Dr. Abdullah K.

Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering
 Theory, Classification of energy resources, Solar thermal energy, Solar, Bioenergy- Biomass
OBJECTS
 and biogas, photovoltaics, Wind energy, Geothermal energy, Energy storage Energy
 Management system.
 Classification of energy resources, Solar radiation, solar collectors, performance and

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

 applications of collectors, solar thermal power plant, solar water disinfection, solar cooling,
 Photovoltaic basics, Types of photovoltaic cells, solar photovoltaic (SPV) module,
 Applications and efficiency of solar photovoltaic systems, Limitations of SPV systems,
 Biomass conversion processes, Factors affecting generation of biogas, various types of biogas
 plants, Community biogas plants, Resources of geothermal energy, dominated power plants
 of vapor or liquid, applications of geothermal energy, environmental effects of geothermal
 energy, advanced concepts of geothermal energy, Solar energy storage system, types of solar
 energy storage systems, Types of energy Management system, energy audit, energy planning,
 energy demand management.

WHAT WOULD WE LEARN IN THIS COURSE…

The goal of the course is to know the Environmental and
economic benefits of using renewable energy where
Generating energy that produces no greenhouse gas
emissions from fossil fuels and reduces some types of air
pollution. Diversifying energy supply and reducing
dependence on imported fuels
EDUCATION
A class presentation in PETROLEUM PRODUCTION at
University of Thi-Qar/College of Engineering/Petroleum& Gas
Engineering department.
SKILLS
Get a knowlege about the Renewable Energy

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Types of Energy
Basically, energy can be classified into two

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

types:
• Potential Energy.
• Kinetic Energy

Potential Energy
Potential energy is stored energy and
the energy of position (gravitational). It
exists in various forms.

Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is energy in motion-
the motion of waves, electrons,
atoms, molecules and substances. It
exists in various forms.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Various Forms of Energy

Chemical Energy

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

Chemical energy is the energy stored in the
bonds of atoms and molecules. Biomass,
petroleum, natural gas, propane and coal are
examples of stored chemical energy.

Stored Mechanical Energy

Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in
objects by the application of a force.
Compressed springs and stretched rubber
bands are examples of stored mechanical
energy.
Gravitational Energy
Gravitational energy is the energy of place or
position. Water in a reservoir behind a hydropower
dam is an example of gravitational energy. When the
water is released to spin turbines, it becomes
rotational energy.
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom - the energy that

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

holds the nucleus together. The nucleus of a uranium atom is an example of
nuclear energy.
Nuclear energy is a controversial energy source. It is not a renewable energy
source, but because it is a technology not based on fossil fuels many people think
nuclear power plants could play an important role in reducing carbon emissions
and battling climate change. However, many others feel the risk of accidents and
the issues of storing nuclear waste for thousands of years are too significant to
warrant the development of this energy source.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Radiant Energy
Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that
travels in transverse waves. Radiant

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma
rays and radio waves. Solar energy is
an example of radiant energy.
Thermal Energy
Thermal energy (or heat) is the internal energy
in substances- the vibration and
movement of atoms and molecules within
substances. Geothermal energy is an
example of thermal energy.
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is the movement of electrons.
Lightning and electricity are
examples of electrical energy.
Motion
The movement of objects or substances from
one place to another is motion. Wind
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and hydropower are examples of motion.
 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Sound
Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

(compression/rarefaction) waves.
Light Energy
Light energy is a type of wave motion. That is, light is a form of energy caused by
light waves. It enables us to see, as objects are only visible when they reflect
light into our eyes.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Classification of energy resources

