Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Office of the Vice President Academic Affairs
Santa Rosa Campus

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
FOR
INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
(INEN 30033)

COMPILED BY:

ENGR. JOSEPHINE TOLEDO

MARCH 2021

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS

Lesson 1 What are Industrial Materials ……………….. 3 - 5

Lesson 2 Nature of Industrial Materials ……………….. 5 - 10

Lesson 3 Materials Strength and Behaviour of Materials ……………….. 10 - 13
Lesson 4 Properties and Characteristics of Materials ……………….. 13 - 25
Lesson 5 Manufacturing and Mechanical Properties of
Engineering Materials ……………….. 25 - 36
Lesson 6 Failure and Fracture of Materials ……………….. 36 - 39
UNIT 2: COMMONLY USED INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS;
PRODUCTION AND GENERAL PROPERTIES
Lesson 7 Metal, Steels and Alloys ……………….. 39 - 43
Lesson 8 Polymers and Elastomers ……………….. 43 -
Lesson 9 Ceramics and Glass ………………..
Lesson 10 Cements, Concretes and Aggregates ………………..
Lesson 11 Fiber, Textile and Papers ………………..
Lesson 12 Wood, Lumber and Timbers ………………..
Lesson 13 Materials for Microelectronics Devices ………………..
UNIT 3 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
Lesson 14 Introduction to Material Processes ………………..
Lesson 15 Casting and Molding Processes and Equipment ………………..
Lesson 16 Forming and Shaping Processes and Equipment ………………..
Lesson 17 Conditioning and Strengthening Processes ………………..
Lesson 18 Assembling and joining Processes ………………..
Lesson 16 Surface Mounting technology and Treatment
Processes ………………..
Lesson 17 Finishing and Coating Processes
Lesson 18 Chemical Industry Processes
Lesson 19 Process Design and Control for Manufacturing

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UNIT 1

OVERVIEW:

Fundamentals of Materials takes an integrated approach to the sequence of topics – one

specific structure, characteristic, or property type is covered in turn for all three basic material
types: metals, ceramics, and polymeric materials. Fundamentals presents material at an
appropriate level for both student comprehension and instructors who may not have a materials
background.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. To describe and explain the physical properties and applications of important classes of
functional materials.
2. To identify the nature and structure of Industrial Materials
3. To know the characteristics of materials

COURSE MATERIALS:

Lesson 1: What are Industrial Materials?

Industrial materials are defined as those used in the manufacture of “hard” goods, such
as more or less durable machines and equipment produced for industry and consumers, as
contrasted with disposable “soft” goods, such as chemicals, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, and
apparel.

Most engineering materials can be classified into one of three basic categories: (1)
metals, (2) ceramics, and (3) polymers. Their chemistries are different, their mechanical and
physical properties are different, and these differences affect the manufacturing processes that
can be used to produce products from them. (4) composites —nonhomogeneous mixtures of
the other three basic types rather than a unique category.

Metal

Metals used in manufacturing are usually alloys, which are composed of two or more
elements, with at least one being a metallic element. Metals and alloys can be divided into two
basic groups: (1) ferrous and (2) nonferrous.

Ferrous Metals

Ferrous metals are based on iron; the group includes steel and cast iron. These metals
constitute the most important group commercially, more than three fourths of the metal tonnage
throughout the world. Pure iron has limited commercial use, but when alloyed with carbon, iron
has more uses and greater commercial value than any other metal.

Alloys of iron and carbon form steel and cast iron.

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 Steel can be defined as an iron–carbon alloy containing 0.02%to 2.11%carbon. It is the
most important category within the ferrous metal group. Its composition often includes other
alloying elements as well, such as manganese, chromium, nickel and molybdenum, to enhance
the properties of the metal. Applications of steel include construction (bridges, I-beams, and
nails), transportation (trucks, rails, and rolling stock for railroads), and consumer products
(automobiles and appliances).

Cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon (2% to 4%) used in casting (primarily
sandcasting). Silicon is also present in the alloy (in amounts from 0.5% to 3%), and other
elements are often added also, to obtain desirable properties in the cast part. Cast iron is
available in several different forms, of which gray cast iron is the most common; its applications
include blocks and heads for internal combustion engines.

Nonferrous Metals

Nonferrous metals include the other metallic elements and their alloys. In almost all
cases, the alloys are more important commercially than the pure metals. The nonferrous metals
include the pure metals and alloys of aluminum, copper, gold, magnesium, nickel, silver, tin,
titanium, zinc, and other metals.

Figure 1: Classification of Four

Engineering Materials

CERAMICS

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 A ceramic is defined as a compound containing metallic (or semi metallic) and
nonmetallic elements. Typical nonmetallic elements are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Ceramics
include a variety of traditional and modern materials. Traditional ceramics, some of which have
been used for thousands of years, include: clay (abundantly available, consisting of fine
particles of hydrous aluminum silicates and other minerals used in making brick, tile, and
pottery); silica (the basis for nearly all glass products); and alumina and silicon carbide (two
abrasive materials used in grinding). Modern ceramics include some of the preceding materials,
such as alumina, whose properties are enhanced in various ways through modern processing
methods.

Newer ceramics include: carbides—metal carbides such as tungsten carbide and

titanium carbide, which are widely used as cutting tool materials; and nitrides—metal and
semimetal nitrides such as titanium nitride and boron nitride, used as cutting tools and grinding
abrasives. For processing purposes, ceramics can be divided into crystalline ceramics and
glasses. Different methods of manufacturing are required for the two types. Crystalline ceramics
are formed in various ways from powders and then fired (heated to a temperature below the
melting point to achieve bonding between the powders). The glass ceramics (namely, glass)
can be melted and cast, and then formed in processes such as traditional glass blowing.

POLYMERS

A polymer is a compound formed of repeating structural units called mers, whose atoms
share electrons to form very large molecules. Polymers usually consist of carbon plus one or
more other elements, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine. Polymers are divided
into three categories: (1) thermoplastic polymers, (2) thermosetting polymers, and (3)
elastomers.

Thermo plastic polymers can be subjected to multiple heating and cooling cycles without
substantially altering the molecular structure of the polymer. Common thermoplastics include
polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinylchloride, and nylon. Thermosetting polymers chemically
transform (cure) into a rigid structure on cooling from a heated plastic condition; hence the
name thermosetting. Members of this type include phenolics, amino resins, and epoxies.
Although the name thermosetting is used, some of these polymers cure by mechanisms other
than heating. Elastomers are polymers that exhibit significant elastic behavior; hence the name
elastomer. They include natural rubber, neoprene, silicone, and polyurethane.

COMPOSITES

Composites do not really constitute a separate category of materials; they are mixtures
of the other three types. A composite is a material consisting of two or more phases that are
processed separately and then bonded together to achieve properties superior to those of its
constituents. The term phase refers to a homogeneous mass of material, such as an
aggregation of grains of identical unit cell structure in a solid metal. The usual structure of a
composite consists of particles or fibers of one phase mixed in a second phase, called the
matrix.

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 Composites are found in nature (e.g., wood), and they can be produced synthetically.
The synthesized type is of greater interest here, and it includes glass fibers in a polymer matrix,
such as fiber-reinforced plastic; polymer fibers of one type in a matrix of a second polymer, such
as an epoxy-Kevlar composite; and ceramic in a metal matrix, such as a tungsten carbide in a
cobalt binder to form a cemented carbide cutting tool.

Properties of a composite depend on its components, the physical shapes of the

components, and the way they are combined to form the final material. Some composites
combine high strength with light weight and are suited to applications such as aircraft
components, car bodies, boat hulls, tennis rackets, and fishing rods. Other composites are
strong, hard, and capable of maintaining these properties at elevated temperatures, for
example, cemented carbide cutting tools.

READINGS & WATCHING:

Fundamental of Modern Manufacturing 4th edition– Mikell Grover

Lesson 2 Nature of Materials

An understanding of materials is fundamental in the study of manufacturing processes.

Manufacturing was defined as a transformation process. It is the material that is transformed;
and it is the behavior of the material when subjected to the particular forces, temperatures, and
other physical parameters of the process that determines the success of the operation. Certain
materials respond well to certain types of manufacturing processes, and poorly or not at all to
others.

Atomic Structure and the Elements

The chemical bonding and atomic arrangement (crystallography) are fundamental to

studying the properties and behavior of any material.

The basic structural unit of matter is the atom. Each atom is composed of a positively
charged nucleus, surrounded by a sufficient number of negatively charged electrons so that the
charges are balanced. The number of electrons identifies the atomic number and the element of
the atom. There are slightly more than 100 elements (not counting a few extras that have been
artificially synthesized), and these elements are the chemical building blocks of all matter.

Just as there are differences among the elements, there are also similarities. The
elements can be grouped into families and relationships established between and within the
families by means of the Periodic Table, shown in Figure 2. In the horizontal direction there is a
certain repetition, or periodicity, in the arrangement of elements. Metallic elements occupy the
left and center portions of the chart, and nonmetals are located to the right.

Between them, along a diagonal, is a transition zone containing elements called

metalloids or semi-metals. In principle, each of the elements can exist as a solid, liquid, or gas,

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 depending on temperature and pressure. At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, they
each have a natural phase; e.g., iron (Fe) is a solid, mercury (Hg) is a liquid, and nitrogen (N) is
a gas.

Figure 2: Periodic table of

elements

Bonding

To obtain a full understanding of the material structure and how it relates to its
properties, the materials scientist must study how the different atoms, ions and molecules are
arranged and bonded to each other. This involves the study and use of quantum chemistry or
quantum physics. Solid-state physics, solid-state chemistry and physical chemistry are also
involved in the study of bonding and structure.

There are four principal bonding types: ionic, covalent, metallic, and van der Waals. Ionic
bonding involves the exchange of electrons between atoms to complete shells, either by adding
or giving up electrons. The resulting atoms are oppositely charged and attract each other,
resulting in an ionic bond. Covalently bonded materials have bonds in which electrons are
shared between atoms. In metallic bonding, a "sea of electrons" is uniformly distributed
throughout the solid and acts as a glue to hold the atoms together. Van der Waals bonds are
relatively weak compared to the other three principal bond types and result when attractive
forces from permanent or induced dipoles form.

