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Master's Theses Graduate College

4-1979

A Comparative Analysis of Two Methods of Teaching: The

Cecchetti Method of Classical Ballet and the Royal Academy of
Dance
Barbara Ann Ruemenapp

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of Classical Ballet and the Royal Academy of Dance" (1979). Master's Theses. 2063.
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 A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
OF TWO METHODS OF TEACHING:
THE CECCHETTI METHOD OF CLASSICAL BALLET
AND
THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF DANCE

by

Barbara Ann Ruemenapp

A Thesis
Submitted to the
Faculty o f The Graduate College
in p a r tia l f u lf illm e n t
o f the
Degree o f Master o f A rts

Western Michigan U n iv e rs ity

Kalamazoo, Michigan
A p ril 1979

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In w r itin g th is th e s is , I have g re a tly b e n e fite d from the

advice, concern and c o n s tru c tiv e c r itic is m o f Dr. E lisabeth

H etherington, Dr. Janet S t illw e ll and Dr. Bruce Lloyd. They have

indeed shared w ith me t h e ir knowledge and u n s e lfis h ly gave to me

t h e ir time whenever i t was needed. As the f i r s t student in the

Department o f Dance to w r ite a th e s is , I appreciated t h e ir much

needed help and advice. My g ra titu d e goes to them and also to

Mr. Michael Meeusen f o r h is constant support and encouragement.

Barbara Ann Ruemenapp

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 1 312973

RUEMENAPP• BARBARA ANN

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TWO METHODS OF
TEACHINGS THE CECCHETTI METHOD OF CLASSICAL
BALLET AND THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF DANCE.

WESTERN MICHIGAN U N I V E R S I T Y . M .A ., 1979

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1

S ig n ific a n c e and Background o f

the S t u d y .................................................... 5

Purpose o f the Study and Statement

o f the P ro b le m ............................................ 6

Need fo r the S tu d y .................................... 7

D e lim ita tio n s o f the Study .................... 7

D e fin itio n o f Terms ................................ 8

II REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES ANDLITERATURE

AND A BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF
BALLET.........................................................................11

III THE CECCHETTI METHOD OF CLASSICAL BALLET . 17

IV THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF DANCE................................. 25

V SUMMARY AND EVALUATION ..................................... 33

APPENDIX.................................................................... 43

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................ 46

iii

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 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

"Under the stre ss o f jo y , Man makes words. These words

are not enough, he prolongs them. The prolonged words
are not enough; he modulates them. The modulated words
are not enough, and w ith o u t even p e rce ivin a i t h is hands
make gestures and h is fe e t s t a r t to move."-

Dance is a p a rt o f one o f the o ld e s t o f the a r ts , the a r t o f

movement. To tra c e the o rig in s o f dance, i t is necessary to go back

beyond the beginnings o f h is to ry in to p r e h is to ric tim es. As nearly

as can be determ ined, p r im itiv e dances are concerned w ith the

seasons o f the y e a r, in c lu d in g the seasons o f ve g e ta tio n , the

seasons o f the t r ib e 's development o r h is to r y , dances w ith so c ia l

overtones (fa m ily b ir th and death dances, marriage and sexual dances,

war and welcome dances, and t r ib a l i n i t i a t io n dances) and dances w ith

re lig io u s overtones (worship o f the t r ib e 's d e ity ) . Many cu ltu re s

have produced t h e ir own forms o f "dance" o r motion o f the body.

In th is way, we view dance as a d a ily use o f expression and not as

an a r t form devised to in te r e s t an audience.

The a r t o f th e a tre , o f which th e a tr ic a l dance is a p a rt, is an

a r t o f r e la t iv e ly recent tim es. I t emerges during the very

beginning o f modern h is to ry in the period known as the Renaissance.2

^ i r s t e i n , L in c o ln , Dance, A Short H is to ry o f C lassic T h e a tric a l

Dancing. New York: Dance H orizons, In c . , 1936. p. 1.

2Guest, Iv o r , The Dancer's H e rita g e . B altim ore: Penguin

Books, 1960, p. 13.

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 2

The term Renaissance, o r r e b ir th , r e fle c ts man's emergence from the

Dark Ages in to the Age o f Enlightenment.

The Renaissance began in I t a ly during the fo u rte e n th century.

The ru le rs o f th is time (Lorenzo the M a g n ifice n t, the Medici r u le r

o f Florence, Galeazzo S forza, Duke o f M ilan) were o v e rly concerned

w ith the b r illia n c e o f t h e ir c o u rts . I t mattered g re a tly to these

ru le rs th a t they should appear im portant in the eyes o f th e ir

neighbors. I t was these people who became patrons o f the a rts and

provided a r t is t s (those who worked in the visu a l and the performing

a r t s ) , s c ie n tis ts and philosophers w ith the o p p o rtu n itie s to achieve

in t h e ir various f ie ld s . P rofessional dancing-masters were im portant

fig u re s a t these I ta lia n co u rts . Under t h e ir in flu e n c e , dancing

developed from a pastime in to an a r t form. They created th is a r t

form to include a d e fin ite , elaborate and system atic technique

because o f th e ir hope to ris e above and outshine th e ir neighbors.

Our present b a lle t technique has developed from th is in flu e n c e .

The French discovery o f th is example o f I t a lia n c u ltu re was

s ig n if ic a n tly valuable in the development o f b a lle t. Although cou rt

dancing was common in France, i t had l i t t l e value oth er than as a

form o f merriment, w ith the appearance o f the I t a lia n dancing-

masters a t the French c o u rt, dancing became a re fin e d and e sse ntial

p a rt o f c o u rtly a c t iv it ie s . French c o u rt b a lle t had been born.

Catherine de M edici, who m arried Henri I I and became Queen o f

France, brought to the French cou rt the I t a lia n 's fondness fo r

dancing. On October 15, 1581, by her corranand, the B a lle t Comique

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 de la Rein was performed. I t was choreographed by Beaujoyeulx and

considered to be the f i r s t re a l b a lle t ever presented.1 The death

o f Catherine de Medici in 1589 made l i t t l e d iffe re n c e in the

p o p u la rity o f French co u rt b a lle t because the impact o f dance was

so gre a t th a t i t became permanent. This type o f dance was enhanced

by the French courts and was fu r th e r nurtured by the personal

in te re s t o f Henri IV , Louis X I I I and Louis X IV .2

Under Henri IV , simple ballet-masquerades o f a comical nature

were performed. During the re ig n o f Louis X I I I , co u rt b a lle t

d e te rio ra te d and became melodramatic and music began to play an

im portant ro le . The most b r i l l i a n t phase o f c o u rt b a lle t emerged

under Louis XIV. I t was during th is tim e th a t the fiv e p o s itio n s

o f the fe e t, as defined by Beauchamps, were accepted as a basis f o r

b a lle t technique. Louis XIV appreciated the value o f good teaching

and in 1661 he founded the Academie Royale de Danse. In itia lly

the Academie Royale de Danse consisted o f th ir te e n dancing-masters,

who were to "re -e s ta b lis h the a r t in i t s p e r fe c tio n " .3 This was to

be an in s t it u t io n where teachers o f dance would arrange a b a lle t

tr a in in g program and curriculum f o r students d e s irin g to become

professio nal dancers.

A nderson, Jack, Dance. New York: Newsweek Books, 1974.

p. 12.

2Guest, op. c i t . , p. 99.

3lo c . c i t . , p. 20.

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 In the m id-eighteenth ce n tu ry, Jean Georges Noverre began his

career as the most in flu e n t ia l choreographer o f h is cen tury.

Noverre's c o n trib u tio n s to the a r t o f b a lle t are s t i l l in use today

In his L e tte rs on Dancing and B a lle ts , published in 1760, Noverre1

sta te s th a t

"B a lle ts should be u n ifie d works o f a r t . That every element

c o n trib u te s to the development o f the main theme, th a t
te ch n ica l e x h ib itio n s f o r t h e ir own sake should be discouraged
and th a t such implements to movement and expression as heeled
shoes and cumbersome s k ir t s should be a b o lis h e d ."

These proposals are re le va n t to the b a lle t d 'a c tio n as w e ll as to

modern b a lle t.

During the nineteenth ce n tu ry, Carlo B la sis made considerable

c o n trib u tio n s to the a r t o f dance. B a lle t vocabulary expanded

tremendously during th is period as did the necessity f o r s tru c tu re d

teaching. B alsis began to c o d ify b a lle t by in s tr u c tin g teachers,

who in tu rn taught o th er teachers. In a d d itio n , his book, A

T h e o re tic a l, P ra c tic a l and Elementary T re a tis e on the A rt o f

Dancing was comprised o f a study based on dance and the "th eory and

p ra c tic e and a h is to ry o f i t s ris e and progress from e a r lie s t times

intended as w e ll fo r the in s tr u c tio n o f amateurs as the use o f

professional person s".2 As a re s u lt o f th is p u b lic a tio n , the

teaching o f c la s s ic a l b a lle t became more r i g i d l y s tru c tu re d . An

in te re s t in b a lle t was aroused.

Anderson, op. c i t . , p. 35.

2K irs te in , op. c i t . , p. 237.

