildings are designed for the following minimum
loads. The designed loads play a crucial role in case of PEB. The failure of the structures occurs
if not properly designed for loads. The determination of the loads acting on a structure is a
complex problem. The nature of the loads varies essentially with the architectural design, the
materials, and the location of the structure. Loading conditions on the same structure may change
from time to time, or may change rapidly with time. Loads are usually classified into two broad
groups as dead loads and live loads. Dead loads (DL) are essentially constant during the life of
the structure and normally consist of the weight of the structural elements. On the other hand,
live loads (LL) usually vary greatly. The weight of occupants, snow and vehicles, and the forces
induced by wind or earthquakes are examples of live loads. The magnitudes of these loads are
not known with great accuracy and the design values must depend on the intended use of the
structure.

1.7.5.1 Dead Load

The structure first of all carries the dead load, which includes its own weight, the weight of any
permanent non-structural partitions, built-in cupboards, floor surfacing materials and other

23
finishes. It can be worked out precisely from the known weights of the materials and the
dimensions on the working drawings.

1.7.5.2 Live Load

All the movable objects in a building such as people, desks, cupboards and filing cabinets
produce an imposed load on the structure. This loading may come and go with the result that its
intensity will vary considerably. At one moment a room may be empty, yet at another packed
with people. Imagine the `extra' live load at a lively party.

1.7.5.3 Wind Loads

Wind has become a very important load in recent years due to the extensive use of lighter
materials and more efficient building techniques. A building built with heavy masonry, timber
tiled roof may not be affected by the wind load, but on the other hand the structural design of a
modern light gauge steel framed building is dominated by the wind load, which will affect its
strength, stability and serviceability. The wind acts both on the main structure and on the
individual cladding units. The structure has to be braced to resist the horizontal load and
anchored to the ground to prevent the whole building from being blown away, if the dead weight
of the building is not sufficient to hold it down. The cladding has to be securely fixed to prevent
the wind from ripping it away from the structure.

1.7.5.4 Roof Load

Live loads produced by maintenance activities, rain, erection activities, and other movable or
moving loads by not including wind, snow, seismic, crane, or dead loads.

1.7.5.5 Roof Snow Load

Gravity load induced by the forces of wind blowing from any horizontal direction.

1.7.5.6 Auxiliary Loads

Dynamic loads induced by cranes, conveyers, or other material handling systems.

1.7.5.7 Seismic Loads

They are the Horizontal loads acting in any direction structural systems due to action of an
earthquake.

1.7.5.8 Floor Live Loads

Loads induced on a floor system by occupants of a building and their furniture, equipment, etc

1.7.6 Bay Spacing

The distance between the two adjacent frames of a building is called as a Bay spacing. The
spacing between two frames is a bay. End Bay length is the distance from outside of the outer

24
flange of end wall columns of centre line of the first interior frame columns. Interior bay length
is the distance between the centre lines of two adjacent interior main frames Columns. The most
economical bay spacing is 7.5m to 8.0m. However bay length up to 10m is possible.

1.7.7Types of Frames
A frame is a combination of Columns and inclined beams (rafters). There are various type of
frames.

1.7.7.1 Clear Span (Cs)

It’s the span length between two columns without any obstruction. It has split Beams with ridge
line at the peak or centre of the building. The maximum practical width or span is up to 90
meters, but it can also be extended up to 150 meters in case of Aircraft Hangars.

Fig 1.30: Frame with clear span

1.7.7.2 Arched Clear Span

The column is an RF column while the Rafter is curved. It has no ridge line and peak. The
curved roof rafter is used in for aesthetic look. The maximum practical is up to 90meters, but can
be extended to 120 meters.

Fig 1.31: Arched frame

1.7.7.3 Multi Span (Ms1)

The Multi spans (MS1) are those which have more than 1 span. The intermediate column is used
for the clear span in which width of each span is called width module.

25
 Fig 1.32: Multispan frame

1.7.7.3.1 Arched Multi Span (Ams1)

Arched multi span has RF column and a curved Rafter with one intermediate column. It has
width module for the entire span. The multi spans can be extended up to AMS1, AMS2 and
AMS3 etc.