Ionic bonding is associated with ceramics, covalent bonding is associated with polymers,
metallic bonding is associated with metals, and van der Waals bonding is associated with
molecular solids.

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Crystallography
Crystallography is the science that examines the arrangement of atoms in crystalline
solids. Crystallography is a useful tool for materials scientists. In single crystals, the effects of
the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural
shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. Further, physical properties are often controlled
by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for
understanding crystallographic defects. Mostly, materials do not occur as a single crystal, but in
polycrystalline form, as an aggregate of small crystals with different orientations. Because of
this, the powder diffraction method, which uses diffraction patterns of polycrystalline samples
with a large number of crystals, plays an important role in structural determination. Most
materials have a crystalline structure, but some important materials do not exhibit regular crystal
structure. Polymers display varying degrees of crystallinity, and many are completely non-
crystalline. Glass, some ceramics, and many natural materials are amorphous, not possessing
any long-range order in their atomic arrangements.
The study of polymers combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to
give thermodynamic and mechanical descriptions of
physical properties.

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Nanostructure

Materials, which atoms and molecules form constituents in the nanoscale (i.e., they form
nanostructure) are called nanomaterials. Nanomaterials are subject of intense research in the
materials science community due to the unique properties that they exhibit.

Nanostructure deals with objects and structures that are in the 1 - 100 nm range.[10] In many
materials, atoms or molecules agglomerate together to form objects at the nanoscale. This causes
many interesting electrical, magnetic, optical, and mechanical properties. In describing
nanostructures, it is necessary to differentiate between the number of dimensions on the nanoscale.
Nanotextured surfaces have one dimension on the nanoscale, i.e., only the thickness of the surface
of an object is between 0.1 and 100 nm. Nanotubes have two dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the
diameter of the tube is between 0.1 and 100 nm; its length could be much greater.

Finally, spherical nanoparticles have three dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the particle is
between 0.1 and 100 nm in each spatial dimension. The terms nanoparticles and ultrafine particles
(UFP) often are used synonymously although UFP can reach into the micrometre range. The term
'nanostructure' is often used, when referring to magnetic technology. Nanoscale structure in biology
is often called ultrastructure.

Buckminsterfullerene nanostructure

Microstructure

Microstructure is defined as the structure of a prepared surface or thin foil of material as

revealed by a microscope above 25× magnification. It deals with objects from 100 nm to a few cm.
The microstructure of a material (which can be broadly classified into metallic, polymeric, ceramic
and composite) can strongly influence physical properties such as strength, toughness, ductility,
hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature behavior, wear resistance, and so on. Most of
the traditional materials (such as metals and ceramics) are microstructured.

The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is

physically impossible. For example, any crystalline material will
contain defects such as precipitates, grain boundaries (Hall–
Petch relationship), vacancies, interstitial atoms or
substitutional atoms. The microstructure of materials reveals
these larger defects, so that they can be studied, with

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significant advances in simulation resulting in exponentially increasing understanding of how defects
can be used to enhance material properties. icrostructure

Macrostructure

Macrostructure is the appearance of a material in the scale millimeters to meters, it is the structure of
the material as seen with the naked eye.

READINGS:

Nature of Materials: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science

Bonding Type: Materials in Today’s World by Dr. Ronald Redwing, Senior Lecturer, Department of
Material Sciences and Engineering, College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, The Pennsylvania State
University

Lesson 3 MATERIAL STRENGTH AND BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS

The response of materials to applied forces concerns a field of material properties which
has been of prime interest to human beings since the emergence of mankind. Even as a child,
already, one gathers experiences about what we vaguely call the “strength” of a material, by
feeling with our fingers how “hard” or “soft” a specific material is.

The material strength is the ability of material to retain its structure when subjected to
stresses and strains.

TYPES OF MATERIAL STRENGTH

Comprehensive Strength
Comprehensive Strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads
tending to reduce size, as opposed to which withstands loads tending to elongate. In other
words, compressive strength resists being pushed together, whereas tensile strength resists
tension (being pulled apart). In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive
strength, and shear strength can be analyzed independently.

Tensile Strength
The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress that it can
take before failure, for example breaking.

There are three typical definitions of tensile strength:

Yield strength - The stress a material can withstand without permanent deformation. This is not
a sharply defined point. Yield strength is the stress which will cause a permanent deformation of
0.2% of the original dimension.

Ultimate strength - The maximum stress a material can withstand.

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Breaking strength - The stress coordinate on the stress-strain curve at the point of rupture.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

The ultimate tensile strength of a material is an intensive property; therefore its value
does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, depending on the material, it may
be dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or
otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material.

Some materials break very sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called a brittle
failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience some plastic
deformation and possibly necking before fracture.

Elasticity

Elasticity describes a material that returns to its original form after being deformed by a
compressive or tensile load. For example, a rubber band of 3 cm that can be stretched to 12 cm
only to return to 3 cm when the tensile load is discontinued. Elasticity is often a desirable
material property for applications such as tires where you want to absorb energy from stresses
and strains.

Plasticity

Plasticity is the opposite of elasticity as it is the propensity of a material to become and

remain deformed by loads. For example, a flexible wire that can be easily twisted into a variety
of shapes that never bounces back to its original shape.

Brittleness

Brittleness describes a material that exhibits neither elasticity or plasticity such that it
dramatically breaks at a point in time at a particular load level as opposed to more slowly
deforming. For example, glass generally doesn't bend much before it breaks.

Yield Strength

Yield strength is a measurement of where elasticity ends and plasticity begins for a
material. For example, a tire may bounce back from minor stresses due to its elasticity but more
serious stresses may leave damage in the tire that can be described as plasticity.

Flexural Strength

Flexural strength is a measure of a material's propensity for resisting bending before

yielding such that permanent deformations occur. This can be tested by elevating the material
and applying downward stress from the middle. This type of strength is important for
components that need to flex under high load and bounce back without any permanent damage
such as the wings of aircraft.

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Shear Strength

Shear strength is a material's ability to resist being cut along a thin line such that its structure
separates. For example, a material that resists being cut with a tool such as scissors or a saw.

Scratch Hardness

A material that resists scratches and abrasion such as silicon carbide, boron carbide and
diamonds. These materials resist abrasion and are also excellent abrasives themselves that can be
used in tools and machinery to shape or finish workpieces using friction.

Indentation Hardness

A material that resists indentation by a sharp tool such as an etching tool.

Toughness

Toughness is resistance to damage from falls or impacts. For example, a diamond is very
hard but can be completely smashed with a hammer whereas rubber is relatively soft but can
potentially resist damage from impacts.

Fracture Toughness

Fracture toughness is resistance to fracture whereby a small thin crack begins to grow. For
example, concrete has relatively low fracture toughness such that cracks make it weaker. Where a
material has low fracture toughness any imperfections in the material can greatly reduce its overall
strength.

Chemical Resistance

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 A material's resilience when exposed to chemicals including naturally occurring chemicals
such as salt water.

Corrosion Resistance

An important type of chemical resistance whereby a material resists corrosive chemical

reactions such as the oxidation of metal.

Thermal Shock Resistance

A material's resistance to fast changes in temperature. For example, normal silicate glass
may shatter when exposed to boiling hot water whereas borosilicate glass is somewhat more
resistant such that it is often used for high temperature applications such as coffee pots.

Wear Resistance

The ability of a material to withstand all of the mechanical and chemical stresses that it is
likely to encounter in a particular use case. For example, the ability of a material used in the soles of
shoes to resist water, salt, temperature variations, friction and impact that can be expected in the
regular use of the product.

READINGS:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strength_of_materials

https://simplicable.com/new/material-strength

Lesson 4 PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS

Types of Properties of Engineering Materials

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 sv

I. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Physical Properties of Materials

Physical properties of material are those which can be observed without change of identity of
material. Physical properties of metals are density, color, size and shape, specific gravity of material,
porosity etc. Some of these are defined as below. We should have knowledge of physical properties
of materials.

Density of Materials

Density is one of most fundamental physical properties of any material. Density of material is
defined as mass per unit volume. It is defined as ratio of mass volume of material. It is denoted by
“p”. Its unit in SI system is KG/m3. Density is an important in many calculations because most
designs are limited by either size or weight.

Shape and Size

Dimension of any metal reflect shape and size of material, length, width, height, depth etc.
Also, it determines specific rectangular, circular, spherical, or any other section. You can also read
Engineering Materials – Atomic Structure Introduction.

Specific Gravity of Materials

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 It is defined as ratio of density of material with respect to density of reference material or
substance. It does not have any unite. Sometimes it is also called as relative density. For gravity
calculation water is considered as reference substance.

Porosity of Materials

When material is in melting condition, it contains some dissolved gases with in material.
When material is solidifies these gases get evaporate and leave behind voids. Porosity of materials
represents quantity of voids in solid materials.

II. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Chemical properties are characteristics of a material that become evident when the material
undergoes a chemical reaction or chemical change. People cannot observe chemical properties by
simply viewing or touching a sample of the material; the actual structure of the material must be
changed in order for people to observe the chemical properties.

Chemical properties can only be established by changing a substance’s chemical identity,

and are different from physical properties, which can be observed by viewing or touching a sample.

The internal qualities of a substance must be altered to determine its chemical properties.
For example:

Flammability - How easily something will burn or ignite, is a chemical property because you
can’t tell just by looking at something how easily it will burn. Fire testing is done to determine how
difficult or easy it will be to get a certain material to burn.

Information about flammability is used in building codes, fire codes, insurance requirements,
and storing, handling, and transporting highly flammable materials.

Heat of Combustion - This chemical property is the amount of energy that is released as
heat when a substance is burned with oxygen.

Examples of this chemical property is a calorie which converts to energy within the body and
the amount of heat generated by the burning of various fuels.

Toxicity - How much a substance can damage an animal, plant, cell, organ, or other
organism is its toxicity. Materials with the chemical property of toxicity include lead, chlorine gas,
hydrofluoric acid, and mercury. Toxicity is measured by how the lead, chlorine gas, mercury, or other
substance affects the organism – basically, by how much damage it does to the organism and how
quickly that damage occurs.