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 S ig n ific a n c e and Background o f the Study

The th e o rie s and methods behind the teaching o f c la s s ic a l

b a lle t are s t i l l serious concerns o f the dance e n th u s ia s t. I t is

v it a l to the dancer, p ro fe ssio n a l o r n o n -p ro fe s s io n a l, to have

adequate tr a in in g throughout his career. W ithout proper tra in in g

the young dancer can expect no fu tu re in the a r t and is su sce p tib le

to b o d ily i n j u r i e s . 1

From the beginning, and as the dancer progresses, i t is c ru c ia l

to study w ith a q u a lifie d and knowledgeable in s t r u c t o r . 2 This

in s tr u c to r must be w e ll versed in the mechanics o f c la s s ic a l b a lle t ,

as w e ll as concerned w ith the physical needs and emotional balance

o f the dancer. The dance teacher is de aling w ith an e n tire

p e rs o n a lity in a d d itio n to an id e a lly proportioned body. A dancer's

frame o f mind is ju s t as im portant as the he ight o f the extension

o r the depth o f the p M e . The focus o f the teaching by a q u a lifie d

in s tr u c to r w i l l concentrate on the e n tire growth o f the in d iv id u a l.

This includes a knowledge o f the anatomy of the body and the concern

o f the teacher f o r the development o f the s tu d e n t's mind in regard

to the p rin c ip le s o f b a l le t . 3

Methods o f teaching c la s s ic a l b a lle t were formed because o f

xT e rry , W a lte r, The B a lle t Companion. New York: Dodd, Mead

and Company, 1968. p. 135.

2lo c . c i t . , p. 136.

3T e rry , op. c i t . , p. 135.

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 6

the g reat concern to ra is e the le v e l o f c la s s ic a l b a lle t tra in in g

and to create in te rn a tio n a l standards o f b a l l e t . 1 Two well-known

and h ig h ly respected methods are The C ecchetti Method o f C lassical

B a lle t and The Royal Academy o f Dance. I t is the aim o f each

method to ensure and m aintain high standards o f teaching.

As a p a rt o f th is stu d y, the h is to ry and theory w i l l be traced

as w e ll as the p ra ctice s involved in each method o f teaching. A

c h e c k -1 is t o f the systems w i l l be developed fo r comparison.

Because no such c h e c k - lis t e x is ts , th is w i l l h o p e fu lly be a unique

c o n trib u tio n o f th is study.

Purpose o f the Study and Statement o f the Problem

The purpose o f the present study is to examine two systems in

the teaching o f c la s s ic a l b a lle t : The C ecchetti Method o f C lassical

B a lle t and The Royal Academy o f Dance. I t is the in te n tio n here

to analyze two respected methods. A comparison w i l l show the

s im ila r it ie s and d iffe re n c e s and the stre ngths and lim ita tio n s o f

these two approaches and provide a basic understanding o f these

methods. -T h e re fo re , the major co n sid e ra tio n o f the present study

is : In using th is c h e c k -lis t as a guide w i l l one system prove to

be more e ffe c tiv e than the other?

^ o e l , Lyd ia, "Tested and Found Not W anting." Dance Magazine,

X L III (J u ly 1969), p. 30.

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 7

Need f o r the Study

Methods o f teaching c la s s ic a l b a lle t are rigorous systems

devised w ith a ca re fu l regard fo r the laws o f kin e sio lo g y and

designed to create q u a litie s e sse n tia l to the dancer. These

in c lu d e , among o th e rs , q u a litie s such as balance, poise, s tre n g th ,

e le v a tio n , f l e x i b i l i t y and b a llo n .1 Id e a lly , th is is the te ch n ica l

aim o f a l l methods concerned w ith the teaching o f c la s s ic a l b a lle t.

Each system possesses i t s own theory by which to best achieve these

r e s u lts . The Cecchetti Method o f C lassical B a lle t and The Royal

Academy o f Dance have produced professional dancers w ith these

q u a litie s . Anna Pavlova, Leonide Massine, Serge L if a r , Frederick

Ashton, Marie Rambert and Anthony Tudor were Cecchetti tra in e d ,

w h ile the R.A.D. system produced dancers such as Margot Fonteyn

and Tamara Karsavina, and others. However, no comparative method

stud ies co n tra s tin g these two systems have been undertaken to date.

Therefore, i t would seem th a t such a study would add to the e x is tin g

body o f knowledge f o r teaching b a lle t .

D e lim ita tio n s o f the Study

The present th e s is is confined to the study o f the teaching

methods o f two systems: The Cecchetti Method o f C lassical B a lle t

and The Royal Academy o f Dance. Dealing e x c lu s iv e ly w ith b a lle t,

1Beaumont, C y r il, The Cecchetti Method. London: Messrs.

A & C B lack, L t d . , 1938. p. 1.

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 8

t h is study makes no p ro v is io n f o r o th e r forms o f dance. I t is

p r im a rily concerned w ith the s tru c tu re o f these two systems in

regard to the teaching o f c la s s ic a l b a lle t. A h is to ry o f each

system w i l l be provided and, in a d d itio n , the purported in te n t

and purpose o f each system. The educational process f o r b a lle t

in s tru c to rs w il l be reviewed as w e ll as c o n trib u tio n s made in the

f i e ld o f dance education.

Both systems are considered su p e rio r approaches.1 The aim o f

t h is study is not to judge these systems but to evaluate th e ir

stre ngths and lim ita tio n s and present the fin d in g s o f these

d iffe r e n t but s u b s ta n tia l and e ffe c tiv e methods o f teaching.

D e fin itio n o f Terms

Technical terms germane to the present study are defined below.

The source used was G ail G rant's Technical Manual and D ic tio n a ry o f

C lassical B a lle t , published in New York by Dover P u b lic a tio n s , In c .,

in 1950.

Adage - Slow and c o n tro lle d movements.

A lle g ro - B ris k , liv e ly . A term applied to a l l b rig h t and b ris k

movements.

Assemble - Assembled o r jo in e d to g e th e r. A step in which the

working fo o t s lid e s w e ll along the ground before being swept
in to the a ir . As the fo o t goes in to the a i r the dancer
pushes o f f the f lo o r w ith the supporting le g , extending the
toes.

1i b i d . , and J o e l, op. c i t . , p. 30.

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 9

B a lle t - An a r t i s t i c dance form cha racterized by grace and p re c i­

sion o f movement and an elaborate formal technique; a
th e a tr ic a l work o r entertainm ent in which a choregrapher has
expressed his ideas in group and solo dancing to a musical
accompaniment w ith appropriate costumes, scenery and lig h t in g .

B a lle t d 'a c tio n - A b a lle t w ith a p lo t o r s to ry . For example,

The Sleeping Beauty.

B allon - Bounce. B allon is the l i g h t , e la s tic q u a lity in jumping

in which the dancer bounds up from the f lo o r , pauses a
moment in the a i r and descends l i g h t ly and s o f t ly , only to
rebound in the a ir lik e the smooth bouncing o f a b a ll.

Barre - The wooden s tru c tu re , placed along the w a ll, th a t the

dancer l ig h t ly holds during side p ra c tic e .

Battement - Beating. A beating actio n o f the extended or bended

le g .

Choreography - This term is used to describe the actual step s,

groupings and pa tterns o f a b a lle t o r dance com position. A
choreographer is one who composes or invents b a lle ts o r dances.

Combinations - A chain o f steps, enchainment.

Enchainment - L in kin g . A combination o f two o r more steps arranged

to f i t a phrase o f music.

Frappe - S truck. A s tr ik in g movement o f the fo o t on the f lo o r .

Jete - Thrown. A jump from one leg to the o th e r in which the working
leg is brushed in to the a ir and appears to be thrown.

P iro u e tte - W hirl o r sp in .

Placement - C orrect alignment o f the body.

P lie - Bent, bending. A bending o f the knee or knees. This is an

exercise to render the jo in t s and muscles s o ft and p lia b le
and the tendons fle x ib le and e la s tic , and to develop a sense
o f balance.

Pointe - The ra is in g o f the body on the tip s o f the toes.

P ort de bras - Carriage o f the arms.

Q uick-study - The dancer performs a combination th a t has been shown

to him only one tim e.

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 R.A.D. - The a b b re via tio n f o r The Royal Academy o f Dance.

Rond de jambe - Round o f the le g , th a t i s , a c ir c u la r movement o f

the le g .

S ty le - A manner by which b a lle t technique is performed.

Tendu - S tretched.

Unseen enchainments - The dancer performs a combination th a t has

been explained to him in on ly verbal terms. No demonstration
has been presented.

An o u tlin e o f the remainder o f the th e s is is as fo llo w s . The

next chapter w i l l deal w ith a review o f re la te d stud ies and

lit e r a t u r e . Chapter I I I , The C ecchetti Method o f C la ssica l B a lle t,

is an h is to r ic a l d e s c rip tio n o f th is method. Chapter IV , The

Royal Academy o f Dance, w i l l provide an h is to r ic a l sketch o f th is

system. Chapter V, Summary and E v a lu a tio n , a c h e c k -lis t w i l l be

presented to g e th e r w ith the summary and e v a lu a tio n o f the systems.

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 CHAPTER I I

REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES AND LITERATURE AND A BRIEF HISTORICAL

OVERVIEW OF BALLET

The purpose o f the second chapter is to provide a review o f

re la te d studies and lit e r a t u r e and a b r ie f h is to r ic a l perspective

o f dance. An examination o f a number o f sources in c lu d in g the

D is s e rta tio n A bstracts was undertaken. There were no lis t in g s o f

stud ies d e s c rib in g , analyzing o r comparing e ith e r The C ecchetti

Method o f C la ssica l B a lle t o r The Royal Academy o f Dance. Through

examining the p u b lic a tio n s Dance Magazine and Dancing Times i t was

found th a t each method was studied alone and not compared to any

oth e r system.