Fig 1.33: Arched Multispan

1.7.7.3.2 Multi Span 2 (Ms2)

The Multi Span (MS2) has more than one intermediate span. It has three width modules with
one ridge line.

Fig 1.34: Frame eith 2 multispans

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1.7.7.4 Single Slope
It has two columns with different heights having Roof sloping on both the column.

Fig 1.35: Single slope frame

1.7.7.5 Multi Gable

Multi gable has two or more spans where no intermediate columns are used. The columns are
added to the extended width and columns are not placed at the ridge lines.

Fig 1.36: Multi Gable

1.7.7.6 Roof Systems
It has straight columns with Roof having supports.

1.7.7.7 Lean To
Lean to slopes is used extremely for an extending to a building on either side with short span.
The rafters rest on column designed for lean to on one side and rests on the main column of the
building.

Fig 1.37: Lean to frame

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1.7.7.8 Canopy
Canopies are used in case of open ends where there is an easy access. There are columns in
straight path having roof extended to a large length.

Fig 1.37: Canopy

1.8 PEB DESIGN PROCESS IN BRIEF

The Load calculations are done as in the case of a regular frame. Normally, the critical case
governing the designs would be (DL+WL) or (DL+LL) conditions as the PEB slopes are minor
(like 1 in 10). The support conditions are normally hinged, but it is sometimes beneficial, on a
selective basis to use a fixed condition giving a gussetted base plate and Anchor bolt
combination. In Hinged base condition, the section is normally tapered down and provided with
a Bolted connection to the base. All the other Joints would be normally designed as rigid joints
and steel connections are moment connections, transferring the axial, moment and shear values
between the sections connected. In the Wind load calculations, the design wind pressures should
be arrived at after a careful analysis and combinations of internal and external pressure
coefficients or force coefficients, referring to IS-875 part-3 latest version. Proper load
combinations with Wind, Earthquake and Crane loads should be investigated.

Any standard structural analysis and design software can be employed for PEB designs, like
STAAD etc. However, couple of good dedicated software is also available for PEB like MBS,
Precision Plus etc. Since detailing and connectivity of various components is much more
important, owing to CKD nature, it is good to use a high end detailing software that also has a
BIM capability, like TEKLA Structures, which provides a complete integration of complete
analysis, design, detailing, Bill of material preparation and production/dispatch/erection
planning.

Usually, Checking the Combination Stresses and comparing with the limiting values (in LSD or
WSD) is done using interactive software, which calculates the Exploitation efficiency of the
section, i.e., if the Actual Stress/permitted stress is 0.95, it means that the section is exploited for
95% of its strength. For this, the total weight of the frame is calculated. A number of trails are
done such that sections are designed with Variables like Flange thickness, Web thickness, Flange

28
Width, Web Depth, so that the entire frame becomes theoretically safe, and is of minimum
weight Checking for defections is the next step. Many times sections need to be revised to hold
the theoretical maximum deflections within the permissible ones. Some Vendors exploit 90% of
the section, leaving 10% for probable lapses in manufacturing, transporting, assembling &
erection. But the competition has made (forced) people believe that there are no lapses
anywhere! The Next important step is to design the welds between the flanges and Webs. Here
too, efficiency of the weld plays an important part. Hence, PEB manufacturer will avoid any
weld at the site, because a 4.5 mm weld at the shop may be better than 6 or 8mm weld at the
site.

Next step is to design the Field joints (Where the parts are assembled at the site). The resultant
forces are known at the joints; design a bolted connection, preferably perpendicular to the plane
of frame, to exploit tensile capacity of bolts for BMs rather than the shear capacities. Hence,
number of bolts required for the connection will reduce. These joints are also placed at Optimum
locations.

The secondary members like Purlins and Girts are designed as per codes for thin Cold Formed
Sections, with or without lip. One can use many span reducing and Lateral supporting techniques
like sag rods and knee bracings, tie rods to optimize the sections.