The various sources of energy can be conveniently grouped as

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

Commercial primary energy resources: Non-renewable sources of energy or
conventional sources of energy are being accumulated in nature for a very long
time and can’t be replaced if exhausted. Nature gifted resources which are
consumed can’t be replaced. E.g.: coal, petroleum, natural gas, thermal power,
hydro power and nuclear power are the main conventional sources of energy.
Renewable sources of energy: Energy sources, which are continuously and freely
produced in the nature and are not exhaustible are known as the renewable
sources of energy. E.g.: solar energy, biomass and wood energy, geo thermal
energy, wind energy, tidal energy and ocean energy. But main attention has to be
directed to the following sources of renewable namely, a) solar photovoltaic, b)
wind, and c) hydrogen fuel cell.
New sources of energy: The new sources of energy are available for local
exploitation. In many cases, autonomous and small power plants can be built to
avoid transmission losses. Most prominent new sources of energy are tidal
energy,
ocean waves, peat, tar sand, oil shales, coal tar, geo thermal energy, draught
animals,
7 agricultural residues etc.
 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

2.Solar collectors
Solar energy collectors are special kind

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

of heat exchangers that transform
solar
radiation energy to internal energy of
the transport medium. The major
component of any solar system is the
solar collector. This is a device which
absorbs the incoming solar radiation,
converts it into heat, and transfers
this heat to a fluid (usually air, water,
or oil) flowing through the collector.
The solar energy thus collected is
carried from the circulating fluid either
directly to the hot water or space
conditioning equipment, or to a
thermal energy storage tank from
which can be drawn for use at night
and/or cloudy days.
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

There are basically two types of solar collectors: non-concentrating or stationery

and concentrating. A non-concentrating collector has the same area for

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

intercepting and for absorbing solar radiation, whereas a sun-tracking
concentrating solar collector usually has concave reflecting surfaces to intercept
and focus the sun’s beam radiation to a smaller receiving area, thereby increasing
the radiation flux.
Solar energy collectors are basically distinguished by their motion, i.e. stationary,
single axis tracking and two axes tracking, and the operating temperature.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

2.1. Stationary collectors

These collectors are permanently fixed in position and do not track the sun.

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

Three types of collectors fall in this category:
1. Flat plate collectors (FPC);
2. Compound parabolic collectors (CPC);
3. Evacuated tube collectors (ETC).

2.1.1. Flat-plate collectors

A typical flat-plate solar collector is shown in Fig. 2. When solar radiation passes through a transparent cover
and impinges on the blackened absorber surface of high absorptivity, a large portion of this energy is absorbed
by the plate and then transferred to the transport medium in the fluid tubes to be carried away for storage or
use. The underside of the absorber plate and the side of casing are well insulated to reduce conduction losses.
The liquid tubes can be welded to the absorbing plate, or they can be an integral part of the plate. The liquid
tubes are connected at both ends by large diameter header tubes.
The transparent cover is used to reduce convection losses from the absorber
plate through the restraint of the stagnant air layer between the absorber plate and the glass. It also reduces
radiation losses from the collector as the glass is transparent to the short-wave radiation received by the sun
but it is nearly opaque to long-wave thermal radiation emitted by the absorber plate (greenhouse effect).
FPC are usually permanently fixed in position and require no tracking of the sun.
The collectors should be oriented directly towards the equator, facing south in the northern hemisphere and
north in the southern. The optimum tilt angle of the collector is equal to the latitude of the location with angle
variations of 10–158 more or less depending on the application.
A FPC generally consists of the following components as shown in Fig. 3:
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Glazing. One or more sheets of glass or

other diathermanous (radiation

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

transmitting) material.
Tubes, fins, or passages. To conduct or
direct the heat transfer fluid from the
inlet to the outlet.
Absorber plates. Flat, corrugated, or
grooved plates, to which the tubes, fins,
or
passages are attached. The plate may
be integral with the tubes.
Headers or manifolds. To admit and
discharge the fluid.
Insulation. To minimize the heat loss
from the back and sides of the collector.
Container or casing. To surround the
aforementioned components and keep
them
free from dust, moisture, etc.
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering
FPC have been built in a wide variety of designs and from many different
materials. They have been used to heat fluids such as water, water plus
antifreeze additive, or air. Their major purpose is to collect as much solar energy