W ritte n requests f o r in fo rm a tio n were made to The C ecchetti

Council located in Ann A rbo r, M ichigan, and The Royal Academy. The

Royal Academy has two headquarters; the main headquarters are

located in London, England and the United States headquarters are

located in Upper M o n tc la ir, New Jersey. However, a ll in fo rm a tio n

received was documented in o th e r sources. A w ritte n sylla b u s was

not received from e ith e r system.

Guest1 m aintains th a t the f i r s t curriculum f o r the tr a in in g o f

b a lle t was esta blishe d by Louis XIV in 1661. This system was c a lle d

the Academie Royale de Danse. Today, in a d d itio n to The Cecchetti

1Guest, op. c i t . , p. 99.

11

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 12

Method o f C lassical B a lle t and The Royal Academy o f Dance, the

most common methods concerned w ith the teaching o f c la s s ic a l b a lle t

are the Russian, Vaganova and B o u rn o n ville methods.

The Russian method o f teaching encompasses the s ty le and

technique o f Marius Petipa (a c tu a lly F re n ch -b o rn ).1 The Russians

have adopted the standardized French vocabulary. This is not a

graded and precise method, but ra th e r a s ty le o f perform ing b a lle t

which leaves the tr a in in g to the d is c re tio n o f the in s tr u c to r .

The Vaganova Method is a s p e c ific system developed from the

Russian s c h o o l.2 This is the accepted s ta te supported teaching

method which now p re v a ils throughout the U.S.S.R. and is also

taught in various p a rts o f the w orld . The Vaganova Method is based

upon the pedagogical th e o rie s o f A grippina Vaganova.3

The B o u rn o n ville Method consists o f several pedagogical guides

composed by August B o u rn o n v ille .4 His system is preserved in s ix

se t classes. When taught by h is most dedicated d is c ip le s these

classes remain b a s ic a lly the same from year to year.

Dancers who tr a in a t a v a r ie ty o f schools and w ith d iffe r e n t

teachers o fte n fin d c o n tra s tin g methods o f in s tru c tio n s tim u la tin g

1Anderson, op. c i t . , p. 64.

2lo c . c i t . , p. 145.

3ib id .

4lo c . c i t . , p. 46.

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 13

and h e lp fu l. However, i t is believed by T e rry 1 th a t studying

w ith in an in d iv id u a l method may be an e x c e lle n t way f o r some

students to t r a in . These systems encourage and produce in d iv id u a lit y .

On the other hand, in studying on ly one system, those who do not

possess a n a tu ra l d riv e and im agination may not achieve the

q u a litie s e sse n tia l to become a professional dancer. Such q u a litie s

in c lu d e , among o th e rs, the need to be daring and experim enting, and

by being exposed to more than one system these q u a litie s may be

achieved. Although b a lle t technique is f a i r l y standard; the

d iffe r e n t methods o f teaching i t may mean th a t the s ty le might

vary. Students have in d iv id u a l needs which can be accommodated in

some systems b e tte r than in o th ers.

Of course, i t is not possible fo r every b a lle t student to

tr a in in a s p e c ific method. Although these methods are well-known

and widespread throughout the w o rld , they are not a v a ila b le everywhere.

The student then faces the task o f fin d in g an adequate in s tr u c to r .

Few states re q u ire lic e n s in g and those th a t do are concerned b a s ic a lly

w ith the physical f a c i l i t i e s o f the s tu d io . The law has no

p rovisions fo r the requirements o f b a lle t in s tr u c to r s ; anyone is

allowed to teach b a lle t. U n fo rtu n a te ly , people who have not had

adequate tra in in g themselves or do not have the proper understanding

o f b a lle t technique teach in th is f i e l d . I t is not unusual to fin d

these people teaching b a lle t in t h e ir homes on a cement o r t i l e

^ e r r y , op. c i t . , p. 148.

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 f lo o r which is a com pletely u n suitab le medium in regard to the

sa fe ty o f the dancer's body. W ithout proper guidance, the uninformed

student may f a l l in to the hands o f these cha rlata ns.

A workable procedure is f o r the student to study where

professio nal b a lle t dancers receive t h e ir t r a in in g . 1 In a small

community, i f p o ssib le , the student should study a t the lo c a l

studios where professionals stop to "take c la s s " w h ile on to u r.

Regional b a lle t companies, which are products o f lo c a l dance

s tu d io s , form the regional b a lle t associations and perform in

annual b a lle t fe s tiv a ls . By attend ing these fe s tiv a ls the student

is exposed to the strengths and lim ita tio n s o f t h e ir lo c a l b a lle t

sch o o ls.2

However, some fin e b a lle t teachers are in te re s te d only in

teaching and not the o rgan ization o f a b a lle t company. The student

must v i s i t the schools in the area to fin d the knowledgeable and

dedicated teacher. As a g u id e lin e , the student should look a t the

progress made by the graduates o f the scho ol.

Even when the student fin d s a q u a lifie d in s tr u c to r w ith whom

to stud y, he re a liz e s th a t th is is only a stepping stone to the

mastery o f his a r t . 2 Whether he studies w ith in a s tru c tu re d system

o r w ith an independent teacher, c e rta in q u a litie s cannot be tau gh t.

I f the b a lle t steps mastered in the classroom are going to have

lib i d.

Z fe rry, op. c i t . , p. 155.

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 15

meaning on stage they must be tre a te d lik e "movement w o rd s ".1

The motions o f the body must have meaning. Eloquence is given to

otherw ise meaningless steps by c o lo r, s tre s s , accent, tim in g ,

sharpness, so ftn e ss, flow ingness, speed and placement o f the

head and limbs among o th e r c h a r a c te r is tic s .2

The key word in b a lle t technique is s ty le ; s ty le is what

d is tin g u is h e s the pro fe ssio n a l dancer from the amateur. I t is the

q u a lity possessed by the dancer to dazzle the audience. Some

b e lie ve i t to be almost magical and c a ll i t a r t i s t r y . 3 Although i t

can be nutured, the basic p o te n tia l is in n a te ; f o r th is reason, no

two b a lle rin a s ever dance in the same manner.4 Innate p o te n tia l is

also re fle c te d in the s tu d e n t's dance tr a in in g . I t is th is p o te n tia l

and tr a in in g which helps them develop t h e ir unique s ty le o f dance.

A c la s s ic a l ro le makes spe cial a r t i s t i c demands on the

b a lle rin a . There is an unending v a rie ty o f po ssible in te rp re ta tio n s

in a c la s s ic a l b a lle t. The a r t i s t i c dancer does not perm it the

ro le to become a standard serie s o f step s. Each step becomes a p a rt

o f the character in the ro le . This is unique w ith every dancer.

I t is s ty le which gives a c la s s ic a l b a lle t i t s beauty and meaning.5

1ib id .

2i b id .

3i b id .

4lo c . c i t . , p. 157.

5i b id .

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 With th is aspect o f s ty le in mind, i t is im portant fo r the

dancer to remember th a t although he can tr a in w ith in an e x c e lle n t

method and w ith a q u a lifie d and knowledgeable in s tr u c to r , his

success in the performance aspect o f c la s s ic a l b a lle t is la rg e ly

determined by his hard work and special t a le n t s . 1

The purpose o f th is chapter was to review studies and

lit e r a t u r e in th is f i e l d as w e ll as render a b r ie f h is to r ic a l

overview o f b a lle t. The la t t e r was achieved, the form er was not

because only a lim ite d number o f studies were found. However, th is

i t s e l f is an im portant discovery in d ic a tin g perhaps more should be

done and th is poses a question f o r us to ponder, "Why ha ven't more

studies been w ritte n in regard to these h ig h ly respected methods o f

dance?"

1i b i d .

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 CHAPTER I I I

THE CECCHETTI METHOD OF CLASSICAL BALLET

Enrico Cecchetti was born in Rome on June 21, 1850. His

parents were dancers and saw to i t th a t he began h is dance tra in in g

a t an e a rly age. As a student o f Giovanni L e p ri, who had studied

under Carlo B la s is , Cecchetti developed a b r i l l i a n t technique.

During h is career as a perform er, C ecchetti was popular throughout

Europe and was successful in both La Scala and London. He was

e s p e c ia lly noted fo r h is v ir t u o s ity w ith p iro u e tte s . I t was in

1887 when C ecchetti appeared a t the M ariinsky Theatre in St.

Petersburg (now the K irov Theatre in Leningrad) th a t he created

the ro le s o f B lu e b ird and Carabosse in Tchaikovsky's The Sleeping

Beauty. 1

C ecchetti was the p rin c ip a l teacher o f the Im perial Russian

B a lle t and i t s a f f il i a t e d school from 1890 through 1902. I t was

here where he taught Olga Prebrajenska, Tamara Karsavina and Vaslav

N ijin s k y . C ecchetti was the o f f i c i a l in s tr u c to r o f the D iaghilev

B a lle t Russe from 1910 to 1918 but b r ie f ly l e f t the company in 1913

to to u r w ith h is famed p u p il, Anna Pavlova. He and h is w ife , the

dancer Giuseppina de M aria, opened a school in London in 1918.

Among t h e ir p u p ils were A lic ia Markova and Serge Li fa r . He then

1,1C e cch e tti, E n ric o ." Encyclopedia Americana, V I, 1977.