1.9 HIGH ENGINEERING PRODUCTION/ERECTION PROCESS

The PEB production process primarily consists of FOUR major parallel processing lines,
as under:
1. Built-up members for Primary frame
2. Cold forming for Secondary framing
3. Profiling for Roof and Wall sheeting
4. Accessories & Bracings like Gutters, down take pipes, ridge Vents, Skylights, clips etc.

The production & shipment of these components for a PEB structure uses following
processes:

1. Plate cutting using Shear/Plasma/Multi-torch through nesting software for optimized use
of plate area.
2. H-beam welding on automatic welding machines using SAW or MIG welding process
3. Fabrication for fitments like end plates, stiffeners and connections cleats.
4. Cleaning the surface for painting
5. Slitting HR coils for cold forming operations to make Z and C sections with punching
6. Cutting and threading sag rods and bracing rods

29
 7. Fabrication of Diagonal bracing angles or pipes
8. Profiling the Galvalume/Zincalume sheets for roofing and wall cladding
9. Manufacturing Gutters, down take pipes in press bend
10. Procuring and assigning required matching fasteners for connections
11. Organizing some bought out accessories
12. Quality control tests & inspection; and matching with project wise Bill of Quantities as
given by the engineering department.
13. Dispatching to project sites as per sequence of erection.

Erection
Steel framing members are delivered at site in pre-cut sizes, which eliminates cutting and
welding at site. Being lighter in weight, the small members can be very easily assembled, bolted
and raised with the help of cranes. This system allows very fast construction and reduces wastage
and labour requirement. These buildings can then be provided with roof decking and wall
cladding with metal profile sheets and proper insulation. The framing are so designed that
electrical and plumbing services are part of it and can be very easily concealed.

However, the erection process is highly technical and needs skilled and trained manpower to
handle heavy construction equipments. Proper training of erection engineers for understanding of
drawings and execution of work is necessary. A qualified and experienced work agency should
be employed for erection work.

1.10 ISSUES OF CONCERN

1.10.1 Fire protection

Although great advances have been made in lighter and more economical fire protection systems
but fire protection remains an issue of greater concern for steel structures than compared to
concrete or other construction materials. The smaller members and thermal mass associated with
steel structures makes it more vulnerable. The memories of collapse of world trade centre towers
in USA due to fire caused by burning of aviation fuel and sudden rise of temperature leading to
complete destruction of structure might not have faded away. Fire protection adds up to larger
part of structural cost. It would be a challenge to engineers toward reducing these costs, while
assuring adequate resistance to elevated temperatures expected during a fire.

1.10.2 Buckling
Buckling and stability become more critical in Steel structures due to smaller members and large
stress levels.

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1.10.3 Micro Cracks
The increasing yield stress, operating stress levels, emphasis on plastic and ultimate capacity,
and use of welded construction have resulted in increased frequency of initiation of micro cracks
and cause of fracture in bridges and industrial structures. Further development of Micro Cracks
and crack growth become a major concern in areas of seismically vulnerable areas.

1.10.4 Corrosion
Steel has great tendency to corrode when exposed to the environment, which leads to
deterioration, increased maintenance costs, and increased reconstruction costs. Although
Galvanization, paint, and coatings may provide protection against corrosion, yet they increase
the overall fabrication costs of the steel structure appreciably. In hot and humid regions and
industrially polluted severe environments problem is more pronounced. Therefore, engineers
have to continually seek economically viable solutions to aim at reducing these costs.

1.10.5 Welding
Presently welded constructions are more commonly used, for these provide stiffer, stronger
structures with reduced building weight. Increased steel yield strength requires new innovative
welding methods, because high strength steels pose more difficulty to weld without affecting
adversely the ductility and performance of the structural system. Recently the use of fully
automatic and semi-automatic submerged arc welding results in increase in welding speed apart
from the good quality. The elimination of any fumes, smoke or any visible arc column gives an
ease of operation and efficiency; better quality & thus encourages its application in welding
industry.

1.10.6 Ductility from seismic considerations

Seismic design is today a must requirement for almost all civil engineering structures. Although
steel is an ideally more suited material from point of view of seismic design because of its
property inherent material strength, stiffness, and ductility. Weldability may affect the seismic
performance and it follows that new methods to improve inelastic seismic performance of steel
structures need to be investigated.