For example, lead is a toxic substance that can damage various parts of the human body,
including bones, the heart, kidneys, intestines, and the nervous and reproductive systems.

Ability to oxidize - This is what takes place by gaining oxygen, losing hydrogen, or losing
electrons, and is a chemical property that results in the oxidation number of a substance being
changed. An example of this is rust. Over time, iron and steel (which is made of iron) will rust.
However, they will rust more quickly if they are combined with pure oxygen.

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 Examples of oxidation include the way an apple turns brown after it has been cut, the way a
penny turns green, and the way a fender on a car can become rusty.

Radioactivity - The emission of radiation from an atom with an unstable nucleus, is a

chemical property. On the periodic table of elements, the elements that have no stable isotopes are
considered radioactive.

Some of the most radioactive elements are hydrogen, beryllium, carbon, calcium, cobalt, zinc
and iron.

Chemical stability - This chemical property in a given environment, also referred to as

thermodynamic stability of a chemical system, refers to the stability that takes place when a
chemical system is in its lowest energy state – a state of chemical equilibrium, or balance, with its
environment.

This equilibrium will last indefinitely unless something happens to change the system.

Half-life - This chemical property is the amount of time it will take for half of the original
substance to decay. It is used in nuclear chemistry and nuclear physics to describe the time required
for half of the unstable radioactive atoms in a sample to experience radioactive decay.

III. MECHANICAL PROPERATIES

The mechanical properties of a material are those which affect the mechanical strength and
ability of a material to be molded in suitable shape. Some of the typical mechanical properties of a
material include:

Strength Toughness
Hardness Hardenability
Brittleness Malleability
Ductility Creep and Slip
Resilience Fatigue

Strength

It is the property of a material which opposes the deformation or breakdown of material in

presence of external forces or load. Materials which we finalize for our engineering products, must
have suitable mechanical strength to be capable to work under different mechanical forces or loads.

Toughness

It is the ability of a material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed without
fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per unit volume. Its unit is
Joule/ m3. Value of toughness of a material can be determined by stress-strain characteristics of a
material. For good toughness, materials should have good strength as well as ductility.

For example: brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility are not tough
enough. Conversely, materials having good ductility but low strength are also not tough enough.
Therefore, to be tough, a material should be capable to withstand both high stress and strain.

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 Hardness

It is the ability of a material to resist to permanent shape change due to external stress.
There are various measure of hardness – Scratch Hardness, Indentation Hardness and Rebound
Hardness.

Scratch Hardness

Scratch Hardness is the ability of materials to the oppose the scratches to outer surface layer
due to external force.

Indentation Hardness

It is the ability of materials to oppose the dent due to punch of external hard and sharp
objects.

Rebound Hardness

Rebound hardness is also called as dynamic hardness. It is determined by the height of

“bounce” of a diamond tipped hammer dropped from a fixed height on the material.

Hardenability

It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment processing. It is

determined by the depth up to which the material becomes hard. The SI unit of hardenability is meter
(similar to length). Hardenability of material is inversely proportional to the weld-ability of material.

Brittleness

Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it is subjected to a
force or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a stress it observes very less energy and gets
fractures without significant strain. Brittleness is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of
material is temperature dependent. Some metals which are ductile at normal temperature become
brittle at low temperature.

Malleability

Malleability is a property of solid materials which indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized by the ability of material to be
formed in the form of a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property is an aspect of
plasticity of material. Malleability of material is temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the
malleability of material increases.

Ductility

Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a material gets
deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of material to get stretched
into a wire by pulling or drawing. This mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity of material
and is temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the ductility of material increases.

Creep and Slip

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 Creep is the property of a material which indicates the tendency of material to move slowly
and deform permanently under the influence of external mechanical stress. It results due to long
time exposure to large external mechanical stress with in limit of yielding. Creep is more severe in
material that are subjected to heat for long time. Slip in material is a plane with high density of
atoms.

Resilience

Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed elastically by
applying stress and release the energy when stress is removed. Proof resilience is defined as the
maximum energy that can be absorbed without permanent deformation. The modulus of resilience is
defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without permanent
deformation. It can be determined by integrating the stress-strain cure from zero to elastic limit. Its
unit is joule/m3.

Fatigue

Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of the material. When a
material is subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater than certain threshold value but much
below the strength of material (ultimate tensile strength limit or yield stress limit), microscopic cracks
begin to form at grain boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reaches to a critical size. This
crack propagates suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The shape of structure affects the
fatigue very much. Square holes and sharp corners lead to elevated stresses where the fatigue
crack initiates.

IV. THERMAL PROPERTIES

What are Thermal Properties of Materials?

Thermal properties are those properties of a material which is related to its conductivity of heat. In
other words, these are the properties that are exhibited by a material when the heat is passed
through it. Thermal properties come under the broader topic of the physical properties of materials.

Thermal properties of material decide how it reacts when it is subjected to heat fluctuation
(excessive heat or very low heat, for example). The major components of thermal properties are:

1. Heat capacity
2. Thermal Expansion
3. Thermal conductivity
4. Thermal stress
5. What is Heat Capacity?

The heat capacity of a material can be defined as the amount of heat required to change the
temperature of the material by one degree. The amount of heat is generally expressed in joules or
calories and the temperature in Celsius or Kelvin.

In order to calculate the heat capacity of materials with a given dimension, Molar heat capacity or
Specific heat capacity is used.

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 Heat Capacity Formula

Q = m c ΔT

Where,

Q is the heat capacity in J

m is the mass in g
c is the specific heat in J.K-1
ΔT is the temperature change in °K
Thermal Expansion
When heat is passed through a material, its shape changes. Generally, a material expands
when heated. This property of a material is called thermal expansion. There can be a change in the
area, volume, and shape of the material.
For example, railway tracks often expand and as a result, get misshapen due to extreme heat.

Thermal conductivity

It is the property of a material to conduct heat through itself. Materials with high thermal
conductivity will conduct more heat than the ones with low conductivity. Some materials do not
conduct heat at all because of the insulating properties of materials. For example, an iron rod will
conduct more heat than normal window glass.

19
 Thermal stress

The stress experienced by a body due to either thermal expansion or contraction is called
thermal stress. It can be potentially destructive in nature as it can make the material explode.

For example, cracks can be seen on roads where the heat is extreme. The crack is a result
of thermal stress.

V. OPTICAL PROPERTIES

The optical properties of a material define how it interacts with light. The optical properties of
matter are studied in optical physics, a subfield of optics. The optical properties of matter include:

Refraction and the material's refraction index

Polarization
Reflection and the material's albedo or reflectance
Absorption
Photoluminescence (fluorescence)
Transmittance
Diffraction
Dispersion
Dichroism
Scattering
Birefringence

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 Color
Photosensitivity

REFRACTION

Refraction is the change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to another or from
a gradual change in the medium.[1] Refraction of light is the most commonly observed phenomenon,
but other waves such as sound waves and water waves also experience refraction. How much a
wave is refracted is determined by the change in wave speed and the initial direction of wave
propagation relative to the direction of change in speed.

REFLECTION

Reflectivity is an optical property of material, which describes how much light is reflected
from the material in relation to an amount of light incident on the material. The reflection occurs
always on the surface of the material, for the light-diffusing (translucent) materials also in the volume
of the material.

Reflectivity depends on the wavelength of light, direction of the incident and reflected light,
polarization of light, type of the material (metal, plastic, etc.), chemical composition and structure of
the material, and state of the material and its surface (temperature, surface roughness, degree of
oxidation and contamination).

On a smooth / polished surface the reflection is specular (direct). On a rough surface / scattering
volume the reflection is diffuse (scattered). Specular reflection is governed by the law of reflection
(angle of reflection = angle of incidence, both from the surface normal). Diffuse reflection is the
reflection in different directions, when most of the reflected light can be scattered in directions close
to the specular reflection or reflected light is scattered uniformly in all directions (even back to the
source).

POLARIZATION

Polarization (also polarisation) is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies the
geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave, the direction of the oscillation is
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave. A simple example of a polarized transverse
wave is vibrations traveling along a taut string (see image); for example, in a musical instrument like
a guitar string. Depending on how the string is plucked, the vibrations can be in a vertical direction,
horizontal direction, or at any angle perpendicular to the string. In contrast, in longitudinal waves,
such as sound waves in a liquid or gas, the displacement of the particles in the oscillation is always
in the direction of propagation, so these waves do not exhibit polarization. Transverse waves that
exhibit polarization include electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves, gravitational
waves,and transverse sound waves (shear waves) in solids.

ABSORPTION

Absorptivity is an optical property of a material, which describes how much light was absorbed in
material in relation to an amount of light incident on the material. The light absorption occurs for
optically opaque materials on their surface and for semi-transparent materials on the surface and in

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the bulk of the material. The intensity of the light, that has not been absorbed yet, decreases
exponentially with depth below the surface and with absorption coefficient.

Absorptivity depends on the wavelength and direction of the incident light, type of the material
(metal, plastic, etc.), chemical composition and structure of the material, and state of the material
and its surface (temperature, surface roughness, degree of oxidation and contamination).

PHOTOLUMINESCENCE

Photoluminescence (abbreviated as PL) is light emission from any form of matter after the
absorption of photons (electromagnetic radiation). It is one of many forms of luminescence (light
emission) and is initiated by photoexcitation (i.e. photons that excite electrons to a higher energy
level in an atom), hence the prefix photo-. Following excitation various relaxation processes typically
occur in which other photons are re-radiated. Time periods between absorption and emission may
vary: ranging from short femtosecond-regime for emission involving free-carrier plasma in inorganic
semiconductors up to milliseconds for Phosphorescence processes in molecular systems; and under
special circumstances delay of emission may even span to minutes or hours.