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

as possible at the lower possible total cost. The collector should also have a long
effective life, despite the adverse effects of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation,
corrosion and clogging because of acidity, alkalinity or hardness of the heat
transfer fluid, freezing of water, or deposition of dust or moisture on the glazing,
and breakage of the glazing because of thermal expansion, hail, vandalism or
other causes. These causes can be minimized by the use of tempered glass.
2.1.1.1. Glazing materials. Glass has been widely used to glaze solar collectors because it
can transmit as much as 90% of the incoming shortwave solar irradiation while transmitting
virtually none of the longwave radiation emitted outward by the absorber plate. Glass with
low iron content has a relatively high transmittance for solar radiation (approximately 0.85–
0.90 at normal incidence), but its transmittance is essentially zero for the long wave thermal
radiation (5.0–50 mm) emitted by sunheated surfaces.
Plastic films and sheets also possess high shortwave transmittance, but because most usable
varieties also they may have longwave transmittances as high as 0.40. Plastics are also
generally limited in the temperatures they can sustain without deteriorating or undergoing
dimensional changes. Only a few types of plastics can withstand the sun’s ultraviolet
radiation for long periods. However, they are not broken by hail or stones, and, in the form
of thin films, they are completely flexible and have low mass.
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

2.1.1.2. Collector absorbing plates. The collector plate absorbs as much of the
irradiation as possible through the glazing, while losing as little heat as possible

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

upward to the atmosphere and downward through the back of the casing.
• The collector plates transfer the retained heat to the transport fluid.
• The absorptance of the collector surface for shortwave solar radiation depends on the nature
and color of the coating and on the incident angle. Usually black color is used, however various
color coatings have been proposed mainly for aesthetic reasons.
• By suitable electrolytic or chemical treatments, surfaces can be produced with high values of
solar radiation absorptance (a) and low values of longwave emittance.
• Essentially, typical selective surfaces consist of a thin upper layer, which is highly absorbent to
shortwave solar radiation but relatively transparent to longwave thermal radiation, deposited
on a surface that has a high reflectance and a low emittance for longwave radiation.
• Selective surfaces are particularly important when the collector surface temperature is much
higher than the ambient air temperature.
Today, commercial solar absorbers are made by electroplating, anodization, evaporation,
sputtering and by applying solar selective paints. FPC are by far the most used type of collector.
FPC are usually employed for low temperature applications up to100 oC, although some new
types of collectors employing vacuum insulation and/or TI can achieve slightly higher values. Due
to the introduction of highly selective coatings actual standard FPC can reach stagnation
temperatures of more than 200 C.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering
2.1.2. Compound parabolic
collectors
CPC are non-imaging concentrators.

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

These have the capability of reflecting
to the absorber all of the incident
radiation within wide limits. The
necessity of moving
the concentrator to accommodate the
changing solar orientation can be
reduced by using a trough with two
sections of a parabola facing each
other.
Compound parabolic concentrators can
accept incoming radiation over a
relatively wide range of angles. By
using multiple internal reflections, any
radiation that is entering the gap,
within the collector acceptance angle,
finds its way to the absorber surface
located at the bottom of the collector.
The absorber can take a variety of
configurations
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

These collectors are more useful as linear or trough-type concentrators. The

acceptance angle is defined as the angle through which a source of light can be

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

moved and still converge at the absorber. The orientation of a CPC collector is
related to its acceptance angle. Also depending on the collector acceptance angle,
the collector can be stationary or tracking.
2.1.3. Evacuated tube collectors
Conventional simple flat-plate solar collectors
were developed for use in sunny
and warm climates. Their benefits however are
greatly reduced when conditions
become unfavorable during cold, cloudy and
windy days. Furthermore, weathering influences
such as condensation and moisture will cause
early deterioration of internal materials
resulting in reduced performance and system
failure. Evacuated heat pipe solar collectors
(tubes) operate differently than the other
collectors available on the market. These solar
collectors consist of a heat pipe inside a
vacuum-sealed tube, as shown in Fig.
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

The vacuum envelope reduces convection and conduction losses, so the

collectors can operate at higher temperatures than FPC.
ETC use liquid–vapor phase change materials to transfer heat at high efficiency.

