CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Oyster History

Oyster under relatives such as scallops, mussels, clams are known as bivalves since

their shells are made up of two parts called valves. Bivalves are one of the oldest earth’s

existence and have existed for over 500 million years, in a period, known as the Cambrian

Period (Morton, 2022). Oysters were originally cooked by fire as early humans had primitive

tools that would have made it difficult to open oysters to eat raw. Archeologists believed that

oyster were placed over fire or heated and cooked until the oysters open up as oysters from

the Mesolithic Period show evidence of scorch marks from fire. The use of fire by early

humans evidence back to about 400 thousand years ago, so consumption of oysters most

likely began after the time (MacKenzie, 2020).

Oyster Biology

Oysters with potential for aquaculture are found throughout the tropics and subtropics,

but few species have been cultured and in only a few tropical countries. Oysters are found

throughout the tropics and sub-tropics and are commonly harvested from wild population. In

spite of their adaptability to cultivation, oyster farming has developed in only a wild few

tropical countries (Lodeiros et al., 2020). The expansion of oyster culture has been hindered

by limited awareness of its potential among fishery development promoters and the need for

more widespread dissemination of information on the technology of oyster culture,

processing and marketing (Angel, 2000). One of these species is Crassostrea iredalei.
Oyster in the Philippines

Crassostrea iredalei commonly known as the Philippine cupped oyster or slipper

oyster, is an economically important species of true oyster found abundantly in the western

Pacific Ocean, from the Philippines to Tonga and Fiji. They grow attached to hard objects in

brackish shallow intertidal or subtidal waters, at depths of 0 to 300 metres (0 to 984 ft). They

are cultured extensively in the Philippines, where annual landings can range from 11,700 to

18,300 tons. They are known as talaba or talabang tsinelas ("slipper oyster") in Filipino to

distinguish them from talabang kukong kabayo ("horse-hoof oyster", Saccostrea

malabonensis) (Rosell, 2018).

Oyster Habitat

As for the habitat and range of oyster, oysters live in salty or brackish coastal waters,

clustering on older shells, rock, piers, or any hard, submerged surface. They fuse together as

they grow, forming rock-like reefs that provide habitat for other marine animals and plants

(Wallace, 2022). Although it is possible for food oysters to produce pearls, they should not

be confused with actual pearl oysters, which are from a different family of bivalves

(Gopakumar, 2020). True oysters, which belong to the Ostreidae family, are found

throughout the world’s oceans, usually in shallow waters and in colonies called beds or

reefs. Among the most popular and heavily harvested species are the eastern American

oyster (Crassostrea virginica), found in Atlantic waters from Canada to Argentina, and the

Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), found from Japan to Washington state and as far south as

Australia (Trexler, 2020). Oyster shells are usually oval or pear-shaped, but will vary widely

in form depending on what they attach to. They are generally whitish-gray in outer shell

color, and their inside shell is usually a porcelain white. They have extremely strong

adductor muscles to close their shells when threatened.

Life Cycle and Reproduction of Oyster

Oysters are capable of spawning within their first year of life. Larger oysters produce

more gametes than smaller oysters. Oysters have reached prime spawning size by the time

they are three years old. There are many factors that can impact successful oyster spawning.

In order for an oyster to spawn, they must eat naturally occurring phytoplankton in the water

column and use that energy and invest & into creating a gonad, which will be either eggs or

sperm (Tamburini, 2019). An oyster uses environmental cues to begin the ripening process in

the early spring. An increase in water temperature, coupled with an increase/decrease in

salinity or a change in the phytoplankton biomass usually stimulates the oyster to begin

putting on gonad. This process can take up to 2 months in the spring (McLearen, 2020).

Once adult oysters are ripe they can begin to spawn. Environmental cues fuel the

spawning process with oysters preferring to spawn at water temperatures between 20 Degrees

C to 30 Degrees C (68 Degrees F to 86 Degrees F) and at salinity above 10ppt. It only takes

one oyster to release its gonad to encourage other oysters to commence spawning. For

example, if a male oyster starts to spawn by releasing his gonad into the water column, the

oysters surrounding him will filter in some of this sperm (Magaña-Carrasco, 2016). Once the

other oysters detect the presence of sperm in the water, they will begin to release their own

gonad to ensure successful, reproduction. Fertilized eggs cannot exist without both egg and

sperm. The eggs and sperm will encounter each other in the water, begin the fertilization

process, and drift away from the spawning grounds in the water currents (Bayne, 2017).