TRANSMISSION

Transmissivity is an optical property of a material, which describes how much light is transmitted
through material in relation to an amount of light incident on the material. The light that was not
transmitted was either reflected or absorbed.
Transmissivity depends on the wavelength of light, direction of the incident and transmitted light,
polarization, type of the material (metal, plastic, etc.), chemical composition and structure of the
material, and state of the material and its surface (temperature, degree of oxidation and
contamination).
Beware of differences in concepts: TRANSPARENT against TRANSLUCENT
Transparent Specular (direct) transmission

Translucent Diffuse (scattered) transmission, more general term, includes

also specular transmission

Translucent material transmits light, but it also scatters it in different directions. Specular
transmission direction is governed by the law of refraction.

DIFFRACTION

Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when a wave encounters an obstacle or
opening. It is defined as the bending of waves around the corners of an obstacle or through an
aperture into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle/aperture. The diffracting object or
aperture effectively becomes a secondary source of the propagating wave. Italian scientist
Francesco Maria Grimaldi coined the word diffraction and was the first to record accurate
observations of the phenomenon in 1660

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 .

VI. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

Electrical Properties of Materials

Electrical property refers to the response of a material to an applied electric field. One of the
principal characteristics of materials is their ability (or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current.
Indeed, materials are classified by this property, that is, they are divided into conductors,
semiconductors, and nonconductors.

Electrical Conductivity of Materials

Electrical conductivity and its converse, electrical resistivity, is a fundamental property of a

material that quantifies how it conducts the flow of electric current. Electrical conductivity or specific
conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity. The symbol for electrical conductivity is κ
(kappa), and also σ (sigma) or γ (gamma). The SI unit of electrical conductivity is siemens per metre
(S/m). A high conductivity indicates a material that readily allows the flow of electric current. Note
that, electrical resistivity is not the same as electrical resistance. Electrical resistance is expressed in
Ohms. While resistivity is a material property, resistance is the property of an object.

Conductors – Semiconductors – Resistors

Substances in which electricity can flow are called conductors. Conductors are made of high-
conductivity materials such as metals, in particular copper and aluminium.

Insulators, on the other hand, are made of a wide variety of materials depending on factors such as
the desired resistance.

Semiconductors are materials, inorganic or organic, which have the ability to control their
conduction depending on chemical structure, temperature, illumination, and presence of dopants.
The name semiconductor comes from the fact that these materials have an electrical conductivity
between that of a metal, like copper, gold, etc. and an insulator, such as glass. They have an energy
gap less than 4eV (about 1eV). In solid-state physics, this energy gap or band gap is an energy
range between valence band and conduction band where electron states are forbidden. In contrast
to conductors, electrons in a semiconductor must obtain energy (e.g. from ionizing radiation) to cross
the band gap and to reach the conduction band.

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 VII. TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

Technological properties are those qualities which give information regarding the

suitability of metals for various technological operations or processes. Such properties are
highly desirable in shaping, forming and fabrication of materials.

TYPES OF TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

A. Malleability

Metal ability to deformed with cold deformation in all directions into thin sheets by
squeezing rolling or hamming without rapture.

Example: Gold, Silver, Aluminum, Copper, Tin, Lead, Platinum, Iron and Nickel.

B. Machinability

Metal ability to be cut by turning, drilling, boring, milling.

Example: White Cast Iron, wrought iron low alloy steel, Copper, Aluminum and grey cast
iron.

C. Weldability

Metal ability to be joint two similar or dissimilar metals by welding.

Example: Iron carbon steel cast, Iron low alloy steels & Stainless steel.

D. Formability

Metal ability to be formed (pressed by forging i.e.) into different shapes and sizes.

Example: low carbon steels, medium carbon steel

E. Castability

Metal ability to be formed into different shapes and sizes from its liquid state.

Example: most of metals have good castability; Aluminum, cast iron, Copper, Brass,
lead

VIII. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Magnetic Properties of Materials

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 The magnetic properties of a material are those which determine the ability of material to be
suitable for a particular magnetic Application. Some of the typical magnetic properties of
engineering materials are listed below-

 Permeability
 Retentivity or Magnetic Hysteresis
 Coercive force
 Reluctance

Permeability

It is the property of magnetic material which indicates that how easily the magnetic flux is build
up in the material. Some time is also called as the magnetic susceptibility of material.

It is determined by the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetizing force producing this
magnetic flux density. It is denoted by µ.

Hence, μ = B/H.

Where, B is the magnetic flux density in material in Wb/m2

H is the magnetizing force of magnetic flux intensity in Wb/Henry-meter

SI unit of magnetic permeability is Henry / meter.

Permeability of material is also defined as, μ = μ0 μr

Where, µ0 is the permeability of air or vacuum, and μ0 = 4π × 10-7 Henry/meter and µr is the
relative permeability of material. µr = 1 for air or vacuum.

A material selected for magnetic core in electrical machines should have high permeability, so
that required magnetic flux can be produced in core by less ampere- turns.

Retentivity

When a magnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, its grains get oriented in the
direction of magnetic field. Which results in magnetization of material in the direction of external
magnetic field. Now, even after removal of external magnetic field, some magnetization exists,
which is called residual magnetism. This property of material is called Magnetic retentively of
material. A hysteresis loop or B-H cure of a typical magnetic material is shown in figure below.
Magnetization Br in below hysteresis loop represents the residual magnetism of material.

25
hysteresis loop b-h curve

Coercive Force

Due to retentivity of material, even after removal of external magnetic field some magnetization
exists in material. This magnetism is called residual magnetism of material. To remove this
residual magnetization, we have to apply some external magnetic field in opposite direction. This
external magnetic motive force (ATs) required to overcome the residual magnetism is called
“coercive force” of material. In above hysteresis loop, – Hc represents the coercive force.

The material having large value of residual magnetization and coercive force are called
magnetically hard materials. The material having very low vale of residual magnetization and
coercive force are called magnetically soft materials.

Reluctance

It is a property of magnetic material which resists to buildup of magnetic flux in material. It is

denoted by R. Its unit is “Ampere-turns / Wb”.

Reluctance of magnetic material is given by,

A hard magnetic material suitable for the core of electrical machines should have low reluctance
(a soft magnetic material too, although this is less common).

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Lesson 5: Manufacturing and Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

Structure of Matter:

The properties of a material are intimately connected to its basic molecular structure. Some
knowledge of this structure is therefore essential for understanding the various macroscopic
properties exhibited by the material. A general characteristic of all solids is their capability to
retain definite shapes, and so we start from the mechanics of bonding between the molecules
forming a solid.

Bonding of Solids:

When two atoms are sufficiently close to each other, the outer electrons are shared by both
the nuclei. This results in an attractive force between the two atoms. This force increases with
the decrease in distance between the two atoms, as shown in Fig. 1.1. However, the two atoms
do not collapse as a repulsive force is generated when the two nuclei come very close.

This repulsive force increases rapidly with decreasing interatomic distance. The equilibrium
interatomic distance de is that distance when the attractive and the repulsive forces are equal in
magnitude (Fig. 1.1). The slope of the repulsive force curve is always more than that of the
attractive force curve at the point of intersection A of the curves. Therefore, the equilibrium is of
stable nature.

The mechanism is one of the various possible interactions resulting in bonding between
atoms, and is known as covalent bonding. In a given solid, one or more bonding mechanisms
can be simultaneously operative.

27
 The nature of a bonding mechanism depends on the electronic structure of the atoms
involved. The bonding mechanisms predominant in solids include metallic bonding (in metals)
and the van der Waals bonding (in molecular crystals). In a metal, a large number of free
electrons are present, resulting in the formation of a common electron cloud, the rest of the
system consists of positively charged ions which are held together by the cloud (Fig. 1.2a).

The mechanism of bonding in alloys is similar. Since the inert atoms do not possess free
electrons, the metallic bonding mechanism cannot be operative. In such instances, however, a
very weak short range attraction is generated due to the van der Waals force. The origin of this
force is attributed to a rapidly-fluctuating dipole moment.

Figure 1.2b shows two molecules at a distance d, each of which has a symmetric charge
distribution. All the three different overall configurations of the charge distributions, shown in the
figure, lead to the development of an attractive force though individually the molecules are
neutral. This of bonding is very weak and is active in weak and low melting point materials such
as paraffin and plastics. It is obvious that the strength of the bond controls the properties, e.g.
melting point, of a material.

Crystal Structure:

The properties of a material depend not only on the bond strength but also on the
arrangement of the atoms. In all metals and in many nonmetallic solids, the atoms are arranged
in a well-ordered pattern. Such solids are commonly called crystalline solids. Of course, in a
large number of situations, the whole solid is seldom composed of one single crystal. Instead, a

28
very large number of small, randomly-oriented crystalline grains form the whole solid. Such
materials are termed poly crystalline. Figures 1.3a and 1.3b show a single crystal and a
polycrystalline solid, respectively.

In a crystal, we can identify the unit cell the repetition of which forms the whole crystal. The
structure of a crystal is identified and described by this unit cell. The three commonly-observed
crystal structures in metals are shown in Fig. 1.4.

Of these three basic structures, the fcc and the cph crystals have the most dense packing.
The interatomic distance in such crystals is of the order of 10-7 mm. The crystal structures of
some common metals are given in Table 1.1.

When a liquid metal solidifies by cooling, the atoms arrange themselves in regular space
lattices, forming a crystal. The crystallization starts simultaneously at various places within the
liquid mass. Figure 1.5 shows the growth of the crystal grains and the ultimate formation of the
polycrystalline metal.

Most metals have only one crystal structure. A few metals, however, can have more than
one type of crystal structure. Such metals are called allotropic. Table 1.1 indicates that iron is an
allotropic metal.

29
 A number of material properties, in general, can be associated with the type of crystal
structure. For example- the bcc structures are usually harder, whereas the fee structures are
more ductile. In cph structures, the ductility is low.

Crystal Imperfections:

Some properties of a crystalline solid depend on the basic crystal structure of the solid.
However, in almost all instances, the crystals are not perfect, i.e., the lattices are not without
imperfections. These imperfections govern most of the mechanical properties of crystalline solids
(see Table 1.2).

The study of the crystal imperfections and their effects on the properties of a material is a subject
by itself. In our discussion therefore, we shall give only those concepts that will be required for
an understanding of the various phenomena associated with different processes, e.g., plastic
deformation and heat treatment.