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

These collectors feature a heat pipe (a highly efficient thermal conductor) placed
inside a vacuum-sealed tube. The pipe, which is a sealed copper pipe, is then
attached to a black copper fin that fills the tube (absorber plate). Protruding
from the top of each tube is a metal tip attached to the sealed pipe (condenser).
The heat pipe contains a small amount of fluid (e.g. methanol) that undergoes
an evaporating condensing cycle. In this cycle, solar heat evaporates the liquid,
and the vapor travels to the heat sink region where it condenses and releases its
latent heat. The condensed fluid return back to the solar collector and the
process is repeated.
2.2. Sun tracking concentrating collectors
Energy delivery temperatures can be increased by decreasing the area from
which the heat losses occur. Temperatures far above those attainable by FPC
can be reached if a large amount of solar radiation is concentrated on a
relatively small collection area. This is done by interposing an optical device
between the source of radiation and the energy absorbing surface.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Concentrating collectors exhibit certain advantages as compared with the

conventional flat-plate type. The main ones are:

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

1. The working fluid can achieve higher temperatures in a concentrator system
when compared to a flat-plate system of the same solar energy collecting surface.
This means that a higher thermodynamic efficiency can be achieved.
2. It is possible with a concentrator system, to achieve a thermodynamic match
between temperature level and task. The task may be to operate thermionic
(relating to electrons emitted from a substance at very high temperature.),
thermodynamic, or other higher temperature devices.
3. The thermal efficiency is greater because of the small heat loss area relative to
the receiver area.
4. Reflecting surfaces require less material and are structurally simpler than FPC.
For a concentrating collector the cost per unit area of the solar collecting surface is
therefore less than that of a FPC.
5. Owing to the relatively small area of receiver per unit of collected solar energy,
selective surface treatment and vacuum insulation to reduce heat losses and
improve the collector efficiency are economically viable.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Their disadvantages are:

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

1. Concentrator systems collect little diffuse radiation depending on the
concentration ratio.
2. Some form of tracking system is required so as to enable the collector to follow
the sun.
3. Solar reflecting surfaces may lose their reflectance with time and may require
periodic cleaning and refurbishing.

The collectors falling in this category are:

1. Parabolic trough collector;
2. Linear Fresnel reflector (LFR); (Fresnel: a flat lens made of a number of
concentric rings, to reduce spherical aberration.)
3. Parabolic dish;
4. Central receiver.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

3. Thermal analysis of collectors

The basic parameter to consider is the collector thermal efficiency. This is

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

defined as the ratio of the useful energy delivered to the energy incident on the
collector aperture. The incident solar flux consists of direct and diffuse radiation.
While FPC can collect both, concentrating collectors can only utilize direct
radiation if the concentration ratio is greater than 10.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

3.1 REVIEW OF DESIGN METHODS

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

Design methods for solar thermal processes can be put in three general
categories, according to the assumptions on which they are based and the ways in
which the calculations are done.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

The first of these, the utilizability methods, are based on analysis of hourly
weather data to obtain the fraction of the total month’s radiation that is above a

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

critical level.
The second category of design methods includes those that are correlations of
the results of a large number of detailed simulations. The f -chart method of
Klein et al. (1976, 1977) and Beckman et al. (1977) is an example. The results of
many numerical experiments (simulations) are correlated in terms of easily
calculated dimensionless variables.
The third category of design methods is based on short-cut simulations. In these
methods, simulations are done using representative days of meteorological data
and the results are related to longer term performance. The SOLCOST method
(Connelly et al., 1976) simulates a clear day and a cloudy day and then weights
the results according to average cloudiness to obtain a monthly estimate of
system performance.
In recent years annual simulations are replacing design methods as a result of
the
ever-increasing computational speed of computers. However, design methods
are still much faster and so are useful for early design studies, general-survey-
type studies, and system design where simulations are too expensive.
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

3.2 THE f-CHART METHOD

The f -chart method used for estimating the annual thermal performance of active
heating systems for buildings (using either liquid or air as the working fluid) where