17

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 18

d ire c te d the b a lle t school a t La Seal a from 1925 u n t il his death

on November 13, 1928.1

The Cecchetti Method o f C lassical B a lle t was o r ig in a lly

formed in London, England as the C ecchetti S ociety Branch o f the

Im perial s o cie ty o f Teachers o f Dancing. The Cecchetti Method o f

C lassical B a lle t, as we know i t in the United S ta te s, was formed in

1939. This was a r e s u lt o f a d iv is io n o f the Michigan Chapter o f

Dance Masters o f America in to an org a n iza tio n dedicated to main­

ta in in g the standards and methods o f b a lle t tr a in in g esta blishe d by

Enrico C e c c h e tti.2

The Cecchetti Method o f C lassical B a lle t organizes C e c c h e tti's

teachings and w ritin g s in to a sequence o f grades which are c a r e fu lly

measured as to the degree o f d i f f i c u l t y and physical development.

I t provides a system o f accredited examinations to te s t the s tu d e n t's

p ro fic ie n c y w ith in these grades. The Cecchetti Council o f America

bases it s s y lla b i on those o f the Cecchetti S ociety Branch o f the

Im perial S ociety o f Teachers o f Dancing located in London, England.

The Michigan org a n iza tio n was the f i r s t s ta te s o c ie ty to sponsor a

b a lle t committee w ith a r ig id system o f teaching and exam ination.3

Anna Pavlova was the most famous pupil o f Enrico C ecch etti.

1i bi d.

2_________ , "Meet The C ecchetti Council o f America." Dance

Magazine, XLII (October 1968), 68.

3ib id .

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 She is considered the model student by the Cecchetti C o u n c il.1

Pavlova2 speaks o f Enrico Cecchetti in th is manner:

"The fe e lin g o f deep g ra titu d e I have fo r what you have

taught me is blended w ith my love and respect f o r your
p e rs o n a lity .

In an age when people no longer understand th a t to

teach others i t is necessary f i r s t to work hard and long
o n e s e lf, and to have an actual experience o f the stage;
when by the a id o f s e lf-a d v e rtis e m e n t anyone can take the
name o f "p ro fe s s o r"; when schools are opened a t random
where p u p ils are taught anything except the a r t o f dancing -
you, w ith i n f i n i t e patience and lo v in g care, have honestly
and modestly pursued the great work o f in c lu c a tin g your
p u p ils w ith the covenants o f tru e a r t.

When you fin is h e d your b r i l l i a n t career as the f i r s t

dancer o f your day, you devoted your l i f e to the d i f f i c u l t
a r t o f teaching o th e rs , and w ith what proud s a tis fa c tio n
you can now look round, f o r , in every p a rt o f the w orld ,
n e a rly a ll who have made a name fo r themselves in
choreography a t the present time have passed through your
hands. I f your goddess, Terpsichore, is s t i l l in our m id s t,
you, by r ig h t , are her favored High P r ie s t."

The p r in c ip le o b je c tiv e o f The Cecchetti Method is to create

high standards in the tra in in g o f students f o r c la s s ic a l b a l le t . 3

I t endeavors to reduce the dancer's tra in in g to an exact science

by imposing a form ula , evolved over the ye a rs, to t r a in the dancer.

Proper tr a in in g in the Cecchetti system w i l l co n d itio n the dancer

to w ithsta nd the pressures o f p u b lic performance. I t w i l l also

strengthen the dancer's muscles, tendons and nerves to re a d ily

respond to the requirements o f the choreographer.

^ a c s te r , Olga, The Master o f the Russian B a lle t. New York:

E. P. Dutton and Company, 1923. p. 4.

2i b i d.

3Beaumont, op. c i t . , p. 1.

‘M bid.

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 The Cecchetti Method is an u n a lte ra b le regime in which each

day o f the week has i t s own p a r tic u la r se t o f e xe rcises. This

ensures th a t a l l types o f steps are r e lig io u s ly p ra c tic e d in a

planned sequence. The muscles o f the body are toned to a c a r e fu lly

c a lcu la te d degree by p ro p e rly s tre tc h in g and c o n tra c tin g each set

o f muscles. Exercises are always executed to the l e f t as w e ll as

the r ig h t , beginning w ith the r ig h t side one week and the l e f t side

the next. There is no v a ria tio n to th is p ra c tic e .

H ilda Butsova,1 a student o f Enrico C ecchetti comments,

'The sequence escapes me, but I th in k i t was a lle g ro on

Mondays, beginning w ith assembles f r o n t , back e tc e te ra ;
je t£ s on Tuesdays; beats on Wednesdays; p iro u e tte s on
Thursdays, center barre w ith big jumps and p o in te work.
We had p o inte work every day a t center o r barre and wore
pointe shoes a ll the tim e. S o ft shoes were considered
'men's shoes'. I lik e d Wednesdays and avoided p iro u e tte
days. C ecchetti would say, 'Butsova, I n o tic e th a t
Thursdays you always have something the m atter w ith y o u .'
But I s t i l l got away w ith i t .

His center work was tendus, ronds de jambe; frappes

done sixte e n tim es; p o rt de bras w ith battem ents. The
p o rt de bras was from B ournonville or V e s tris upon whom
he enlarged. Cecchetti was not a gre a t in n o v a to r. I t
was his d is c ip lin e a"d his being such a p e r fe c tio n is t
th a t made him g re a t. I f one did thin gs hard enough and
long enough, they worked fo r you ."

In The Cecchetti Method o f C lassical B a lle t the student is

taught to th in k o f the movement o f the fo o t, arm, leg and head in

re la tio n s h ip to the e n tire body, not as a separate movement. This

develops a fe e lin g fo r the c o rre c t body alignm ent. C y ril W. Beaumont,2

b u ts o v a , H ild a , "C e c c h e tti." Dance Magazine, XLIV (November

1972), 68.

2op. c i t .

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 21

b a lle t h is to ria n and e xp e rt in the Cecchetti system, describes The

C ecchetti Method as

" . . . c la s s ic in its p u r ity and c le a r-c u t s ty le ; i t is

c la s s ic in i t s strenuous o p positio n to a l l extravagance
and fussiness o f movement; i t is c la s s ic in i t s in s is te n c e
on the importance o f lin e . "

The C ecchetti Method contains an e n tire vocabulary o f movement.

The student should not learn to dance by tr y in g to im ita te the

movements o f his te a c h e r.1 The C ecchetti Method demands th a t the

student lea rn to dance through studying basic p rin c ip le s governing

the a r t . This re quire s c o n s is te n t a ttitu d e s o f personal and

professio nal in t e g r it y on the p a rt o f the in s tr u c to r .

Although Cecchetti in s is te d upon his s t r i c t program o f d a ily

p ra c tic e , he advocated th a t each day the lesson be follow ed w ith

studying unseen enchainment composed by the in s tr u c to r . This w i l l

develop the s tu d e n t's q u ick-stud y a b ilijt y in regard to new steps

and enchainment.2

Many dancers b e lie ve th a t p ra c tic in g a c e rta in s e t o f exercises

each day o f the week can be s o u l-d e s tro y in g and the student may

lose in te r e s t. The advocates o f The Cecchetti Method re p ly to th is

question by asking i f a student attends class in order to amuse

h im se lf and be e n te rta in e d by the teacher, o r whether he is ta kin g

^ o c . c i t . , p. 2.

2ib id .

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 classes fo r the sole purpose o f le a rn in g to dance. Just as i t is

v it a l to the musician to p ra c tic e scales and exercises d a ily , they

be lie ve i t is v it a l to the dancer to tone h is body w ith d a ily

regimens. The planned ph ysical development o f the student is a

concern o f The C ecchetti Method. I t o ffe rs the teacher a completely

balanced and analyzed system o f theory and execution o f b a lle t

te c h n iq u e .1 Those who espouse the Cecchetti system b e lie ve th a t

others who claim to be able to t r a in a dancer through "in te n s iv e

tr a in in g " over a s h o rt pe riod o f tim e are deceiving the student.

Those who b e lie ve in The C ecchetti Method th in k th a t "the dancer

is t r u ly born o f t o i l , te a r and s w e a t."2

The dancer cannot dance u n til he has forged a body instrum ent

com pletely s u ite d to his a r t . I t is f o r th is purpose th a t Cecchetti

devised his serie s o f adages. These adages are extremely d i f f i c u l t

and designed to produce expression in b a lle t technique. I t is not

u n til the dancer can perform these movements as second nature th a t

he w i l l dance w ith expression and the tru e q u a lity o f s ty le as we

be lie ve were envisioned by C e c c h e tti.3

The C ecchetti Method o f C lassical B a lle t is composed o f seven

grades c o n s is tin g o f fo u r c h ild re n 's grades and three professional

1 , C ecchetti Council o f America. Inform ation

Pamphlet. M ichigan, 1978, p. I .

2lo c . c i t . , p. 3.

3op. c i t .

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 23

grades (Elementary, Interm ediate and Advanced). The Cecchetti

Council o f America is governed by an Executive Board which operates

w ith in a framework to adm inister and advise i t s committee areas,

e s ta b lis h c r it e r ia fo r teacher p a rtic ip a tio n and student progress

and to ensure informed teaching p ra c tic e s . The Executive Board

con sists o f ten Charter Members, the Chairman o f the General Board

who is ele cted by the General Board Members, the J u n io r Branch

Chairman and two E le c tiv e Board Members who are elected by the

Executive Board from the Associated "A" members.

There are branch committees in Ohio, Texas, I l l i n o i s ,

Washington, D.C., Pennsylvania, Northern and Southern C a lifo rn ia .