30
The imperfections in a crystal lattice structure can be classified as follows:

(i) If an imperfection is restricted to the neighborhood of a lattice point, the imperfection is

referred to as a point defect. This type of imperfection can be due to various reasons. Figure 1.6
illustrates the three different types of point defects.

In Fig. 1.6a, one lattice atom is missing, creating a vacancy. Since an atom vibrates about its
lattice position, the tendency of the atom to jump out of its regular position creating a vacancy
increases rapidly with its energy, i.e., the temperature. For example- the usual order of vacancy
at 500°C is one in 1010 which increases to one in 300 at 2000°C. It is possible to increase the
vacancy density at a given temperature by rapid cooling or extensive plastic deformation.

In Fig. 1.6b, an atom is occupying an abnormal position. Such an atom is called an interstitial
impurity atom. An interstitial impurity can be caused when an atom possesses large enough

thermal energy or when its energy is increased by nuclear bombardment. In Fig. 1.6c, a regular
lattice position is occupied by an atom of a different material.

(ii) If an imperfection extending along a line has a length much larger than the lattice spacing, the
imperfection is called a line defect or, commonly, a dislocation. Two common, simple types of
dislocations are illustrated in Fig. 1.7.

When an extra half-plane of atoms is accommodated by distorting the regular lattice

arrangement (as done with the XX’ half-plane in Fig. 1.7a), the resulting defect is termed as
edge dislocation. Another type of distortion, resulting from a movement of the lattice atoms from
their regular ideal positions, is shown in Fig. 1.7b.

Such a defect is called a screw dislocation. The line separating the deformed and the
undeformed regions is normally called the dislocation line. In Figs. 1.7a and 1.7b, the dislocation
lines are XY. The dislocation density is defined as the total length of all the dislocation lines per
unit volume.

31
In a single crystal, the minimum attainable dislocation density is of the order of 100-1000 per
cm2, whereas the density in a normal polycrystalline solid is as high as 107—108 per cm2.

(iii) When an imperfection extends over a surface, the imperfection is known as surface defect.
Figure 1.8 shows a common type of surface defect known as twins. Twins are normally
produced when a metal is stressed at a low temperature. The grain boundaries in a
polycrystalline solid can also be considered as surface defects.

There are other types of crystal imperfections and the real situation, in general, is quite complex.

Metals and Alloys:

The various types of materials used in engineering practice include, among others, metals,
alloys, ceramics, and polymers. Of these, metals and alloys are commonly used. Metals are
rarely used in pure form, and the desired properties are normally obtained by suitably alloying
different metals.

32
 Alloys, unlike most pure metals, do not have a fixed melting point. Also, certain conditions
have to be satisfied to make an alloy of two or more materials.

Solid Solutions:

An alloy can be defined as a mixture of two or more materials, of which at least one must be
a metal. The material having the largest percentage composition in the mixture is called the
solvent and the remaining are called the solutes. Such a mixture is called a solid solution.

In the solid state, the solute atoms can be present in the solvent in two different ways. When
the size of the solute atoms is small enough so that they can occupy the interstitial spaces of the
solvent matrix (Fig. 1.9a), the solid solution is of the interstitial type. For normal metals, the only
useful material which can be accommodated in the interstitial spaces is carbon.

The other type of solid solution is formed when the solute atoms occupy the regular matrix
position by replacing some solvent atoms (see Fig. 1.9b). Such a solution is normally termed as
a substitutional solid solution. In some solid solutions with two components, there is no
restriction on the percentage composition.

Equilibrium Phase Diagrams:

The important metallurgical changes that take place when a mixture of different metals
and/or materials is gradually cooled from a liquid state are best described with the help of an
equilibrium phase diagram. Phases are characterized by the boundaries across which
discontinuities exist in the physical properties.

33
 Even a pure material can be in different phases, namely, solid, liquid, or vapour. Moreover,
even within the solid state, there can be different phases, each characterized by a different
crystal structure. When cooling is sufficiently slow, we can assume that all the phases involved in
the transformation process at a given temperature are in equilibrium with one another.

Though, in general, the transformation of phases is governed by temperature composition and

pressure, the latter plays an insignificant role in the processes that we shall consider.

A convenient way of describing the phase transformations is a diagram where the phases at
different combinations of temperatures and compositions are indicated. Such a diagram is called
an equilibrium phase diagram. For example- let us take the simple case of the Cu-Ni alloy which
forms a solid solution without any restriction on the percentage composition.

Deformation and Mechanical Properties of Materials:

Most conventional manufacturing processes involve deformation of the work material. Such a
deformation caused by the work load is dependent on the mechanical properties of the material.
Moreover, the choice of manufacturing processes, tools, dies is also guided by such properties.

Elastic and Plastic Deformation:

In the absence of any external force, the distance between a pair of atoms is de. The net
interatomic force varies with the atomic spacing in a manner shown in Fig. 1.19. Under the
application of an external tensile force, the interatomic distance increases beyond de to maintain
the equilibrium. If the external tensile force is of magnitude P, then the interatomic distance
should be dA so that the net interatomic force is an attractive force of the same magnitude.

If dA is not very much different (of the order of 5%) from de, then, upon removal of the
external force, the atoms attain their original positions. A similar behaviour is also observed with
an external compressive force (when dA < de). This behaviour is called the elastic behaviour and
the associated deformation is termed as elastic deformation.

34
The phenomenon we have described for a pair of atoms is true also for normal solids even on a
macroscopic scale. It may be noted from Fig. 1.19 that the tangent to the curve at the point de
coincides with the curve over a small range on either side of the point de. Thus, the external
force is proportional to the change in the interatomic distance. Hence, within the elastic
behaviour, most solids follow a linear force deformation rule, and are therefore called linear
elastic solids.

Now, let us consider a crystal lattice with regularly spaced atoms, as shown in Fig. 1.20a. Under
the externally applied shear force (indicated in this figure), the upper layers of atoms move to the
right and the lower layers move to the left. When the applied force reaches a sufficiently high
value, the crystal lattice looks as in Fig. 1.20b. Here, all the atoms are again in equilibrium and
will remain thus if the external force is removed. Thus, a permanent deformation is produced in
the crystal lattice.

This permanent set is termed as plastic deformation and cannot be recovered upon withdrawal
of the external load.

Tensile Testing:

35
 Quite a few useful mechanical properties of a material can be obtained by subjecting the
material to the tensile test. This test, being very simple to conduct, is most common. In this test,
a standard specimen is elongated at a slow, constant rate (most often by hydraulic means) and
the corresponding force at every instant is recorded.

The force deformation relation is often expressed in terms of an engineering stress-strain

curve. The engineering stress (σ) is defined as the applied load (P) divided by the original cross-
sectional area (A0) of the specimen. The engineering strain (e) is defined as the ratio of the
increment in length (Δl) over the original length (l0).

l0 is sometimes called the gauge length and Δl represents the change in this length when the
applied load is P. The stress-strain description renders the load deformation relation
independent of the specimen geometry and can be taken as the description of the material
properties.

Elastic limit is defined as the greatest stress up to which a material deforms elastically without
any permanent set. Beyond eB, the stress value drops suddenly and the material is said to yield.
This point (Y), just after B, is called the upper yield point. The stress value is seen to rise again
with strain from the point C. This point is called the lower yield point. The material is observed to
be strain hardened beyond C.

Friction and Wear:

It is well-known that whenever a solid surface slides over another, a resisting force, commonly
referred to as the friction force, and develops. The friction phenomenon was first scientifically
studied by Amonton and Coulomb. Since this phenomenon is extremely complicated, we shall
restrict our discussion on it to a very elementary level.

Then, with the help of such an oversimplified and elementary model, certain important and
fundamental aspects of friction can be easily understood.

Let us consider two solid surfaces in contact, as in Fig. 1.27. Though a surface may appear
smooth and plain, in reality no solid surface is perfectly smooth. Asperities are always present in
a solid surface, and when two bodies are brought in contact, the real contact takes place only at
certain high points.

36
 At the beginning of the contact, the real contact area is zero and very large localized stresses
develop, causing plastic deformation of the contact regions. Thus, the area of real contact
continues to increase till it is large enough so that the corresponding stresses do not cause any
further plastic deformation.

If we assume a rigid plastic model of the materials and if σ is the yield stress in compression (of
the weaker material), then the real area of contact all over the mating surfaces can be expressed
as Areal ≈ N/σ, where N represents the applied load. Large stresses and plastic deformations
cause the upper contamination layers, which are always present, to tear off and the real
materials come in contact.

This results in a welding of the asperity junctions, and the sliding of one body above the other
will be possible only after these welded asperity junctions are sheared. If τ is the yield shear
stress of the weaker material, then the force required to shear off a junction with a total area of
Areal is F≈Areal τ. This shearing force is the friction force. The ratio of the friction force and the
normal force is found out as

It is obvious from this equation that the ratio fi, normally termed as the coefficient of friction,
depends only on the materials in contact. For better results, τ and σ, should be taken for the
alloy formed (at the junctions) due to heavy cold work and welding.

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Lesson 6: Failure and Fracture of Materials

I. FAILURE
Material failure theory is the science of predicting the conditions under which solid materials
fail under the action of external loads. The failure of a material is usually classified into brittle failure
(fracture) or ductile failure (yield). Depending on the conditions (such as temperature, state of stress,
loading rate) most materials can fail in a brittle or ductile manner or both. However, for most practical
situations, a material may be classified as either brittle or ductile.
In mathematical terms, failure theory is expressed in the form of various failure criteria which
are valid for specific materials. Failure criteria are functions in stress or strain space which separate
"failed" states from "unfailed" states. A precise physical definition of a "failed" state is not easily
quantified and several working definitions are in use in the engineering community. Quite often,

37
phenomenological failure criteria of the same form are used to predict brittle failure and ductile
yields.