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

the minimum temperature of energy delivery is near 20◦C.
The method called f-Chart is one of the empirical frameworks that uses
standardized metrics to characterize the long-term performance of solar heating
systems. It was originally developed by Klein, Beckman, and Duffie in 1976.
Although it has some uncertainties and is mostly applied to standard designs, it
provides a quick and robust estimate of system performance using collector
parameters and average monthly radiation and temperature data. To this end,
understanding the f-Chart data can be useful.
The f value, which is a targeted output in f-Chart computations, characterizes the
fraction of a total heating load supplied by solar energy:

To set up the calculation you need to choose and specify the following variables:
collector area, collector type, storage capacity, fluid flow rates, heat exchanger
sizes. Those parameters can be set at the design stage and can be adjusted further
to achieve a desirable outcome.
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

The f-Chart model correlates those parameters with thermal performance. This
correlation is empirical and is the result of treatment of hundreds of simulations

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

and case studies of solar heating systems. In the end, f is presented as a function
of two dimensionless parameters X and Y:

These metrics are normally defined for a one-month period. In terms of

collector properties, these values can also be expressed as follows:

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

All the parameters and properties used in these metrics are available from

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

collector tests and conditions chosen, so they should be quite straightforward to
calculate.
Ac = collector area (m'2)
F'R = collector heat exchanger efficiency factor (%)
FR = collector heat removal factor (%)
Δt = total number of seconds in month
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅𝑎𝑇monthly average ambient temperature (°C)
Tref = empirical reference temperature (100 °C)
L = monthly total heating load for space heating and hot water (J)
𝐻𝑇̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = monthly average daily radiation incident on collector (J/m'2)
N = number days in month
(τα) = monthly average transmittance-absorptance product (%)
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅𝛼𝜏Normal transmittance-absorptance product (%)
UL= Collector overall energy loss coefficient (W/m2 -°C)

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

The products FR(τα) and FRUL are determined from standard collector tests. The
example calculations of X and Y values for a typical solar heating system are

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

given in following Example. Further, X and Y are used to calculate f - the monthly
fraction of the load supplied by the solar energy. For tha purpose, the following
empirical equations are used:
For liquid systems:

For air systems:

Note: these equations are the result of model data fitting (so do not try to
justify it by any theoretical derivations). They are simply used as the
approximations of model results fitted to the pair of X and Y values.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Further, the total solar fraction of annual load (F) can be found by the sum of all
monthly fractions:

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

For example, for a liquid-
based heating system, if we
perform this calculation for
different collector areas,
we observe an increase of
solar energy fraction as the
system gets larger (Figure
below). Based on this
output, we can select the
collector area for the
project to cover the desired
amount of energy needs.
Annual solar energy fraction in total load as a
function of collector area of a solar heating
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system determined by f-Chart method.
 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering
The chart above is only one representation of f-Chart performance data. A
number of other properties can be presented in similar diagrams.
To summarize: the f-Chart method is an express tool for thermal design

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

assessment. It allows quick estimation of solar heating system performance,
although errors up to 5-10% may be present due to approximations. That is the
price of speed and convenience. The uncertainties may be due to variations in
meteorological data, averaging performance data, system use and occupants'
behavior, and individual system flaws and imperfections.
This method is especially recommended for exploring relative effects of design
changes and also as a benchmark for comparison with real-life performance data
from a system.
Example
The solar heating system described in is to be a liquid system. What fraction of
the annual heating load will be supplied by the solar energy for a collector area
of 50 m2? The monthly combined loads on the system are indicated in the
following table.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

the values of X and Y for 50 m2 are 1.56 and 0.41, respectively,

in January. f = 0.28.