The Cecchetti C o u n cil's a c t iv it ie s encompass fiv e major regions o f

the United States and are represented by the fo llo w in g committees:

East Coast, South East, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Western Michigan, Mid­

w est, South West, Northern and Southern C a lifo rn ia .

The Council is responsible fo r the tri-a n n u a l examinations in

the D e tro il area as w e ll as in various committee areas. Candidates

fo r teacher examinations are accepted only a ft e r in te n s iv e study

and tr a in in g and upon the recommendation o f a sponsor. When students

are pro p e rly prepared, they are presented fo r examinations by th e ir

teachers. In a d d itio n , T ra in in g Courses are c o n tin u a lly held

throughout the year by the Branch Committee and the Executive Board.

The C ecchetti Council o ffe rs a wide program o f p u b lic a tio n s ,

re fre s h e r courses and b a lle t conferences.

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 C y ril W. Beaumont1 gives his account o f The Cecchetti Method

o f C lassical B a lle t as fo llo w s :

" I be lie ve the Cecchetti system to be i n f a l l i b l e and

physicians have t e s t if ie d to the soundness o f i t s
anatomical p rin c ip le s . Given a s u ita b le body, i t w i l l ,
in the course o f a few ye a rs, change the neophyte in to a
s k ille d dancer endowed w ith a l l o f the desireable
q u a litie s I have already c ite d , provided it s p rin c ip le s
are follow ed w ith care and a tte n tio n . But, as in a ll
walks o f education teachers vary. I t is not enough to
have the necessary th e o re tic a l and p ra c tic a l knowledge,
one must know how to im part i t and possess the experience
and ta s te to adapt i t when the student f a l l s s h o rt o f
the required standard physique."

Although The Cecchetti Method o f C lassical B a lle t had it s

o rig in s in London, England, the p o p u la rity o f th is system has

caused i t to spread throughout the w orld. I t is not unusual to

fin d th is method p ro fe s s io n a lly taught in the sm a lle st o f c it ie s .

1ib id .

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 CHAPTER IV

THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF DANCE

The Royal Academy o f Dance is an examining body concerned w ith

c re a tin g in te rn a tio n a l standards o f b a lle t tra in in g so th a t a high

standard o f teaching may be ensured and m aintained. To achieve

th is end, the Academy has developed graded s y lla b i f o r students

in a d d itio n to methods o f in s tr u c tio n and exam ination. I t is not

a s ty le o f dance, but ra th e r a system atic approach to the study o f

b a l le t . 1 The Royal Academy o f Dance is a comprehensive method o f

teaching which encompasses the best o f the Russian, Danish, French

and I t a lia n schools.

The Royal Academy o f Dance was founded in London, England, in

1920, by P. J. S. Richardson, E. Espinosa and Dame Adeline Genee.

I t was then known as the A ssociatio n o f O peratic Dancing o f Great

B r ita in . A small committee was formed o f repre senta tives o f the

Russian, French and It a lia n schools. P h y llis Bedells represented

the obscure English school. The f i r s t examination was devised from

t h e ir knowledge.2

In 1936, the A ssociation was granted a Royal C harter and

subsequently became The Royal Academy o f Dance. The Academy's

^ o e l , op. c i t . , p. 30.

2Gordon, Kathleen, "F o o tp rin ts in the Sands o f Times." Dancing

Times, LVII (August 1965), p. 570.

25

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 26

f i r s t P resid ent, Dame A deline Genee, resigned in 1954. She was

succeeded by Dame Margot Fonteyn, the c u rre n t P re sid e n t, who

continues to p a rtic ip a te a c tiv e ly in the Academy's w o rk .1

A teacher o f the R.A.D. method can have her tr a in in g from any

system. I t is what the teacher is teaching the students th a t is

the concern o f the Academy. As a member o f the R .A .D ., the teacher

should not shy away from o th e r o rg a n iz a tio n s . Knowledge may be

gained by combining the stre ngths o f the R.A.D. and a system where

se t s y lla b i goals are not e s ta b lis h e d .2

The Royal Academy o f Dance provides Teacher T ra in in g Courses.3

The need fo r an academic tr a in in g course f o r teachers was recognized

by the R.A.D. in 1939. However, the war prevented any a c tio n being

taken u n til years la t e r . In 1946, the Teacher's T ra in in g Course

was founded by Kathleen Gordon, d ir e c to r o f The Royal Academy a t

th a t tim e. Miss Gordon4 speaks o f those beginnings as,

"In the e a rly days everyone was hard up, everyone

q u a rre lle d and according to present day standards t h e ir
work was in c re d ib ly bad. But they were in d iv id u a ls w ith
a g i f t o f la u g h te r and v is io n . On t h e ir arched backs,
knock knees and cramped arms was b u ilt an e d ific e o f
grand de sign."

1J o e l, op. c i t . , p. 31.

2ib id .

3__________ , "Teacher T ra in in g Programs." Dance Magazine,

IL (November 1976), p. 107.

^Gordon, op. c i t . , p. 571.

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 During the 1960's the course was expanded ra p id ly under the

d ire c tio n o f L ilia n Chariesworth and K eith Le nte r. They la id the

foundations fo r the approach th a t is c u rre n tly enforced. Entrants

are accepted by a u d itio n and in te rv ie w where they are evaluated on

t h e ir a b i l i t y and p o te n tia l as teachers. The student must be a t

le a s t seventeen years o f age and must hold a R.A.D. Elementary

C e r tific a te . This course extends over a period o f three years.

Students complete re quire d courses during the f i r s t two years and

during the t h ir d year the student has a choice o f three subjects

out o f s i x . 1

Students spend approxim ately fo u r hours in dance classes and

two hours in le c tu re s and seminars each day. In the t h ir d y e a r,

students are assigned to a school a t which they complete t h e ir

requirement fo r p ra c tic e teaching. In order to s a t is f a c t o r ily

complete th is course, students must pass w ritte n and/or o ra l exam­

in a tio n s in the fo llo w in g areas: the teaching o f the R.A.D.

s y lla b u s , anatomy and ph ysiolog y, dance h is to r y , f o lk dance,

choreography fo r c h ild re n and educational th e o ry. In a d d itio n , the

student must a tta in the Interm ediate C e r tific a te o f the R.A.D. before

graduation. The curriculum leading to the Teacher T ra in in g Course

diploma also includes la b a n o ta tio n , costuming, movement a n a ly s is ,

re p e rto ry , music and com position, modern dance, ja z z and ballroom .

^ p . c it.

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 28

To achieve permission to use the le tte r s L.R.A.D. (L ic e n tia te Royal

Academy o f Dance) the student who has passed the course must apply

to the Executive Committee. These in s tru c to rs are now q u a lifie d by

The Royal Academy o f Dance to teach w ith in the system .1

The a c t iv it ie s o f the Academy are concerned w ith both the

pro fe ssio n a l and amateur dancer. The professional a c t iv it ie s deal

w ith young people who are s e rio u s ly studying b a lle t w ith dance

career o b je ctive s as a dancer, teacher, o r choreographer. These

students who are s e rio u s ly tra in in g , work w ith in the framework o f

the courses o f study o u tlin e d in the R.A.D. s y lla b u s . This in tu rn

w i l l prepare them f o r examination. The Major Examinations are

d ivid e d in to fo u r stages o f graded c la s s ific a tio n : Elementary,

In te rm e d ia te , Advanced and Solo Seal. Separate s y lla b i are studied

by boys and g i r l s . There is also a s im ila r series o f teacher

exam inations.2

Another aspect o f the Academy's professional a c tiv it ie s is the

R.A.D. Production Club. This club gives students th e ir f i r s t

o p p o rtu n ity to show th e ir choreographic work in a th e a tre . John

Cranko, Robert Helpmann, M eriel Evans and F e lic ity Gray choreographed

t h e ir f i r s t b a lle ts fo r the Production C lu b .3

^ ‘ b id .

2Reid, Helen Wicks, "An American Teacher Views The Royal

Academy o f Dancing." Dance Magazine, XXXIV (December 1960), p. 64.

3__________ , "Teacher T ra in in g Programs." Dance Magazine,

L (January 1977), p. 105.

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 The R.A.D. course f o r R etired P rofessionals is designed fo r

the professio nal dancer who has given up h is perform ing career.

The syllabu s is geared f o r those who wish to channel the experience

and s k i l l gained through perform ing in to the teaching o f dance.

These p a rtic ip a n ts study dance h is to r y , n o ta tio n , music and business,

in a d d itio n to the b a lle t s y lla b i. Candidates must now pass a

complete s e t o f c h ild re n 's and p ro fe ssio n a l s y lla b i. These s y lla b i

may be o f the R.A.D. system o r The C ecchetti Method o f C lassical

B a lle t. This course is a s ix month in te n s iv e program where the

student works in the s tu d io from 10:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. d a ily and

p ra ctice s teaching from 5:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m. Oral and p ra c tic a l

examinations in c la s s ic a l b a lle t are given as w e ll as o ra l and

w ritte n exams in anatomy and dance h is to ry which must be s a t is f a c t o r ily

completed to receive the course d ip lo m a .1

The amateur a c t iv it ie s o f the Academy are concerned w ith

c h ild re n and young people who study b a lle t but have no in te n tio n o f

making i t t h e ir professio n. " B a lle t in Education" is designed fo r

ch ild re n who study dance once o r tw ice a week w ith a lo c a l dance

teacher. This syllabus has been c a r e fu lly designed to give the

c h ild a basic vocabulary o f steps and to make use o f them in simple

dances. The required technique and the dances taught are system ati­

c a lly b u i lt up from a prim ary class (ages s ix to seven) through grades

1ib i d .