1.11 COLD-FORMED STEEL SECTIONS

Cold-formed steel components are predominantly made from steel plate, sheet or strip materials.
These plates are put through one of two processes: press braking or cold roll forming, where they
are shaped according to the required specifications.
Press-braking is used to create simple shapes in small quantities. For steel and metal building
fabrication, most components - such as floor, wall and roof panels - are manufactured via cold

31
roll forming. Cees, Zees, and hat sections are also made using cold roll forming production
methods. This process results in steel products that are stronger and harder. Plus, because they
are mass-produced and relatively light weight, they are easier to transport and install.
The cold-forming process uses a series of rolls. These rolls continue to work the metal until it has
been precisely manipulated into the desired shape. The more complex the shape design, the more
rolls are used. Sheets of steel are fed through the rolls and, in typical cold-formed steel
production, anywhere from six to 24 pairs of rolls are used. The machines can accommodate
sheets or coils up to 60-inches wide and more than 3000 feet long.

1.11.1Advantages of cold formed sections

a)Strength and durability

When we say that cold-formed steel is stronger than its hot formed alternative, this is not to say
that hot formed steel is weak. On the contrary, it is used to form I-Beams and other structural and
building components that are incredibly strong. However, in the construction world - especially
when it comes to visible finishes - precise edges and a consistent finish are important. So, we
usually prefer products that are made using cold-formed steel. And, because the steel is pressed
without the use of heat, there is less chance for flaws to occur that lead to future weakness and
buckling of the thinner panels.

b)Sustainability
Hot or cold-formed, steel is the most recycled product in North America. That means the cold-
formed steel used to for construction project was made from high quantities of pre- and post-
consumer steel and metals, and all of it can be recycled again at the end of the project's lifespan.
Additionally, steel building materials are incredibly durable, which means your maintenance and
repair costs are significantly minimized. It's resistance to pests, fire and other natural and man-
made disaster increase steel's sustainability and longevity when compared with traditional wood
construction materials.

c)Cost-efficiency
In many cases, your first-time costs with cold-formed steel building products will be cheaper
than lumber alternatives. However when factoring the additional cost-savings of the strength,
durability and sustainability mentioned above, the lifetime costs of a steel building are
dramatically less than those associated with traditional building materials. Adding on to an
existing steel building is also easier than adding to a wood-framed building because of the
inherent design consistency of pre-fabricated building materials. Finally, paying attention to a
few energy-efficient options, such as cool metal roofing, will also help to trim lifetime costs.

32
1.11.2 Manufacture of cold formed members
Cold-formed steel framing is made from strips of structural quality sheet steel that are fed
through roll forming machines with a series of dies that progressively shape the steel into C-
shaped sections, or formed into a variety of other shapes, including “U”, “Z”, and even hat-
shaped sections, to meet the requirements of specific applications. Cold-formed steel framing
members can be formed from a wide range of material thickness that enables them to meet the
requirements of nearly all structural and non-structural applications.

Fig 1.38: Manufacture of cold form members

Cold-formed steel starts with the production of raw steel, which is made by combining iron ore
or steel scrap with small amounts of carbon in a Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) or Electric Arc
Furnace (EAF)
Molten steel is poured into slabs that are reduced into thinner strips of steel, called “hot
band.” Increasingly, steel mills are employing a new, very efficient process called direct
reduction to make “hot band.”

Fig 1.39: Steel rolls

The steel finishing process, the hot band is reduced once again into “cold rolled steel.” A
protective coating of zinc is then added through the galvanization process. The final product is
called a “coil.”

33
 Fig 1.40: Manufacture of steel coils

To convert coils into cold-formed steel framing members, they are first slit into widths that
match the intended dimensions of the final product.

Fig 1.41: Shaping of steel coils

The slit coils of cold-formed steel are formed into C-sections and other shapes usually by roll
forming the steel through a series of dies. Penetrations for plumbing and electrical runs are also
punched at pre-determined locations, helping reduce installation times. No heat is required to
form the shapes (unlike hot-rolled steel), and thus the name cold-formed steel. A variety of steel
thickness is available to meet a wide range of structural and non-structural applications.
The cold-formed steel framing materials are then either used to build wall and floor panels, and
roof trusses, or delivered to the job site in bundles.