Fertilized eggs drift in the water column undergoing cell division until they become

juvenile larvae. Oyster larvae will live in the water column for the next two weeks maturing

through different stages. Larvae swim in the water currents in order to follow the

phytoplankton, their source of food (Bayne, 2017) . Larvae are not capable of swimming
horizontally, but they can move vertically to some extent. Once the larvae are approximately

two weeks old and in the pediveliger stage (larva with a foot), they begin to concentrate at the

bottom of the river system to search for a hard substrate. The larvae utilize an appendage that

they grow called a foot. This foot helps them crawl around on the bottom to find a suitable

substrate for them to attach to. Once they have successfully located a suitable location,

usually an oyster shell, they begin to attach to the shell by secreting a glue. The larvae then

undergo a complete metamorphosis of internal anatomy and become what is called spat

(Chan, 2016).

Oyster Spat

When oysters reproduce, they spawn tiny larvae that freely navigate the water column

until they find an appropriate habitat with a structure to settle on. Once the larvae

permanently attach to a surface, they are known as spat. Oysters are frequently cultivated for

food (Rodriguez-Peres et al., 2019). The successful farming of oysters and other shellfish

relies upon successful settlement of larvae onto a selected substrate—typically other oyster

shells or ceramic tiles—within a hatchery or wild setting. The tiles or shells that hold the spat

are secured to frames or in cages and submerged along an intertidal area or suspended from a

long line (Nestlerode et al., 2007). From this point forward, the oysters are self-sustaining,

filtering all the nutrients they need directly from the water in their environment. In addition,

oyster beds form large, complex structures where many aquatic species, such as fish and

crabs, hunt for food and hide from predators (Paniagua-Chavez, 2006).

Spat are oyster larvae that attach to a surface, such as another oyster shell. As spat

grow into adult oysters generation after generation, they form dense clusters known as oyster

reefs or beds oysters are filter feeders, they help keep the water clean. This promotes the

growth of underwater grasses, such as wild celery, which serve as important habitat for other
species (Chan, 2022). Natural spatting or spawning season typically lasts from January to

February and May to September. A planktonic larva emerges after hatching and remains in

the water for two to three weeks before settling down. Spats or seeds the size of a sand grain

attach to appropriate substrates (like logs, stones, shells, bottoms, etc.) The shells are mostly

used as raw materials for the manufacture of lime and poultry grit. The shells also serve as

spat collectors for culturing. Materials for structures should be readily available and cheap

(Brosas, 2022).

Oyster Spat Collection

Collectors that are most widely used are artificial caps made from plastic and

especially developed to collect oyster spat (Capelle, 2016). Oysters gather on old shells, rock,

piers, or any other hard, submerged surface in saline or brackish coastal waters. As they

expand, they meld together to form reefs that resemble rocks and serve as habitat for other

marine life and vegetation. Oysters also rely on substrate attachment for survival in their

ecosystems. Studies shows that oyster rough surfaced substrate attract more bivalve that soft

surface substrate (Devakie, et al., 2002).

Oyster Farming Methods in the Philippines

In the Philippines, oyster culture is done in four ways: broadcast (sabong), stake (tulos),

lattice, and hanging (bitin, sampayan, horizontal, and tray) (Brosas, 2022). In these methods,

there are various procedure to follow.  The broadcast method is the most simple and primitive

method and it is adopted in areas with firm enough bottoms to support the collectors. Empty

oyster shells, stones, logs and tin cans are scattered over the selected area where natural

setting occurs. Oyster spats are grown to the commercial size on the collectors.

The advantage of the method is the low investment required, whereas the major

disadvantages are that it can be used only in coastal areas with firm bottoms and shallow
waters, high mortalities due to silt and predation, and difficulty in harvesting (Naik and

Gowda, 2015).

The stake method is usually used in areas with relatively shallow waters and soft

muddy bottoms. The main material used in this culture system is bamboo poles (5–9 cm in

diameter), however other rigid poles such as split coconut trunks and tree branches are often

used. The stakes are driven into the bottom in rows and spaced 0.5 m apart. The tip of the

stake extends to the high water level, due to the fact that oysters can survive and grow in the

intertidal zone. The bamboo poles provide a clear surface to which the oyster larvae settle

after their pelagic phase (Athithan, 2020).