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 30

one to fiv e (ages fourteen to s ix te e n ). These grades are based

according to a b i l i t y as w e ll as age. Dancing is a m u ltifa c e te d

a r t , c lo s e ly lin k e d to music and drama. For th is reason, " B a lle t

in Education" includes a musical analysis and in te rp r e ta tio n and

studies in mime. In th is s y lla b u s , the system is c le a rly defined

and the grading is uniform throughout the w o rld .1

There e x is ts a separate syllabu s fo r boys c a lle d "Dancing

f o r Ju n io r B oys".2 This sylla b u s encompasses ages nine to th irte e n

and is taught in some general education schools as w e ll as b a lle t

s tu d io s . This syllabus has been e ffe c tiv e in developing concen­

t r a t io n , co o rd in a tio n o f thought and movement, quickness o f response

and improvement in s p o rtin g a c t i v i t i e s . 3

" B a lle t in F urther Education" is a syllabu s devised fo r

teenagers and young working people who wish to continue in th e ir

study o f b a lle t . 4

Another amateur a c t iv it y o f the Academy is the R.A.D. program

o f b a lle t tra in in g designed e s p e c ia lly f o r a th le te s . In 1954, the

Whip and C arrot Club (the B r itis h high jumpers club o f the Amateur

A th le tic s A sso cia tio n ) approached the Academy f o r advice. A fte r

Claude Newman o f the Academy presented the Club w ith a le c tu re

^ p . c it.

2lo c . c i t . , p. 65.

3ibid.

4ib id .

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 31

dem onstration, a discussion was held between lea ding a th le te s o f

the A.A.A. and leading dancers o f the R.A.D. As a r e s u lt , in 1955,

a committee o f a th le te s and dancers was formed to provide a se rie s

o f b a lle t ic exercises f o r a th le te s . This is now a p a rt o f the

R.A.D. s y lla b u s .1

Margot Fonteyn,3 P resident o f The Royal Academy o f Dance,

speaks o f the Academy in th is manner,

" I t was because my Mother cared about b a lle t and wanted me

to study th a t she took me, when I was s ix , to study w ith a
teacher who had her s tu d io a t the very corner o f the s tre e t
in E aling where we then liv e d . This lady (Grace Bosutow)
happened to be a R.A.D. teacher - a member o f The Royal
Academy o f Dancing - and, since my Mother arranged f o r me
to have a weekly p riv a te c la s s , a t which she s a t in , as
w e ll as the Saturday morning group class - Mother was very
w e ll aware o f what I was le a rn in g .

In my own case, I was e ig h t when my fa th e r 's work as

an engineer o f the China O rganization o f the B ritish -A m e rica n
Tobacco Company took us - my p a re n ts, my b ro th e r and me - to
the O rie n t. For s ix years we liv e d in China - T ie n ts in ,
Hong Kong and Shanghai. (We went by way o f the U .S ., and I
even went to school f o r a sh o rt w h ile in L o u is v ille , Kentucky.)
Mother, determined th a t I go on w ith my b a lle t s tu d y , took
me to every b a lle t teacher she could fin d during those China
yea rs. And she yanked me out o f each school a f t e r ju s t one
or two lessons. I f the teacher perm itted me to m t w eight
on the insides o f my arches o r to s i t back in p lie o r k ic k
w ith an uneven h ip , Mother knew immediately t h is was not the
kind o f c o rre c t tr a in in g I should be having. E v e n tu a lly ,
and fo r tu n a te ly , she found w e ll-tr a in e d Russian teachers
w ith whom I was p e rm itte d to study. But ju s t the same, when

^ o e l , op. c i t . , p. 52.

2Browne, Louise, "The Royal Academy o f Dancing." Dance

Magazine, XL (December 1966), p. 68.

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 32
Mother wanted to know how w e ll I was doing, she brought me
back to London, when I was tw elve , to be tested by a R.A.D.
examiner. I was fourteen when we returned to London
permanently. And a t f if t e e n I was a t the S a d le r's Wells
School, where, o f course, I continued to take my R.A.D. exams.

But i f there h a d n 't been a way to measure my a p titu d e and

tra in in g during those y e a rs , I fe e l q u ite sure I would not be
a dancer today. And q u ite p o ssib ly those e a rly years o f
e r r a tic tra in in g have been the reason fo r a ll my weaknesses
as a dancer. My fe e t are s t i l l not very good, you know."

The Royal Academy o f Dance began in London, England and has

now expanded i t headquarters to include Europe as w e ll as the

United S tates. This method is recognized as a respected form o f

b a lle t tra in in g wherever i t is taught.

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 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND EVALUATION

There are many advantages to studying w ith in any o f the

s p e c ific methods o f c la s s ic a l b a lle t. The system i t s e l f provides

graded classes which allows c h ild re n to p ro p e rly begin w ith the

most elementary aspects o f technique and progress to the professional

le v e l o f dancing. As the student gains s tre n g th , the system

provides more d i f f i c u l t p o rts de bras, adage, and enchainments

which may reveal his ta le n t and allow him to be passed on fo r

fu r th e r tr a in in g .

The fa c t th a t the dancers o f a p a r tic u la r school tend to move

s im ila r ily can be considered a stre n g th o r a weakness. I t proves

to be an obvious asset to corps de b a lle t members, w h ile to achieve

solo sta tu s the dancer must develop and show an in d iv id u a l s t y le . 1

B a lle t technique must be a means to an end, not an end in

its e lf. Technique is needed in order to have a vocabulary o f

movement. I t w i l l help the student acquire the ease o f execution

and possible v ir t u o s it y . The u ltim a te goal in a c q u irin g technical

s k i l l s is not to pass te ch n ic a l examinations imposed by a method

but to acquire a s k i l l so great th a t the audience is unaware o f the

te c h n ic a l s k i l l s but only o f grace and beauty. "To make a fe tis h

^ e r r y , op. c i t . , p. 136.

33

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 o f te ch n ica l ru le s and impose them r i g i d l y is to misunderstand

com pletely the purpose o f te c h n iq u e .1,1

The two systems which th is study deals w ith are The Cecchetti

Method o f C lassical B a lle t and The Royal Academy o f Dance. These

two methods can be evaluated in terms o f t h e ir strengths and

lim ita tio n s by the ch e ck-1 is t which appears on the fo llo w in g page.

The Cecchetti Method o f C la ssica l B a lle t is an e x c e lle n t

approach to the teaching o f c la s s ic a l b a l le t . 2 The c h ie f strength

o f The Cecchetti Method is it s s c ie n t if ic approach to b a lle t

technique and it s a b i l i t y to b u ild s tre n g th and c o n tro l. The most

im portant aspect in the e a rly stages o f b a lle t tr a in in g is the

c o rre c t alignm ent o f the body, re fe rre d to as "placem ent".3

W ithout proper placement, balance and ease o f execution are im possible

The Cecchetti Method is a com pletely balanced and analyzed system

o f theory and execution in regard to the tra in in g o f c la s s ic a l

b a lle t.

However, i t is im portant to remember th a t although Enrico

Ceccheu*1' h im se lf was an in s p ire d m aster, he is no longer w ith us

to elaborate on h is p rin c ip le s o f teaching. They have been passed

on by h is former p u p ils and through various te x t books.

^ a r a , T h a lia , "C ecchetti I s n 't E ve ryth in q ." Dance Maqazine,

XXVII (August 1953), p. 36.

2Beaumont, op. c i t . , p. 1.

3lo c . c i t . , p. 37.

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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

A COMPARISON OF THE CECCHETTI METHOD OF CLASSICAL BALLET AND THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF DANCE

Clieck-List

The Cecch e tti Method of C lassical B a lle t The Royal Academy o f Dance

Purpose: To achieve high standards o f teaching Purpose: Same

c la ssica l b a lle t; to create an in te rn a tio n a l
standard o f b a lle t.

Method: Based on the teaching p rin c ip le s o f one Method: Encompasses the Russian, Danish, French,
man, Enrico C ecchetti. and Ita lia n schools.

O rganization: S p e cific s y lla b i divided in to grades Organization: Same

w ith respect to physical development o f the c h ild
and degree o f technical d if f i c u l t y .

T ra in in g : Trains dancer's body from beginning to T ra in in g : Trains dancer's body from beginning
advanced stages, s t r i c t schedule o f routine to advanced stages, some "s e t" combinations,
combinations, s p e c ific exercises each day. others l e f t to d is c re tio n o f In s tru c to r; tones
the body o f the re tire d p ro fe ssio n a l, once-a-
week dancer and the a th le te .

Examinations: Separate examinations fo r students Examinations: Separate examinations fo r students

(fo u r c h ild re n 's grades, three professional grades) and (Elementary, Interm ediate, Advanced, Solo Seal)
teachers (divided same as student's grades, however, and teachers (set fo rth by the Teacher T raining
teachers need pass only student grade fo r the grade Course, teacher must f i r s t pass Intermediate
which they are taking the teacher's examination, not stu de nt's syllabus)
the e n tire set o f student's grades)

Career: Directed toward the student who wishes to Career: Provides fo r the student who wishes to
pursue dance as a career. pursue dance as a career, the once-a-week student,
re tire d p ro fessio na ls, a th le te s , choregraphers.

Teacher T ra inin g: Workshops fo r updating c e r tific a tio n . Teacher T ra in in g : Three year Teacher T raining Course.