34
 Fig 1.42
Cold-formed steel is the preferred material for curtain walls and partitions in commercial
construction due to its light weight, high strength, non-combustible nature and ease of
installation, and for these same reasons is increasingly being use as the primary structural system
for buildings up to 9 stories tall. As a recognized green building material, steel framing projects
can also earn credits or points for green building rating programs as well as other government
incentives.

1.12 BUILT UP SECTIONS

These are members made up by a fabricator from two or more standard sections. Built-up
members are specified by the designer when the desired properties or configuration cannot be
obtained in a single hotrolled section. Built-up sections can be bolted or welded. Welded
members, in general, are less expensive because much less handling is required in the shop and
because of more efficient utilization of material. The clean lines of welded members also
produce a better appearance.

Cover-plated rolled beams are used when the required bending capacity is not available in a
rolled standard beam or when depth limitations preclude use of a deeper rolled beam or plate
girder. Cover-plated beams are also used in composite construction to obtain the efficiency of a
nonsymmetrical section.Cover-plate material is ordered to multiple widths for flame cutting or
stripping to the required width in the shop. For this reason, when several different design
conditions exist in a project, it is good practice, as well as good economy, for the designer to
specify as few different cover-plate thicknesses as possible and to vary the width of plate for the
different members.

For bolted sections, cover plates and rolled-beam flanges are punched separately and are then

35
brought together for fit-up. Sufficient temporary fitting bolts are installed to hold the cover plates
in alignment, and minor mismatches of holes in mating parts are cleaned up by reaming. For
welded sections, cover plates are held in position with small intermittent tack welds until final
welding is done.Plate girders are specified when the moment capacity, stiffness, or on occasion,
web shear capacity cannot be obtained in a rolled beam. They usually are fabricated by welding.

Welded plate girders consist of a web plate, a top flange plate, a bottom flange plate, and
stiffener plates. Web material is ordered from the mill to the width between flange plates plus an
allowance for trim and camber, if required. Flange material is ordered to multiple widths for
stripping to the desired widths in the shop. When an order consists of several identical girders
having shop flange splices, fabricators usually first lay the flange material end to end in the
ordered widths and splice the abutting ends with the required groove welds. The long, wide
plates thus produced are then stripped to the required widths. For this procedure, the flanges
should be designed to a constant width over the length of the girder. This method is
advantageous for several reasons: Flange widths permit groove welds sufficiently long to justify
use of automatic welding equipment. Runout tabs for starting and stopping the welds are
required only at the edges of the wide, unstripped plate. All plates can be stripped from one
setup. And much less finishing is required on the welds.

Fig 1.43: Built up sections

After web and flange plates are cut to proper widths, they are brought together for fit-up and
final welding. The web-to-flange welds, usually fillet welds, are positioned for welding with
maximum efficiency. For relatively small welds, such as 1⁄4- or 5⁄16-in fillets, a girder may be
positioned with web horizontal to allow welding of both flanges simultaneously. The girder is
then turned over, and the corresponding welds are made on the other side. When relatively large
fillet welds are required, the girder is held in a fixture with the web at an angle of about 45 to
allow one weld at a time to be deposited in the flat position. In either method, the web-to-flange
welds are made with automatic welding machines that produce welds of good quality at a high
rate of deposition. For this reason, fabricators would prefer to use continuous fillet welds rather
than intermittent welds, though an intermittent weld may otherwise satisfy design requirements.

36
After web-to-flange welds are made, the girder is trimmed to its detailed length. This is not done
earlier because of the difficulty of predicting the exact amount of girder shortening due to
shrinkage caused by the web-to-flange welds.

If holes are required in web or flange, the girder is drilled next. This step requires moving the
whole girder to the drills. Hence, for economy, holes in main material should be avoided because
of the additional amount of heavy-load handling required. Instead, holes should be located in
detail material, such as stiffeners, which can be punched or drilled before they are welded to the
girder.