The hanging raft method for oyster farming is considered superior and has many

advantages over the popular stake, rack, and broadcast methods (Andalecio, et al, 2007). The

advantage is it has high biomass potential and higher financial returns; it is less polluting,

therefore more environment friendly. But if we are looking for the harvesting, the average

numbers of spat harvested from spat collectors deployed for 6-month, 8-month, and 14-month

periods were 0.6, 1.8, and 1.7 spat per collector, respectively. Shorter spat collector

deployment duration of 8-months generated similar numbers of oysters to those of 14-months

(Erasito, et al, 2022).

Lastly, the lattice method, wherein bamboo splits are used to make a lattice

that is held together with galvanized wire or monofilament nylon twine in this method. The

splits are approximately 15-30 cm apart, and one lattice unit typically consists of 10-16 splits

that can be easily handled by one operator. This structure can be positioned horizontally or

vertically in a variety of ways. The lattice is attached to the bottom or supported by bamboo

poles in the fence style. When mounted on long bamboos, it can also be suspended in the
water column or mounted on rocks, lattice can be used singly or in groups; oyster collection

and fattening are efficient, and harvesting is simple (Spencer, 2002).

Traditional Material Used as Spat Collector

There are various traditional materials used as oyster spat collector. The most

common material is bamboo. Bamboo is  a grass of the Poaceae family, characterised by its

woody, hollow, round, straight, jointed stem, all of which are in the tribe Bambuseae. The

pole is the part of bamboo is used to collect spat. The bamboo pole is the wood of the

bamboo plant as a material or cane (Yee and Wang 2006). This is the most common material

used in traditional oyster farming. Because of inevitable circumstances, Up to half of the

world's 1,200 woody bamboo species are in danger of extinction, a United Nations report has

revealed. Deforestation is known to be robbing many bamboo species of their native habitat.

Yet the effect this is actually having on their distribution is not well understood, as many of

the areas where the plants live are extremely remote (Pilcher, 2004).

Another material is old rubber tire. Old rubber tires are widely used as oyster spat

collector. But recently in Vietnam, the provincial Fisheries Sub-Department has raised

concerns over the toxic metals and chemicals, which might leach out of the tyres into the

water and harm marine life. In addition, the dumping of old tyres into the sea could turn the

natural area into a dumping ground. Discarded tyres and roofing sheets will have direct and

long-term effects on the farming environment. The department has sent staff to educate oyster

farmers about the harmful effects caused by old tyres and sheets (Trinh, 2022).

Oyster Shells are also utilized by oyster farmers to use as spat collector. The farming

of oysters and other shellfish relies upon typically other oyster shells or ceramic tiles- within

a hatchery or wild setting. The tiles or shells that hold the spat are secured to frames or in

cages and submerged along an intertidal area or suspended from a long line. From this point
forward, the oysters are self-sustaining, filtering all the nutrients they need directly from the

water in their environment (Brink et al., 2020).

Recyclable Materials

Recyclable materials are material that has been recovered or diverted from the non-

hazardous solid waste stream for purpose of reuse, recycling or reclamation and a substantial

portion of which is consistently used in the manufacture of products, which may otherwise be

produced using raw or virgin materials (Fediuk and Ali, 2022). There are various studies that

recyclable materials are useful.

Employing recyclable materials is a trend in the present. There are studies conducted

by Ch. F. Hendriks and G.M.T. Hanssen (2003), that recyclable materials are being used in

construction. There are also studies that recyclable materials are used to construct furniture

such as table, chair, and etc (Alhola, 2008). Over the last decade, public procurement has

become a promising tool to foster the demand for greener products as public purchasers have

increasingly placed environmental requirements on their procurement. Public organizations,

having enormous purchasing power with 16% of the EU's GDP, may promote

environmentally sound product design and ‘green’ the product value chain by changing their

purchasing function towards greener procurement i.e., Green Public Procurement (GPP) (EU,

2004). Considering that office furniture is among the most interesting products for the GPP

policy (Erdmenger, et al., 2003), GPP could thus indirectly effect on the eco-design of

furniture as the criteria in the public tenders could be used as guidelines in the development

of greener products. With this ideas, the researchers wonder whether different recyclable

materials can be used as oyster spat collector.

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

According to data on plastic water bottle waste, people discard more than 60 million

of them each day in terms of just plastic water bottles alone (Vulneta,2022). PET is referred

to as the "safe" plastic because it is unbreakable and won't hurt if broken or damaged

(Petainer, 2022). In total, people use 1.2 million plastic bottles per minute. 91% of plastic is

not recycled approximately 50% of our yearly global plastic production is used in single-use

items (Hamid and Samshudin, 2021).