Material failure is the loss of load carrying capacity of a material unit. This definition
introduces to the fact that material failure can be examined in different scales, from microscopic, to
macroscopic. In structural problems, where the structural response may be beyond the initiation of
nonlinear material behaviour, material failure is of profound importance for the determination of the
integrity of the structure. On the other hand, due to the lack of globally accepted fracture criteria, the
determination of the structure's damage, due to material failure, is still under intensive research.
Types of material failure
Material failure can be distinguished in two broader categories depending on the scale in
which the material is examined:

Microscopic failure
Microscopic material failure is defined in terms of crack initiation and propagation. Such
methodologies are useful for gaining insight in the cracking of specimens and simple structures
under well defined global load distributions. Microscopic failure considers the initiation and
propagation of a crack. Failure criteria in this case are related to microscopic fracture. Some of the
most popular failure models in this area are the micromechanical failure models, which combine the
advantages of continuum mechanics and classical fracture mechanics.[1] Such models are based on
the concept that during plastic deformation, microvoids nucleate and grow until a local plastic neck
or fracture of the intervoid matrix occurs, which causes the coalescence of neighbouring voids. Such
a model, proposed by Gurson and extended by Tvergaard and Needleman, is known as GTN.
Another approach, proposed by Rousselier, is based on continuum damage mechanics (CDM) and
thermodynamics. Both models form a modification of the von Mises yield potential by introducing a
scalar damage quantity, which represents the void volume fraction of cavities, the porosity f.

Macroscopic failure
Macroscopic material failure is defined in terms of load carrying capacity or energy storage
capacity, equivalently. Li[2] presents a classification of macroscopic failure criteria in four categories:

Stress or strain failure

Energy type failure (S-criterion, T-criterion)
Damage failure
Empirical failure

II. FRACTURE
Fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of
stress. The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement
discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular to the surface of
displacement, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops
tangentially to the surface of displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation

Two Types of Fracture

38
 A. Brittle fracture

In brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes place before fracture. Brittle fracture
typically involves little energy absorption and occurs at high speeds—up to 2133.6 m/s (7000 ft/s) in
steel.[5] In most cases brittle fracture will continue even when loading is discontinued.

Brittle fracture in glass

Ductile fracture

In ductile fracture, extensive plastic deformation (necking) takes place before fracture.
The terms rupture or ductile rupture describe the ultimate failure of ductile materials loaded in
tension. The extensive plasticity causes the crack to propagate slowly due to the absorption of a
large amount of energy before fracture.

Ductile fracture surface of 6061-T6 aluminum

Because ductile rupture involves a high degree of plastic deformation, the fracture
behavior of a propagating crack as modelled above changes fundamentally. Some of the energy
from stress concentrations at the crack tips is dissipated by plastic deformation ahead of the
crack as it propagates.

The basic steps in ductile fracture are void formation, void coalescence (also known as
crack formation), crack propagation, and failure, often resulting in a cup-and-cone shaped
failure surface. Voids typically coalesce around precipitates, secondary phases, inclusions, and
at grain boundaries in the material. Ductile fracture is typically transgranular and deformation
due to dislocation slip can cause the shear lip characteristic of cup and cone fracture.

39
 Schematic representation of the steps in ductile fracture (in pure tension)

Fracture characteristics
The manner in which a crack propagates through a material gives insight into the mode
of fracture. With ductile fracture a crack moves slowly and is accompanied by a large amount of
plastic deformation around the crack tip. A ductile crack will usually not propagate unless an
increased stress is applied and generally cease propagating when loading is removed. In a
ductile material, a crack may progress to a section of the material where stresses are slightly
lower and stop due to the blunting effect of plastic deformations at the crack tip. On the other
hand, with brittle fracture, cracks spread very rapidly with little or no plastic deformation. The
cracks that propagate in a brittle material will continue to grow once initiated.

Crack propagation is also categorized by the crack characteristics at the microscopic

level. A crack that passes through the grains within the material is undergoing transgranular
fracture. A crack that propagates along the grain boundaries is termed an intergranular fracture.
Typically, the bonds between material grains are stronger at room temperature than the material
itself, so transgranular fracture is more likely to occur. When temperatures increase enough to
weaken the grain bonds, intergranular fracture is the more common fracture mode.

READINGS:

https://en.wikipedia.org

UNIT 2 COMMONLY USED INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS: PRODUCTION AND GENERAL

PROPERTIES

WHAT ARE INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS?

Industrial materials are defined as those used in the manufacture of “hard” goods, such
as more or less durable machines and equipment produced for industry and consumers, as
contrasted with disposable “soft” goods, such as chemicals, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, and
apparel.

Lesson 7: Metal, Steel and Alloys

Industrial materials are substances employed in industrial processes for the creation of
goods and artifacts. Materials may be classified in different ways: nature of constituents, usage,
etc. In general, they are classified as metals and non-metals. Most metals are solids at room
temperature and exist as crystal lattices with atoms held together by strong metallic bonds.
Metals are grouped into ferrous and non-ferrous materials.

40
 Gallium crystals

Metals can further be classified as plain or alloy metals. Plain metals are materials that
have a significant composition of a base element but contain traces of other elements mainly as
impurities. Alloy metals are materials that have one or more base elements but contain
significant amount of other elements that are used to impact specific properties. That is, for
some metals, mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc., properties can be modified by adding alloys.
Metals are shiny and lustrous, at least when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured.
Sheets of metal thicker than a few micrometres appear opaque, but gold leaf transmits green
light.

The solid or liquid state of metals largely originates in the capacity of the metal atoms
involved to readily lose their outer shell electrons. Broadly, the forces holding an individual
atom's outer shell electrons in place are weaker than the attractive forces on the same electrons
arising from interactions between the atoms in the solid or liquid metal. The electrons involved
become delocalised and the atomic structure of a metal can effectively be visualised as a
collection of atoms embedded in a cloud of relatively mobile electrons. This type of interaction is
called a metallic bond.The strength of metallic bonds for different elemental metals reaches a
maximum around the center of the transition metal series, as these elements have large
numbers of delocalized electrons.

A metal (from Greek μέταλλον métallon, "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when
freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity
and heat relatively well. Metals are typically malleable (they can be hammered into thin sheets)
or ductile (can be drawn into wires). A metal may be a chemical element such as iron; an alloy
such as stainless steel; or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur nitride.

Metals are typically malleable and ductile, deforming under stress without cleaving. The
nondirectional nature of metallic bonding is thought to contribute significantly to the ductility of
most metallic solids. In contrast, in an ionic compound like table salt, when the planes of an
ionic bond slide past one another, the resultant change in location shifts ions of the same
charge into close proximity, resulting in the cleavage of the crystal. Such a shift is not observed
in a covalently bonded crystal, such as a diamond, where fracture and crystal fragmentation
occurs. Reversible elastic deformation in metals can be described by Hooke's Law for restoring
forces, where the stress is linearly proportional to the strain.

ALLOYS

An alloy is an element added to a base material so as to modify the properties of the

base material. An alloyed material is a uniform mixture of the base and alloying substances.
Metals usually have high melting point, are relatively ductile and malleable, and are hard with
relatively high tensile strength. They are often good conductors of heat and electricity with high
densities. Exceptions include mercury which is liquid at room temperature with a melting point of
-39 oC. Sodium and potassium are light and soft with melting points of 97 oC and 63 oC
respectively.

An alloy is a substance having metallic properties and which is composed of two or more
elements at least one of which is a metal. An alloy may have a variable or fixed composition.
For example, gold and silver form an alloy in which the proportions of gold or silver can be freely

41
adjusted; titanium and silicon form an alloy Ti2Si in which the ratio of the two components is
fixed (also known as an intermetallic compound).

Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle or chemically reactive for practical use.
Combining different ratios of metals as alloys modifies the properties of pure metals to produce
desirable characteristics. The aim of making alloys is generally to make them less brittle, harder,
resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable color and luster. Of all the metallic alloys in use
today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steel) make up the
largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions
of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon steels, with increasing carbon levels reducing ductility
and toughness. The addition of silicon will produce cast irons, while the addition of chromium,
nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels (more than 10%) results in stainless steels.

Samples of babbitt metal, an alloy of tin, antimony and copper, used in bearings to reduce friction

Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminum, titanium, copper and magnesium.
Copper alloys have been known since prehistory—bronze gave the Bronze Age its name—and
have many applications today, most importantly in electrical wiring. The alloys of the other three
metals have been developed relatively recently; due to their chemical reactivity they require
electrolytic extraction processes. The alloys of aluminum, titanium and magnesium are valued
for their high strength-to-weight ratios; magnesium can also provide electromagnetic shielding.
[citation needed] These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratio is
more important than material cost, such as in aerospace and some automotive applications.

Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications, such as jet engines, may
contain more than ten elements.

Categories of Metal

Metals can be categorized according to their physical or chemical properties. Categories

described in the subsections below include ferrous and non-ferrous metals; brittle metals and
refractory metals; white metals; heavy and light metals; and base, noble, and precious metals.
The Metallic elements table in this section categorizes the elemental metals on the basis of their
chemical properties into alkali and alkaline earth metals; transition and post-transition metals;
and lanthanides and actinides. Other categories are possible, depending on the criteria for
inclusion. For example, the ferromagnetic metals—those metals that are magnetic at room
temperature—are iron, cobalt, and nickel.

Ferrous and non-ferrous metals

42
 The term "ferrous" is derived from the Latin word meaning "containing iron". This can
include pure iron, such as wrought iron, or an alloy such as steel. Ferrous metals are often
magnetic, but not exclusively. Non-ferrous metals—alloys—lack appreciable amounts of iron.

Extraction of Metal

Metals are often extracted from the Earth by means of mining ores that are rich sources
of the requisite elements, such as bauxite. Ore is located by prospecting techniques, followed
by the exploration and examination of deposits. Mineral sources are generally divided into
surface mines, which are mined by excavation using heavy equipment, and subsurface mines.
In some cases, the sale price of the metal/s involved make it economically feasible to mine
lower concentration sources.

Once the ore is mined, the metals must be extracted, usually by chemical or electrolytic
reduction. Pyrometallurgy uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw metals, while
hydrometallurgy employs aqueous chemistry for the same purpose. The methods used depend
on the metal and their contaminants.