The next operation applies the stiffeners to the web. Stiffener-to-web welds often are fillet welds.
They are made with the web horizontal. The welds on each side of a stiffener may be deposited
simultaneously with automatic welding equipment. For this equipment, many fabricators prefer
continuous welds to intermittent welds. When welds are large, however, the girder may be
positioned for flat, or downhand, welding of the stiffeners. Variation in stress along the length of
a girder permits reductions in flange material. For minimum weight, flange width and thickness
might be decreased in numerous steps. But a design that optimizes material seldom produces an
economical girder. Each change in width or thickness requires a splice. The cost of preparing a
splice and making a weld may be greater than the cost of material saved to avoid the splice.
Therefore, designers should hold to a minimum flange splices made solely to save material.
Sometimes, however, the length of piece that can be handled may make splices necessary.
Welded crane girders differ from ordinary welded plate girders principally in that the upper
surface of the top flange must be held at constant elevation over the span. A step at flange splices
is undesirable. Since lengths of crane girders usually are such that flange splices are not made
necessary by available lengths of material, the top flange should be continuous. In unusual cases
where crane girders are long and splices are required, the flange should be held to a constant
thickness. (It is not desirable to compensate for a thinner flange by deepening the web at the
splice.) Depending on other elements that connect to the top flange of a crane girder, such as a
lateral-support system or horizontal girder, holding the flange to a constant width also may be
desirable.

The performance of crane girders is quite sensitive to the connection details used. Care must be
taken in design to consider the effects of wheel loads, out-of-plane bending of the web, and
permitting the ends of the girders to rotate as the crane travels along the length of the girder. The
American Iron and Steel Engineers and the AISC both provide information concerning
appropriate details.

The selection of connection details on built-up sections has an important effect on

fabrication economy. If the pieces making up the section are relatively thick, welded details
can provide bolt holes for connections and thereby eliminate punching the thick material. On the

37
other hand, fabricators that trim sections at the saw after assembly may choose to drill holes
using a combination drill-saw line, thus avoiding manual layout for welded detail material.

1.13 WELDS

a)GMAW or Gas Metal Arc Welding

More commonly called MIG Welding this welding type is the most widely used and perhaps the
most easily master type of weding for industry and home use.The GMAW process is suitable for
fusing mild steel,stainless steel as well as aluminium.

b)GTAW or Tungsten Inert Gas

TIG welding is comparable to oxy acetylene gas welding and needs a lot more expertise from the
operator. Employed for carrying out high-quality work when a superior standard of finish is
needed without making use of excessive clean up by sanding or grinding.

c)Arc Welding or SMAW

Generally known as stick or arc welding. Arc welding is the most basic of all welding types, is
easy to master in a home welding situation. Stick welding can be used for manufacturing,
construction and repairs, very much well suited for heavy metal size 4 millimetres upwards.
Thinner sheet metals and alloys are usually more suited to the MIG welding types.

d)Gas or Oxy Acetylene Welding And Cutting

Not used as widely for general welding of mild steel. Consists of mixing oxygen and acetylene
gas to greate a flame capable of melting steels. Mostly used today for maintenance work and gas
metal cutting. Also common for brazing softer metals such as copper and bronze. Can also be
used for welding delicate aluminium parts such as refrigeration pipes. Gas Cutting equipment for
metal construction and maintenance. The most accessible of thermal cutting gear is by oxy-
acetylene gas cutting and plasma cutting machines. Other methods include the use of a thermal
cutting electrode for use with the arc welder machine

1.14 CRANE GIRDERS

Top Running Crane

The bridge of a top running crane is designed to travel on rails that are mounted onto the runway
beams. The beams can be supported by either precisely engineered free-standing columns or by
the existing columns of the building.

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 Fig 1.44: Top running crane girder

Under Running Crane

The bridge of an underhung crane is engineered to travel on the bottom flange of a runway
beam. The roof structure of a building typically supports the runway beam in this type of
configuration.

Fig 1.45: Bottom running crane girder

Single Girder Bridge Crane

This type of overhead crane configuration is made up of a single bridge girder, two end trucks,
and a trolley hoist which runs along the bottom flange of the bridge girder between the end
trucks.