Governance o f Examinations: The Cecchetti C ouncil; Governance o f Examinations: C ontrolled by

committees: East Coast, South East, Ohio, Pennsylvania, President and board o f examiners.
Western Michigan, Mid West, South West, Northern and
Southern C a lifo rn ia .

OJ
cn
 36

R ea lizin g th a t no p u p il, no m a tter how close he is to the master

is ever a carbon copy, we understand th a t what the teacher is

presenting is h is in te rp r e ta tio n o f what the master ta u g h t.1

Some p u p ils never a tta in a re a l understanding o r knowledge o f the

m aster's teachings; others achieve a g re a te r v ir t u o s it y in the a r t .

I t can never be the same th in g because i t is colored by a d iffe r e n t

understanding, fe e lin g , and v ie w p o in t.2 T h ere fore , the students

o f C e c c h e tti's fo llo w e rs might not receive the o r ig in a l concept

o f C e c c h e tti's technique but a v a r ia tio n . This is a d e fin ite

lim ita tio n as the system provides only view points o f C e c c h e tti's

actual teachings.

Although C ecchetti has recorded some o f his p rin c ip le s o f

te a ch in g , a te x t can only se t fo r th a concept o f b a lle t movement.

I t cannot b rin g fo r th the fe e lin g behind the movement o r the s ty le

w ith which the movement is intended to be performed. I f the teacher

attempts to s t r i c t l y fo llo w the system "to the l e t t e r " he becomes

bond by c e rta in imposed ru le s and be lieves any d e v ia tio n is wrong.

Using w ritte n m a te ria l as a prime source, i t is d i f f i c u l t to re a liz e

the m aster's tru e in te n tio n . "For what is im portant in teaching

b a lle t technique is not to have memorized a se rie s o f s e t exercises

but to understand the p rin c ip le s o f body placement and the fu n c tio n a l

1op. c i t . , p. 36.

2ib id .

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 exe rcise s, and to know t h e ir purpose and v a lu e ."1 Therefore, the

teacher can ju s t l y teach an exercise se t by someone else or can

compose one o f h is own. I f these exercises are taught w ith o u t the

basic understanding o f the p rin c ip le s o f b a lle t i t makes fo r

r i g i d i t y o f movement and a lack o f f l u i d i t y and spontaneity o f

movement.2

In comparison, a stre ngth o f The Royal Academy o f Dance is th a t

i t is not based on the teachings o f a p a r tic u la r in d iv id u a l. To

some degree, i t has tr ie d to encompass the Russian, Danish, French

and I t a lia n schools. However, i t takes on i t s own national

c h a ra c te ris tic s . According to Beaumont, a lim it a tio n o f th is system

is th a t the English are more reserved and less emotional and th a t

t h e ir dancers r e f le c t these t r a i t s . 3

The Royal Academy o f Dance is also an e x c e lle n t teaching method.

I t provides the student w ith a system atic approach to the study o f

b a lle t. In a d d itio n , i t focuses on the "once-a-week" dancer, the

a th le te and the r e tir e d pro fe ssio n a l as w e ll as the serious minded

b a lle t student and teacher. Although The Cecchetti Method provides

e x c e lle n t tr a in in g fo r the serious minded dance student and teacher

i t makes no pro visio n s fo r the "once-a-week" dancer, the a th le te

o r the r e tir e d p ro fe s s io n a l.

1i b id .

2ibid.

3lo c . c i t . , p. 37.

'♦Joel, op. c i t . , p. 31.

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 38

The Royal Academy o f Dance has been c r it ic iz e d fo r making a

god o f m e d io c rity .1 Margot Fonteyn,2 the Academy's P resident

s ta te s ,

" I t ' s q u ite po ssible th a t there are students who are not
very g if t e d , but through d ilig e n c e w i l l pass our examina­
tio n s - but a t le a s t ta le n t w i l l not s lip through our
fin g e r s ."

This statem ent could also be made about The C ecchetti Method o f

C la ssica l B a lle t in which the d ilig e n t student may pass the exam­

in a tio n s through sheer determ ination and not have the innate

a b i l i t y to become a pro fe ssio n a l dancer. B ut, ju s t as in The

Royal Academy o f Dance, the value in any method used is th a t the

ta le n te d dancer w i l l be recognized.

Both systems can be commended f o r t h e ir e f f o r t in keeping

t h e ir s y lla b i up -to -d a te w ith respect to the c u rre n t s ty le o f

b a lle t technique. B a lle t is an ever growing a r t w ith an ever

changing s t y l e . 3 The C ecchetti Method Council has re c e n tly

re vise d the s y lla b i and The Royal Academy keeps a close eye on

b a lle t technique throughout the w orld in order to keep s y lla b i

c u rre n t.

However, each system has i t s own basic th e o rie s and practices

through which proper technique is best achieved. The more advanced

student w i l l le a rn , through a re a liz a tio n and understanding o f his

h 'b id .

2ib id .

3ib id .

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 39

own te ch n ica l a b i li t i e s , what methods are the best f o r him.

Butsova1 comments,

"C e c c h e tti's work w asn't good f o r every student. P erso nally,

i t was bad fo r me a t th a t tim e. Everything was p lie u n til
you thought you'd d ie . I t was good f o r Pavlova, who did
not have a s o ft n a tu ra l p li£ ; but f o r me i t overstretched
my knees, and my good jump began to disappear."

The use o f a s tru c tu re d method in the teaching o f c la s s ic a l

b a lle t is a valuable c o n trib u tio n in the f i e l d o f dance e d u ca tio n .2

The in s tru c to rs o f both The Cecchetti Method o f C lassical B a lle t

and The Royal Academy o f Dance attend Teacher T ra in in g Courses

and re fre s h e r courses th a t are provided by the system. In s tru c to rs

are taught in these tra in in g courses to teach w ith in the s p e c ifie d

s y lla b u s . They are kept up -to-date w ith the changes o f the system

through re fre s h e r courses sponsored by the in d iv id u a l co u n c ils .

In s tru c to rs who teach w ith in The C ecchetti Method o f C lassical

B a lle t o r The Royal Academy o f Dance have g re a t f a it h and p rid e in

t h e ir systems. Jane Caryl M i l l e r , 3 one o f the C o u n cil's leaders

s ta te s , " I f we d id n 't believe i t was a good system we w o u ld n 't have

stayed w ith i t a ll these y e a rs ." Ruth Carney,4 a member o f the

Cecchetti Council says, "The Cecchetti system is valuable in it s

b u ts o v a , op. c i t . , p. 68.

2i bi d.

in te r v ie w w ith Jane Caryl M ille r , January 23, 1979.

^ In te rv ie w w ith Ruth Carney, January 23, 1979.

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 tra in in g o f C h ild re n ." Elaine K e lle r, 1 the executive secretary

o f the U.S. Branch o f The Royal Academy o f Dance b e lie v e s , "It

is d i f f i c u l t to know i t s p o s s ib ilitie s w ith o u t being a member o f

the Academy." Margot Fonteyn,2 s t i l l an a c tiv e member o f the

Academy speaks o f The Royal Academy o f Dance in th is way, " I fin d

the R.A.D. a s o lid and s a tis fy in g s tru c tu re , f le x ib le to the

demands o f time and p la c e ."

In summary, the serious s tu d e n t's choice should be based upon

the degree o f v a ria tio n he hopes to fin d w ith in the actual exercises

o f the system. I f he prefers a s t r i c t and regimented s y lla b i

The Cecchetti Method is best s u ite d fo r him. I f he needs a more

lo o se ly s tru c tu re d system The Royal Academy o f Dance w i l l best

s u it his needs. I f the student desires to learn the technique o f

a master th a t has been passed down from h is d is c ip le s , The

Cecchetti Method is the system th a t w i l l serve th is purpose.

However, i f the student is not contemplating dance as a career,

is a r e tir e d professional o r is an a th le te he should re a liz e th a t

The Royal Academy o f Dance has special programs fo r h is special

in te re s ts . The Cecchetti Method makes no provisions f o r these

students. Therefore, i f a serious student chooses e ith e r The

Cecchetti Method o f C lassical B a lle t o r The Royal Academy o f Dance,

a fte r ca re fu l research, he can be assured th a t the method chosen

1In te rvie w w ith Elaine K e lle r, January 30, 1979.

2J o e l, op. c i t . , 31.

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 41

w i l l provide him w ith e x c e lle n t tr a in in g .

In conclusion, studying w ith in a s p e c ific method can be a

valuable to o l to the dancer w ith a s p ira tio n s o f a p rofessio nal

performing career i f he combines i t w ith a knowledge o f a l l types

o f tr a in in g . I t is believed th a t to l i m i t o n e s e lf to any one o f

the methods and to say th a t " t h is and th is only is c o rre c t o r good"

is a mistake on the p a rt o f both the teacher and the s tu d e n t.1

The dancer o f today must be very strong te c h n ic a lly . P rofessional

com petition is keen and the dancer must be v e r s a tile in s ty le and

movement. The dancer must also have a quick mind to pick up

whatever is demanded o f him by the choreographer. The dancer and

teacher must understand the basic p rin c ip le s o f b a lle t technique

regardless o f the tra in in g method o r the school o f thought.