Numerous other products are made from plastic. When plastic is recycled, it can be

used to manufacture a variety of products and materials, including bottles for consumable

supplies, furniture parts, beverage and food containers, and much more. There are countless

ways to reuse plastic.  Recyclable PET (PET) can be used to make many new

products, including new plastic bottles, clothing, fibrefill, industrial strapping, sheet and film

and automotive parts. As a result, there is a strong demand for recovered PET, and domestic

demand for food-grade recycled plastics currently outstrips domestic supply (Gere &Czigany,

2020).

Natural decomposition of plastic can last from 400-1000 years and few types of

plastics are non-degradable as well. Thermoplastic polymer is a type of plastic.

Thermoplastics are those plastics which can be molded again and again by use of heat.

Examples of thermoplastics are polyethene, polystyrene and PVC (polyvinyl chloride).

Thermoplastic polymers are used in making carry bags, bottles etc (Vedantu,2022).

PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a type of resin and a form of polyester; it is

commonly labelled with the code on or near the bottom of bottles and other containers.  PET

has some important characteristics such its strength, thermo-stability, gas barrier properties
and transparency. It is also lightweight, shatter-resistant and recyclable. Most of the PET

bottles has rough surfaces that can be use as spat collector (Singh, 2020).

Coconut Shells

Coconut shell is the toughest component covered in coconut fruit. The coconut shell is

situated between the coconut flesh and the coconut husk. This shell is usually designed to

cover the inner portion of the coconut. Shell is used for the development of various

handicrafts and other applications (Học, G., 2013). Many handmade decoration items are

produced by using coconut shells because of their strength. Coconut shells are also used to

produce charcoal, which is used as food, and this coconut charcoal is much stronger than

other charcoals. Coconut shell charcoal is commonly used for the manufacture of active

carbon. Usually, activated carbon is known as carbon dioxide, which has been treated with

oxygen. Active carbon is commonly used to eliminate impurities. Coconut shell charcoals are

commonly used in the purification industry and other sectors that use active carbon (Kabir

Ahmad, 2022).

Many of the countries in South Asia and the Pacific where coconut is grown render a

variety of coconut shells. The strong shape of this shell is ideal for creating handicrafts, and

the strength of the coconut shell keeps these handicrafts for a longer period of time. There is a

tremendous market for these forms of natural handicrafts all over the world (Nikosi Exports,

2020).

Coconut shell is non-food part which is one of the hard agro wastes. Coconut shell is

high potential material due to its high strength and modulus properties. These shells are rough

and strong. Coconut shell powder exhibits admirable properties compared to other materials

such as low cost, renewable, high specific strength to weight ratio, low density less abrasion

to machine and environmental friendly (Somashekhar et al., 2018).

Coconut Husk

Coconut husks are the rough exterior shells of the coconut. While the husks are not

used for food, like the meat and liquid found within the exterior shell, the husk can be used in

several ways, including creating enriched potting soil and as chips that can be used to provide

ground cover for flower beds. It is possible to purchase mass produced husk products or

create the products at home using the shells of fresh coconuts. he process employed to husk a

coconut at home is relatively straightforward. All that is required is a fresh coconut and a

long stick sharpened to a point at one end. The opposite end of the stick must be firmly

planted into the ground, with the sharpened end pointing straight up. This creates the basic

framework for removing the husk (Tatum, 2022).

Scallops Shells

Scallop is any of the marine bivalve mollusks of the family Pectinidae,

particularly species of the genus Pecten. The two valves of the shell are usually fan-shaped,

except for the straight hinge line with wing-like projections at either side of the hinge; the

valves range in size from about 2.5 cm (1 inch) to more than 15 cm (6 inches). The shell may

be smooth or sculptured with radial ribs, which may be smooth, scaly, or knobbed. Scallops

range in color from brilliant red, purple, orange, or yellow to white. The lower valve is

usually lighter in color and less sculptured than the upper (Gooding, 2004) . The typical

scallop shell is the familiar rounded disk and straight hinge line formed by two ear-like

auricles (Shumway & Parsons, 2016). This straight hinge line makes the scallop shell rough.

Rough characteristic of a scallop shell has big possibility to be used as oyster spat collector.
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