Fig 1.46: Single girder bridge crane

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Single crane girder installations are useful in applications where no transverse movement is
needed.Also known as monorail cranes, these machines can travel the length of the girder and lift
lower loads only.This type of crane is useful in narrow spaces where load movement is restricted
to the length of the space. These cranes generally run on the bottom of the girder which is
typically supported at several points along its top cross member. One disadvantage is reduced
hook height because the crab and hook is usually located under the crane girder.

Double Girder Bridge Crane

A double girder overhead crane configuration is made up of two bridge girders, two end trucks,
and a trolley hoist assembly. The trolley hoist travels on top of rails that are mounted to the top
of the bridge girders.

Fig 1.47: Double girder bridge crane

Bridge and double girder cranes are far more flexible and allow 3-dimensional hook movement.
In these installations, the crab can move across the crane girder to cover the breadth of the space.
In addition, the crane girder assembly can move along the length of the space covering a far
wider area than a monorail. This type of crane has the additional benefit of having the crab girder
run on top of the side support beams or be raised to run between them. This allows for extended
hook heights and improved flexibility.

Gantry crane
This type of crane is quite similar to the bridge crane except that it runs on a track at the floor
level. The bridge (which carries the hoist and trolley) is supported by a pair of rigid steel legs
which, in turn, are carried by a pair of end trucks along the floor-level runway. The gantry crane
provides the same performance characteristics that an overhead bridge crane offers.
Long popular in Europe, gantry cranes have become a widely accepted alternative to overhead
bridge cranes. This type of crane is similar to the bridge crane except that it runs on a runway at
the floor level. The bridge is supported by a pair of rigid steel legs which are carried by a pair of
end trucks along the floor level runway.
• often costs less than a bridge crane
• built to heavy duty Class D specifications, which meet the demands of high duty cycles
and multiple shift operation, as well as providing decades of reliable service for all applications

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• available in spans to 150 feet and capacities to 150 tons
• can be used either indoors or outside

Fig 1.48: Gantry crane

A gantry crane can be designed with either a single or double girder bridge; however the main
difference is that the gantry girders are attached to legs on both sides of the span. The end trucks
are at the bottom of the legs allowing the crane to travel directly on the ground or on a rail
system that can either be laid on top of the floor or embedded in the floor. This gantry design
eliminates the need for a column or overhead runway system.

Fig 1.49: Gantry crane

Jib crane
This type of crane consists of a pivoting head and boom assembly, which carries a hoist and
trolley unit. The pivoting head is supported either by a floor-mounted mast providing 360°-boom
rotation or by an existing building column, which provides 180° of boom rotation. The jib crane
can also be motorized to provide precise spotting of loads, however, the hook location is along a
radial path rather than a simple X-Y arrangement.
This type of crane consists of a pivoting head and boom assembly which carries a hoist and
trolley unit. The pivoting head is supported either by a floor-mounted mast providing 360 degree
boom rotation or by an existing building column which provides 180 degrees of boom rotation.
• Capacities to 10 tons

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 • 360 º or 180º rotation
• Motorized or manual rotation
• Complete units or money-saving kits
• Baseplate, pipe, wall or column mounted systems
• simpler and less expensive than bridge or gantry
• precise spotting for light loads (e.g. a few hundred pounds or less)

Common Applications
The most common applications for jibs are individual workstations; e.g., machine tools,
welding/fabrication stations, and some small assembly stations. They are also often used in
simple loading / unloading operations where it is not necessary to spot a load precisely.
Jib cranes most often handle lighter loads at lower duty cycles than their bridge and gantry crane
counterparts. A "classic" application for jibs is to outfit an assembly floor with a series of jibs at
individual workstations, which are then supported by an overhead crane to lift / carry full
assemblies. The hook coverage is limited to the boom length (typically a maximum of 20 ft.).
The hook operates along a boom which rotates about a fixed point.
If there is a need for precise locating of heavy loads, a large area of hook coverage, or frequent
use for heavy loads, the jib crane may not be the best solution.

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