Therefore, i f a student decides to tr a in w ith in The C ecchetti

Method o f C lassical B a lle t o r The Royal Academy o f Dance, he must

re a liz e th a t there are oth e r methods and he must in t e llig e n t ly

use the best elements o f the chosen system and blend i t w ith other

aspects o f tr a in in g . When a dancer studies a v a rie ty o f methods

and s ty le s he w i l l achieve a knowledge o f the science o f technique

and an understanding o f beauty o f lin e and freedom o f movement.2

I t is a t th is p o in t th a t the dancer w i l l re a liz e the scope o f b a lle t

xMara, op. c i t . , p. 37.

2 ibid.

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 42

technique. He w i l l b u ild an a p p re cia tio n fo r i t s tr a in in g and

re a liz e the f u l l p o te n tia l o f studying w ith in a method geared to

his special needs.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 APPENDIX

Follow ing are copies o f the cover le t t e r s received from the

Cecchetti Council and the London headquarters o f The Royal Academy

o f Dance. A cover l e t t e r was not included w ith the in fo rm a tion

received from the New Jersey headquarters o f The Royal Academy o f

Dance.

43

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 PA TR O N
HER M A J E S T Y T H E Q U E E N
44
PR ES ID EN T
D am e M a rg o t F on teyn
d e A ria s D 8 E The Royal Academy o f Dancing
C H A IR M A N OF
EXECUTIVE C O M M IT T E E
Iv o r G uest. M A. The College
48 Vicarage Crescent SW11 3LT 01 -223 0091 Telegrams Radancing London SW11
PRIN C IP A L Valerie Taylor

Miss B. Ruemenapp, 6th February, 1979.

1116 Summit,
Kalamazoo,
Michigan 49007.

Dear Miss Ruemenapp,

I enclose the information that you require for your

Masters thesis on the Royal Academy of Dancing. I
hope that you will find sufficient material here for
your purpose.

Perhaps you may need further help in which case please

do not hesitate to contact me again.

Yours sincerely,

Valerie Taylor, ARAD.

Principal

VT/hh

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 P r e s id e n t / N a t io n a l P r in c ip a l
JA N E CARYL MILLER
7 7 0 G re c n h ills D riv e
A n n A r b o r , M ic h ig a n 46105
F irs t V ic e - P r e s id e n t/
Cecchetti Council of America 45
S c h o la rs h ip C h a ir m a n
EN ID RICARDEAU
3203 B id d !c
W y a n d o tte , M ic h ig a n 48192
S e c o n d V ic e - P r e s id e n t
M ic h ig a n R e g is tra r
M ARY ELLEN COOPER
22705 E d g e w o o d D riv e
St. C la ir Shores, M ic h ig a n 48080
T h ir d V ic e - P r e s id e n t
V IR C IL IN E S IM M O N S
1128 East M ic h ig a n
Lan sing, M ic h ig a n 48912
F o u rth V ic e - P r e s id e n t
ROSE M ARIE FLOYD
3 2 7 E o st P o rker C-(_
M a d is o n H e ig h ts, M ic h ig a n 4807* c‘ '/ l

• T r e a s u r e r /C o o r d in a to r M S U
SY LVIA HAMER
1742 W e s trid g e
A n n A rb o r, M ic h ig a n 48105
R e c o rd in g S e c re ta ry
KAY BLISS
2 0 C h e stn u t, A p t. 603
W y o n d o tte , M ic h ig a n 48192
C o r r e s p o n d in g S e c re ta ry
BETTY BAND YK
1900 B eaver
D e a rb o rn , M ic h ig a n 48128
P a s t P r e s id e n t
M ARJORIE HASSARD
17725 M o n d e 's o n Rood
D e tro it, M ic h ig a n 48203
C o n fe re n c e P r in c ip a l
JEA N G LO R IA NEWELL
n £
35904 Lyn d o n
L iv o n ia , M ic h ig a n 48154
N a t io n * ! R e g is tra r
E a s te rn U .S .A .
SU ZAN N E GRAY
3882 Kenm ore
B e rk le y, M ic h ig a n 48072
N a tio n a l R e g is tra r
W e s te rn U .S .A .
L IN D A BUTLER
1964 D e tro it
D e a rb o rn , M ic h ig a n 48124
M e m b e r s h ip
KATHLEEN T E N N IS W O O D
19355 M cK in non
R o s e ville , M ic h ig a n 43066
G e n e r a ! B o a rd C h a irm a n
A M Y COOPER IN G H A M
961 W e st A u b u rn
Rochester, M ic h ig a n 48063
E le c tiv e B o a rd M e m b e rs
P u b lic it y
ROSE M AR IE GREGOR
346 90 V e rs a ille s
F a rm in g to n , M ic h ig a n 48024
ESTELLA M O N T IL L O
110 S p ro a t
D e tro it, M ic h ig a n 48201
N a tio n a l J u n i o r B ra n c h
NORETTA D U NW O RTH
232 3 M o n ro e B lvd .
D e a rb o rn , M ic h ig a n 48124
A s s is ta n t R e g is tra r
L E O N A LUCAS
23250 W ils o n
D e a rb o rn , M ic h ig a n 48128
L ib ra ria n
ELEANOR BR O W N
95 0 8 S tephenson Road
O n s te d , M ic h ig a n 49265
A d v is o r y B o a rd
JAC K W . B1CKLE
W in d s o r, O n to r lo , C a n a d a
C H U LA M O R R O W
L ib e rty , M a in e
H o n o r a r y M e m b e rs
MARGARET BROOKS
W o rre n , M ic h ig a n
MARGARET CRASKE
N e w Y o rk , N e w Y o rk
W IL L IA M DO LLAR
F lo u rto w n , P e n n sylva n ia
RITA EMMERSON
M in n is B a y, E n g la n d
KATHLEEN FORBES
N e w Y o rk , N e w Y o rk
M ARGARET MARSH
D ro itw ic h . E n g la n d
M ARY S K E A P IN G
Lon d o n , E n g la n d
PEGGY V A N PRAAGH
M e lb o u rn e , A u s tra lia
LAURA W IL S O N
L o n d o n , E n g la n d

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Anderson, Jack, Dance. New York: Newsweek Books, 1974.

Beaumont, C r y il, A Manual o f the Theory and P ractice o f C lassical

T h e a tric a l Dancing. London: Crossroads P u b lic a tio n s , 1922.

Grant, G a il, Technical Manual and D ic tio n a ry o f C lassical B a lle t.

New York: Dover P u b lic a tio n s , In c ., 1950.

Guest, Iv o r , The Dancers H eritage. Maryland: Penguin Books, In c .,

1962.

Kerensky, Oleg, The World o f B a lle t. New York: Coward-McCann,

I n c . , 1970.

K irs te in , L in c o ln , Dance, A Short H is to ry o f C lassic T h e a tric a l

Dancing, New York: Dance H orizons, 1935.

Krausj R ichard, H is to ry o f Dance. New Jersey: P re n tic e -H a ll,

In c ., 1969.

Racster, Olga, The Master o f the Russian B a lle t . New York:

E. P. Dutton and Company, 1923.

Renya, Ferdinando, A Concise H is to ry o f B a lle t . New York:

Grosset and Dunlap, 1964.

Sore11, W a lte r, The Dance Through the Ages. New York: Grosset
and Dunlap, 1967.

T e rry , W alter, The B a lle t Companion. New York: Dodd, Mead and
Company, 1968.

P e rio d ica ls

B e d e lls, P h y llis , "Why Those F a ilu re s ? ", The Dancing Times, XXXV
(November, 1945), 68-69.

Butsova, H ild a , "C e c c h e tti." Dance Maqazine, XLIV (November 1972).

67-69.

46

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 Browne, Louise, "The Royal Academy o f Dancing." Dance Magazine,
XL (December 1966), 60-66.

Freeman, Frank, "Dancers and Teachers." The Dancing Times, LXVI

(May 1976), 412-413.

Grant, Freda, "For the "Grades." The Dancing Times, XXX (December
TO A f\\ 1 7 7
t j 9 i I CC •

Gordon, Kathleen, "F o o tp rin ts in the Sands o f Tim e." The Dancing
Times, L V III (August 1968), 570-571.

J o e l, Lydia, "Tested and Found Not W anting." Dance Magazine,

X L III (J u ly 1969), 30-31.

Mara. T h a lia . "C ecchetti I s n 't E v e ry th in g ." Dance Magazine,

XXVII (August 1953), 36-37.

Wicks, Helen Reid, "An American Teacher Views the Royal Academy o f
Dancing." Dance Magazine, XL (December 1960), 40.

, "Meet The C ecchetti Council o f Am erica." Dance

Magazine, X LII (October 1968), 74-75.

__________ , "Teacher T ra in in g Programs: The Royal Academy o f

Dancing." Dance Magazine, LI (January 1977), 105.

__________ , "Teacher T ra in in g Programs: The Royal Academy o f

Dancing." Dance Magazine, L (November 1976), 107.

, " B a lle t f o r A th le te s ." The Dancing Times, LI

(November 1961), 119.

, "R.A.D. Production C lub." The Dancing Times, XXXVI

[JuTy 1946), 516, 517.

__________ , "The C ecchetti S o cie ty: A Dancing Times Supplement."

The Dancing Times, XL (June 1959), 639.

Encyclopedias

"C e c c h e tti, E n ric o ." Encyclopedia Americana, VI 1977.

Pamphlets

__________, C ecchetti Council o f America. Inform ation Pamphlet,

M ichigan, 1978.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
 Interview s

In te rvie w w ith Jane Caryl M ille r , January 23, 1979.

In te rvie w w ith Ruth Carney, January 23, 1979.

In te rvie w w ith E laine K e lle r, January 30, 1979.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.