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

The total heating load for January is 36.0 GJ. Thus,
the energy delivery from the solar heating system in January is
fL = 0.28 × 36.0 = 10.1 GJ
The fraction of the annual heating load supplied by solar energy is determined by
repeating
the calculation of X, Y, and f for each month and summing the results as indicated
by Equation, The table shows the results of these calculations. the annual fraction
of the load supplied by solar energy is

F = 95.4
203.2
0.47 =

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

The monthly mean daily global solar radiation (G), extraterrestrial radiation (Go),
clearness index (G/Go), bright sunshine (S), day length (So), ratio of bright
sunshine duration to day length, maximum temperature (Tmax), relative
humidity (RH %), for Baghdad station

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

The monthly mean daily global solar radiation (G), extraterrestrial radiation (Go),
clearness index (G/Go), bright sunshine (S), day length (So), ratio of bright
sunshine duration to day length, maximum temperature (Tmax), relative
humidity (RH %), for Mosul station

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

4.1. Flat-plate collectors' performance

Under steady-state conditions, the useful heat delivered by a solar collector is

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

equal to the energy absorbed by the heat transfer fluid minus the direct or
indirect heat losses from the surface to the surroundings. The useful energy
collected from a collector can be obtained from the following formula:

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Eq. (1) can be modified by substituting inlet fluid temperature (Ti) for the average
plate temperature (Tp); if a suitable correction factor is included. The resulting

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

equation is

Where FR is the correction factor, or collector heat removal factor.

Heat removal factor can be considered as the ratio of the heat actually
delivered to that delivered if the collector plate were at uniform temperature
equal to that of the entering fluid. In Eq. (2) the temperature Ti of the inlet fluid
depends on the characteristics of the complete solar heating system and the
hot water demand or heat demand of the building. However, FR is affected only
by the solar collector characteristics, the fluid type, and the fluid flow rate
through the collector. FR may be obtained from:

where F' is the collector efficiency factor. It represents the ratio of the actual
useful energy gain that would result if the collector-absorbing surface had been
at the local fluid temperature.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

The collector efficiency factor can be calculated by considering the temperature

distribution between two pipes of the collector absorber and by assuming that

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

the temperature gradient in the flow direction is negligible. This analysis can be
performed by considering the sheet tube configuration shown in Fig. 13, where
the distance between the tubes is W, the tube diameter is D, and the sheet
thickness is d. As the sheet metal is usually made from copper or aluminum which
are good conductors of heat, the temperature gradient through the sheet is
negligible, therefore the region between the centerline separating the tubes and
the tube base can be considered as a classical fin problem.
length L = (W – D)/2.
An energy balance on this element gives

where S is the absorbed solar energy, k absorber thermal conductivity (W/m oC),
T absolute temperature (K), and δ absorber (fin) thickness (m). By dividing
through with Δx and finding the limit as Δx approaches zero, gives:

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

The two boundary conditions necessary to solve this second-order differential

equation are:

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

Tb local base temperature (oC).
This equation gives the temperature distribution in the x-direction at any
given y.
The energy conducted to the region of the tube per unit length in the flow
direction can be found by evaluating the Fourier’s law at the fin base:
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Solar cells and photovoltaic

Introduction

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

The first practical solar cells were made less than 30 years ago. The biggest jumps
in efficiency came "with the advent of the transistor and accompanying
semiconductor technology. There are several advantages of photovoltaic solar
power that make it "one of the most promising renewable energy sources in the
world." It is non-polluting, has no moving parts that could break down, requires
little maintenance and no supervision, and has a life of 20-30 years with low
running costs.
Solar Cells Generations -
. First Generation
. Single crystal silicon wafers (c-Si)
. Second Generation
. Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
. Polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si)
. Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) Telluride a compound of tellurium with another more electropositive element or a radical.
. Copper indium gallium di-selenide (CIGS) alloy

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

. Third Generation
. Nanocrystal solar cells
. Photo electrochemical (PEC) cells

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

. Gräetzel cells
. Polymer solar cells
. Dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC)
. Fourth Generation
. Hybrid - inorganic crystals within a polymer matrix.