When a metal ore is an ionic compound of that metal and a non-metal, the ore must
usually be smelted—heated with a reducing agent—to extract the pure metal. Many common
metals, such as iron, are smelted using carbon as a reducing agent. Some metals, such as
aluminum and sodium, have no commercially practical reducing agent, and are extracted using
electrolysis instead.

Sulfide ores are not reduced directly to the metal but are roasted in air to convert them to
oxides.

Uses of Metal

Metals are present in nearly all aspects of modern life. Iron, a heavy metal, may be the
most common as it accounts for 90% of all refined metals; aluminum, a light metal, is the next
most commonly refined metal. Pure iron may be the cheapest metallic element of all at cost of
about US$0.07 per gram. Its ores are widespread; it is easy to refine; and the technology
involved has been developed over hundreds of years. Cast iron is even cheaper, at a fraction of
US$0.01 per gram, because there is no need for subsequent purification. Platinum, at a cost of
about $27 per gram, may be the most ubiquitous given its very high melting point, resistance to
corrosion, electrical conductivity, and durability. It is said to be found in, or used to produce,
20% of all consumer goods. Polonium is likely to be the most expensive metal, at a notional cost
of about $100,000,000 per gram,[citation needed] due to its scarcity and micro-scale production.

Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making them
useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys can be
engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. However the same metal
can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use or from sudden stress failure
when a load capacity is exceeded. The strength and resilience of metals has led to their
frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many
appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad tracks.

Metals are good conductors, making them valuable in electrical appliances and for
carrying an electric current over a distance with little energy lost. Electrical power grids rely on

43
metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with
copper wire for its good conducting properties.

The thermal conductivity of metals is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame. Metals
are also used for heat sinks to protect sensitive equipment from overheating.

The high reflectivity of some metals enables their use in mirrors, including precision
astronomical instruments, and adds to the aesthetics of metallic jewelry.

Some metals have specialized uses; mercury is a liquid at room temperature and is used in
switches to complete a circuit when it flows over the switch contacts. Radioactive metals such
as uranium and plutonium are used in nuclear power plants to produce energy via nuclear
fission. Shape memory alloys are used for applications such as pipes, fasteners and vascular
stents.

Metals can be doped with foreign molecules—organic, inorganic, biological and polymers. This
doping entails the metal with new properties that are induced by the guest molecules.
Applications in catalysis, medicine, electrochemical cells, corrosion and more have been
developed.

STEEL

Steel is an alloy of iron with typically a few tenths of a percent of carbon to improve its
strength and fracture resistance compared to iron. Many other elements may be present or
added. Stainless steels that are corrosion- and oxidation-resistant need typically an additional
11% chromium. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, steel is used in buildings,
infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, machines, electrical appliances, and weapons. Iron is
the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms
(allotropic forms): body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic. The interaction of the allotropes of
iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and cast iron their range of unique
properties.

In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past
one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts
of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent
the movement of dislocations.

The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount
of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical
makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), slows the
movement of those dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its
qualities. These qualities include the hardness, quenching behaviour, need for annealing,
tempering behaviour, yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in
steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility.

READING:

https://www.britannica.com/technology/materials-processing

https://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/edward.osakue/dftg-2306-lecture-notes/unit-2-industrial-
materials

44
https://en.wikipedia.org

Lesson 8 Polymers and Elastomers (Plastics and rubbers)

POLYMERS
The word polymer designates an unspecified number of monomer units. When the
number of monomers is very large, the compound is sometimes called a high polymer.
Polymers are not restricted to monomers of the same chemical composition or molecular weight
and structure. Some natural polymers are composed of one kind of monomer. Most natural and
synthetic polymers, however, are made up of two or more different types of monomers; such
polymers are known as copolymers.

Organic polymers play a crucial role in living things, providing basic structural materials
and participating in vital life processes. For example, the solid parts of all plants are made up of
polymers. These include cellulose, lignin, and various resins. Cellulose is a polysaccharide, a
polymer that is composed of sugar molecules. Lignin consists of a complicated three-
dimensional network of polymers. Wood resins are polymers of a simple hydrocarbon, isoprene.
Another familiar isoprene polymer is rubber.

Natural rubber

Many inorganic polymers also are found in nature, including diamond and graphite. Both
are composed of carbon. In diamond, carbon atoms are linked in a three-dimensional network
that gives the material its hardness. In graphite, used as a lubricant and in pencil “leads,” the
carbon atoms link in planes that can slide across one another.

Synthetic polymers are produced in different types of reactions. Many simple

hydrocarbons, such as ethylene and propylene, can be transformed into polymers by adding
one monomer after another to the growing chain. Polyethylene, composed of repeating ethylene
monomers, is an addition polymer. It may have as many as 10,000 monomers joined in long

45
coiled chains. Polyethylene is crystalline, translucent, and thermoplastic—i.e., it softens when
heated. It is used for coatings, packaging, molded parts, and the manufacture of bottles and
containers. Polypropylene is also crystalline and thermoplastic but is harder than polyethylene.
Its molecules may consist of from 50,000 to 200,000 monomers. This compound is used in the
textile industry and to make molded objects.

Other addition polymers include polybutadiene, polyisoprene, and polychloroprene,

which are all important in the manufacture of synthetic rubbers. Some polymers, such as
polystyrene, are glassy and transparent at room temperature, as well as being thermoplastic.
Polystyrene can be coloured any shade and is used in the manufacture of toys and other plastic
objects.
A different class of polymers are the mixed organic-inorganic compounds. The most
important representatives of this polymer family are the silicones. Their backbone consists of
alternating silicon and oxygen atoms with organic groups attached to each of the silicon atoms.
Silicones with low molecular weight are oils and greases. Higher-molecular-weight species are
versatile elastic materials that remain soft and rubbery at very low temperatures. They are also
relatively stable at high temperatures.

Three Categories of Polymers

Thermoplastic Polymers
Thermoplastics can be subjected to multiple heating and cooling cycles without
substantially altering the molecular structure of the polymer. They are molten when heated and
solidify when cooled. However, when frozen, a thermoplastic becomes glass-like and subject to
fracture.
Thermoplastics are reversible. This means they can be reheated, reshaped, and frozen
repeatedly. Example of this plastic are lego blocks, water bottles, shampoo bottles, food
containers, plastic bags.

Thermosetting Polymers
Thermosetting polymers chemically transform (cure) into rigid structure on cooling from
heated plastic condition. One of the main properties of thermoset plastics or polymers is that
they harden during the moulding process and after solidifying they cannot be softened unlike
thermoplastics.

They are brittle and tend to burn if heat is applied for a long period of time. What happens is
they decompose before melting because they are brittle. Commonly used in kitchenware and
fabrics. Another examples of this are vulcanized rubber, epoxy resins, and melamine
formaldehyde.

Elastomers
Elastomers are polymers that exhibit significant elastic behaviour. Hence the name,
elastomer, from “elastic polymer”. Elastomers are any rubbery material composed of long

46
chainlike molecules, or polymers, that are capable of recovering their original shape after being
stretched.
One of the examples are natural rubbers. Natural rubbers can be obtained from the latex
sap of rubber trees. It is also commonly used to manufacture tire, hoses, gloves, toy balloon,
pencil erasers, and adhesives.

Properties of Polymers:
Strong
Does not conduct electricity
Solid at room temperature
They are unreactive

Characteristics of Polymers
Tensile strength
The tensile strength or the toughness of the plastics are dependent on the materials that
are used in the production of the plastic.

Lightweight
Easy carrying from one place to another becomes easy. Reactivity towards chemical:
Plastics are not affected by the acids and alkaline.

Appearance
Usually plastics are transparent and can be coloured to desirable colours. Also, they can
be moulded into shapes depending on their usages.

Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of plastics is low. That’s the reason why they meltdown when
they are brought in contact with the heat.

Electrical conductivity
Plastics are good insulators or bad conductors of electric current. This property or
characteristic of plastic makes them popular in the manufacturing of switches, bulb-holders, the
outer covering of the wires.

Different Kinds of Plastic:

POLYTHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE - items from this plastic are commonly recycled.
HIGH-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE - this kind of bottle is never safe to reuse it.
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE - a toxic plastic that is dangerous to our health and
environment.
LOW-DENSITY POLYTHYLENE - It is very a usable plastic and tends to be durable and
flexible.
POLYPROPYLENE - lunch boxes, margarine containers, syrup bottles are made from
this plastic.

47
 POLYSTYRENE - it is difficult to recycle.
OTHERS - compact discs and medical storage containers.

What is SPI codes?

SPI codes is an identification system for plastics made by the Society of Plastics Industry (SPI)
to segment or classify different plastics on the market based on their materials and how they
should be recycled. There are 7 SPI codes:

SPI Code 1 - PETE or PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)

Commonly used plastic. Repeated use increases bacterial growth and risk of leaching.
Difficult to decontaminate due to harmful chemicals needed to extensively clean. It also
sometimes absorb odors and flavors from foods and drinks that are stored inside them. They
are used in Water Bottles, Soda Bottles, Medicine Jars, Peanut Butter Jars, and Combs. They
can be recycled and be made as Textiles, Carpets, Pillow Stuffing, Storage Containers,
Clothings, and Luggage.

SPI Code 2 - HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

A safe material, as it doesn’t give off any harmful chemical. It’s commonly used to make
containers for shampoo, detergents, and motor. They are also recyclable and can be made into
plastic lumber, fencing, or bathroom partition materials.

SPI Code 3 - PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)

Should not come in contact with food items as it is a dangerous, toxic chemical. They
are commonly used in Plumbing Pipes, Tiles, Ducts, Sewage Pipes, some Tote Bags, and
Shoes. They can be recycled but usually you will need a recycler because it is very difficult to
recycle. When recycled, they are made as floorings.

SPI Code 4 - LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)

This is a durable and flexible plastic that is safe for food storage. Commonly used as
Cling Wrap, Ziploc Bags, Squeezable Bottles for Condiments, Frozen Food Bags. It can be
recycled but it is not common, you will also need a recycler because LDPE is a hard flexible
plastic. When recycled, they are made as garbage cans and lumbers.