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and
chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary
when exposed to light. Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic
irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or an artificial light. They are used
as a photo detector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other
electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
1. The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or exactions.
2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
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3. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Solar PV Technology
This section gives a brief description of the solar PV technology and the common

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

technical terms used. A solar PV system is powered by many crystalline or thin
film PV modules. Individual PV cells are interconnected to form a PV module.
This takes the form of a panel for easy installation.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

PV cells are made of light-sensitive semiconductor materials that use photons to

dislodge electrons to drive an electric current. There are two broad categories of

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

technology used for PV cells, namely, crystalline silicon, as shown in Figure 1
which accounts for the majority of PV cell production; and thin film figure 3,
which is newer and growing in popularity.

The “family tree” in

Figure gives an
overview of these
technologies available
today.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

Crystalline Silicon and Thin Film Technologies
Crystalline cells are made from ultra-pure silicon raw material such as those used
in semiconductor chips. They use silicon wafers that are typically 150-200 microns
(one fifth of a millimeter) thick.
Thin film is made by depositing layers of semiconductor material barely 0.3 to 2
micrometers thick onto glass or stainless steel substrates. As the semiconductor
layers are so thin, the costs of raw material are much lower than the capital
equipment and processing costs.
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Conversion Efficiency

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

Apart from aesthetic differences, the most obvious difference amongst PV cell
technologies are in its conversion efficiency, as summarized in Table.
For example, a thin film amorphous silicon PV array will need close to twice
the space of a crystalline silicon PV array because its module efficiency is
halved, for the same nominal capacity under Standard Test Conditions1 (STC)
rating.
For crystalline silicon PV modules, the module efficiency is lower compared to
the sum of the component cell efficiency due to the presence of gaps
between the cells and the border around the circuit i.e., wasted space that
does not generate any power hence lower total efficiency.
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Effects of Temperature
Another important differentiator in solar PV performance, especially in hot climates,

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

is the temperature coefficient of power. PV cell performance declines as cell
temperature rises.
For example, in bright sunlight, cell temperatures in Singapore can reach over 70ºC,
whereas PV modules are rated at a cell temperature of 25ºC. The loss in power
output at 70ºC is therefore measured as (70 - 25) x temperature coefficient.
Most thin film technologies have a lower negative temperature coefficient compared
to crystalline technologies. In other words, they tend to lose less of their rated
capacity as temperature rises. Hence, under Singapore’s climatic condition, thin film
technologies will generate 5-10% more electricity per year. A PV module data sheet
should specify the temperature coefficient. See Table and chart below.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

The PV modules are next connected in series into a PV string as shown in Figure
below. A PV array as shown by the parallel aggregation of PV strings.

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

4-Technical Information
Single-core, double isolated sheathed cables that can withstand the

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

environmental conditions, and minimize the risk of earth faults and short circuits
are used to interconnect the PV strings and arrays. The cable connections are
protected in enclosures known as junction box that provides the necessary
connectors as shown in Figure.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Electricity produced by the solar PV installation is in the form of DC. The output of
the PV installation is connected through the DC main cables to the DC terminals of
the PV inverter where electricity is converted from DC into AC. After conversion,

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

the AC current of the PV inverter is connected through PV
supply cable to the building’s electrical installation (AC distribution board).
Figure 8 shows a typical PV inverter connected to the electrical installation of a
building. Note that the actual configuration of the PV inverter may vary across
different systems.

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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

Just like any electrical installation in a

building, earthing is an important safety

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

requirement for solar PV system.
Arrangement must be made for proper
connection of the solar PV system to the
consumer’s electrical installation earthing
system.
In locations susceptible to lightning strikes, a
lightning protection system must be provided,
and all the exposed metallic structures of the
solar PV system must be bound to the
lightning earthing system.
It is the responsibility of the consumers to
have their solar PV systems maintained
regularly to ensure safe operation of their
solar PV systems and electrical installations.
See Figure 9 for a diagram showing the solar
PV system forming part of a consumer’s
electrical installation.
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 Dr. Abdullah K. Okab
Renewable Energy Ph.D. Petroleum and Gas Engineering

College of Engineering/ Petroleum and Gas Engineering Dep./ 4th Class

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