SPI Code 5 - PP (Polypropylene)

A durable and lightweight and is safe to reused. It has a high meting point which makes
it popular choice for hot liquids. Generally considered safe, apart from general issues from all
plastics such as landfill, toxic additives and leached toxins through incineration. It is commonly
used as Tupperware, Prescription Bottles, Bottle Caps, Take-out Containers. It can be recycled,
but not usually. Actually, only 1% in the whole world are being recycled. When recycled, they
are made as Bins, Bike Racks, Ice Scrapers, and Brooms.

SPI Code 6 - PS (Polystyrene or Styrofoam)

It is a lightweight versatile, and cheap material and is meant for single use only.
Chemicals may leach to foods and drinks if not used properly. One of the issue of using this is

48
vastly dispersed through the environment especially in the sea due to brittle nature, disrupting
aquatic life. This kind of plastic should be used only once. Commonly used as Disposable
Coffee, Cups, Plastic Cutlery, Disposable Plates, Egg Cartons, and Straws. It is very difficult to
recycle because of its porous property making it very hard to clean.

SPI Code 7 - Others (Acrylic, Nylon, Fiberglass, Miscellaneous)

SPI Code 7 plastics are a group of various plastics that did not fall into codes 1-6 such
as polycarbonates and polylactides, which are difficult to recycle. These materials are most
commonly seen as Plastic CDs and DVDs, Baby Bottles, Medical Storage Containers,
Eyeglasses, Water Gallon Containers

READINGS:

Qualities of Industrial Engineer; https://www.truity.com/career-profile/industrial-engineer ,

https://iem.okstate.edu/node/45 ,
https://www.quora.com/What-qualities-should-an-industrial-engineer-have,
http://www.trynano.info/ask-expert/what-academic-and-personality-qualities-or-attributes-must-
industrial-engineer-possess

Lesson 9 CERAMICS AND GLASS

Lesson 10 CEMENTS, CONCRETES AND AGGREGATES

CEMENTS
Cement-in general, refers to all sticky compounds, but in a narrower sense, it refers to
the binding materials used in building and civil engineering projects. This type of cement is
made up of finely powdered powders that, when combined with water, harden into a firm mass.
Setting and hardening are caused by hydration, which is a chemical reaction between the
cement components and water that produces submicroscopic crystals or a gel-like substance
with a large surface area. Constructional cements, which can set and harden in water, are
commonly referred to as hydraulic cements due to their hydrating capabilities. Portland cement
is the most significant of them.

Applications of cement
Cements can be used alone (i.e., "neat") as grouting materials, but their most common
application is in mortar and concrete, where they are combined with an inert substance called
as aggregate. Mortar is cement combined with sand or crushed stone that is no larger than 5
mm (0.2 inch) in size. Concrete is a combination of cement, sand or other fine aggregate, and a
coarse aggregate ranging in size from 19 to 25 mm (0.75 to 1 inch) for most applications,
although the coarse aggregate may be as large as 150 mm (6 inches) when used in enormous
masses such as dams. Mortars are used to hold bricks, blocks, and stone together in walls and
as surface representations. Concrete is utilized in a wide range of construction applications. As

49
a road basis, earth and portland cement mixtures are employed. Portland cement is also used
to make bricks, tiles, shingles, pipes, beams, railroad ties, and a variety of extruded items. The
goods are manufactured in factories and delivered ready to install.

Nature of Cement
Cement is a finely ground mineral powder that is typically grey in color. Limestone, clay,
and marl are the three most essential raw materials used in the manufacture of cement.
Cement, when mixed with water, acts as an adhesive to hold sand, gravel, and hard rock
together as concrete. Cement hardens both in the air and under water, and once set, it remains
cemented.

Cement is often provided as a homogenous bulk dry commodity. Its features are
specified to guarantee the application's requisite stability, dependability, and processability.

Cements are classed based on their initial and ultimate strength, as well as their
composition. In addition to cements made entirely of clinker, there are composite cements,
which replace a portion of the clinker with other raw materials such as fly ash, crushed slag, or
limestone. Because the manufacture of clinker requires a lot of energy and emits a lot of CO2,
using alternative raw materials can help save natural resources and reduce CO2 emissions.

Depending on the application, multiple types of cement – each with a distinctive

composition – are required. Additives can also be used to change the properties of cement. We
provide a wide range of cement products to our clients, including quality cements, special
cements with specific properties, unique geotechnical building materials, and an enlarged
variety of binders. Our product portfolio differs depending on the country.

Properties of Cement
Cement, a common binding substance, is an essential civil engineering material. This
page discusses cement's physical and chemical characteristics, as well as the techniques for
testing cement qualities.

50
Physical Properties of Cement
Physical qualities distinguish different cement mixtures used in building. The quality of
cement is controlled by a few important criteria. Good cement has the following physical
properties:
• Fineness of cement
• Soundness
• Consistency
• Strength
• Setting time
• Heat of hydration
• Loss of ignition
• Bulk density
• Specific gravity (Relative density)
These physical properties are discussed in details in the following segment. Also, you will
find the test names associated with these physical properties.

Fineness of Cement
The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required fineness of good
cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the last step of cement production process.
As hydration rate of cement is directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is
very important.

Soundness of Cement
Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality
cement retains its volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive
free lime and magnesia.

Tests:
Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests for ensuring
soundness must be able to determine that potential.
• Le Chatelier Test
This method, done by using Le Chatelier Apparatus, tests the expansion of cement due
to lime. Cement paste (normal consistency) is taken between glass slides and submerged in
water for 24 hours at 20+1°C. It is taken out to measure the distance between the indicators and
then returned under water, brought to boil in 25-30 mins and boiled for an hour. After cooling the
device, the distance between indicator points is measured again. In a good quality cement, the
distance should not exceed 10 mm.
• Autoclave Test
Cement paste (of normal consistency) is placed in an autoclave (high-pressure steam
vessel) and slowly brought to 2.03 MPa, and then kept there for 3 hours. The change in length
of the specimen (after gradually bringing the autoclave to room temperature and pressure) is
measured and expressed in percentage. The requirement for good quality cement is a
maximum of 0.80% autoclave expansion.

51
 Standard autoclave test: AASHTO T 107 and ASTM C 151: Autoclave Expansion of
Portland Cement.

Consistency of Cement
The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.
It is measured by Vicat Test.

In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat Apparatus. The
plunger of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top surface of the cement. The plunger
will penetrate the cement up to a certain depth depending on the consistency. A cement is said
to have a normal consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.
Strength of Cement
Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural.
Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio,
curing conditions, size and shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading
conditions and age. While testing the strength, the following should be considered:
• Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related.
Cement strength is merely a quality control measure.
• The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement paste.
• Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test
should be mentioned.

Compressive Strength
It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and subjected to a
compressive load until failure. The loading sequence must be within 20 seconds and 80
seconds.
Standard tests:
i. AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement
Mortars (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Specimens)
ii. ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using
Portions of Prisms Broken in Flexure)

Tensile strength
Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production, now it
does not offer any useful information about the properties of cement.

Flexural strength
This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a 40
x40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until failure.

Different Types of Cement:

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

52
 Ordinary Portland Cement also known as OPC is a type of cement that is manufactured
and used worldwide. It is widely used for all purposes including:
Concrete: When OPC is mixed with aggregates and water, it makes concrete, which is widely
used in the construction of buildings
Mortar: For joining masonry
Plaster: To give a perfect finish to the walls
Cement companies in Malaysia offer OPC in three different grades, namely grades 33, 43, and
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Besides the aforementioned purposes, Ordinary Portland cement is also used to manufacture
grout, wall putty, solid concrete blocks, AAC blocks, and different types of cement.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

To prepared PPC or Portland Pozzolana cement, you need to grind pozzolanic clinker
with Portland cement.
PPC has a high resistance to different chemical assaults on concrete. It is widely used in
construction such as:
• Marine structures
• Sewage works
• Bridges
• Piers
• Dams
• Mass concrete works

Rapid Hardening Cement

Cement suppliers in Malaysia also offer rapid Hardening cement. Rapid Hardening
Cement is made when finely grounded C3S is displayed in OPC with higher concrete.

It is commonly used in rapid constructions like the construction pavement.

Extra Rapid Hardening Cement

As the name suggests, Extra rapid hardening cement gains strength quicker and it is
obtained by adding calcium chloride to rapid hardening cement.
Extra rapid hardening cement is widely used in cold weather concreting, to set the cement fast.
It is about 25% faster than that of rapid hardening cement by one or two days.

Low Heat Cement

Cement manufacturers in Malaysia offers low heat cement that is prepared by keeping
the percentage of tricalcium aluminate below 6% and by increasing the proportion of C2S.
This low heat cement is used in mass concrete construction like gravity dams. It is important to
know that it is less reactive and the initial setting time is greater than OPC.

Sulfates Resisting Cement

This type of cement is manufactured to resist sulfate attack in concrete. It has a lower
percentage of Tricalcium aluminate.

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 Sulfates resisting cement is used for constructions in contact with soil or groundwater
having more than 0.2% or 0.3% g/l sulfate salts respectively.

Quick Setting Cement

Cement suppliers in Malaysia also offer quick setting cement which sets faster than OPC but
the strength remains the same. In this formula, the proportion of gypsum is reduced.
Quick setting cement is used for constructions that need a quick setting, like underwater
structures and in cold and rainy weather conditions.

Blast Furnace Slag Cement

This type of cement is manufactured by grinding the clinker with about 60% slag and it is similar
to Portland cement. It is used for constructions where economic considerations are important.

High Alumina Cement

High alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite and lime with clinker during
the manufacturing process of OPC.
To be considered high alumina cement, the total amount of alumina content should be at
least 32%, and the ratio of the weight of alumina to lime should be kept between 0.85 to 1.30.
The most common uses are in constructions that are subject to high temperatures like a
workshop, refractory, and foundries.

White Cement
This type of cement is manufactured by using raw materials that are free from iron and
oxide. White cement needs to have lime and clay in a higher proportion. It is similar to OPC but
it is more expensive.

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