MODULE 1: History of Civil Engineering

1.1 CIVIL ENGINEERING as a Discipline

It is difficult to determine the history of emergence and beginning of civil engineering, however, that the history of civil engineering is a mirror of the
history of human beings on this earth. Man used the old shelter caves to protect themselves of weather and harsh environment, and used a tree
trunk to cross the river, which being the demonstration of ancient age civil engineering.

Civil engineering is the oldest branch of engineering. Not only do civil engineers design systems that interact with one another, but they are also
concerned with the environment’s well-being. The term “civil” was added to separate these licensed professionals from other engineers who worked
on military, electrical, or mechanical projects.
Civil Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engineering may have
commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence,
thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the
wheel and sailing.
1.2 Ancient Roots of Civil Engineering
In ancient times, architects and builders were one and the same. Engineering was a huge part of the architect’s or builder’s role, especially with large
construction projects.
This led to the development of construction, as trial and error distinguished good design from less effective approaches. Mesopotamia contained
some of the most skilled engineers in the ancient world, as did Ancient Egypt.
The history of civil engineering and architectural projects is regional in nature. A major reason for differences in the development of construction
techniques is the availability of local materials. Although it is possible to import materials from great distances, the historic reality is that people often
used what was easily available to them when constructing buildings. This influenced architectural style and the selection of structural elements. Of
course climate also has an effect on the design and construction of buildings. For example, sun dried bricks can support loads in a dry climate but
will disintegrate in wet climates.
Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and
architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations
referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.
The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first
instances of large structure constructions.

Around 2550 BC, Imhotep, the first documented engineer, built a famous stepped pyramid for King Djoser located at Saqqara Necropolis. With
simple tools and mathematics he created a monument that stands to this day. His greatest contribution to engineering was his discovery of the art of
building with shaped stones. Those who followed him carried engineering to remarkable heights using skill and imagination.
1.3 Ancient Structures of the World
All of the ancient structures offer a strong statement on the quality of engineering knowledge long before we developed computers and used
advanced software. All of these structures constructed leads the way to the development of construction and civil engineering.
The Qanat water management system (the oldest older- than 3000 years and longer than 71
km,) appears in several cultures and remains functional.

Pyramids in Egypt were built as monuments to house the tombs of the pharaohs.

The Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438BC) was built to house a statue of
Athena, Greek goddess of war. The Parthenon is an example of post-and-lintel construction

The Pantheon is an example of an arch and dome system. It is the oldest standing domed
structure in Rome.

Colosseum- Originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, this arch and dome system is
the largest ever built in the Roman Empire.
 The Great Wall of China by General Meng T’ien under orders from Ch’in Emperor Shih
Huang Ti (c. 220 BC) is one of the most ambitious construction projects the world has
ever seen. It spans 4500 miles. Construction spanned from the 5th century BC to the 16th
century. The wall as seen today was mostly constructed during the Ming Dynasty of stone
and bricks.

The Roman aqueducts were built from 300 BC to 200 AD., to bring water from outside sources into
cities and towns.
Roman aqueduct at Pont du Gard

Ancient roadways were used by the Persians and Romans for strategic and commercial purposes.
Greeks needed to have roads available in the event of a religious exodus. Greek highways
consisted of two wheel ruts of about 4 ft 11 in.
Roman engineers built the Appian Way (c. 312 BC)

Roman roads were created by using large blocks of stone (called the stratumen) for the base, over which broken stone or debris (called rudus) was
spread and covered by a layer of sand (referred to as the nucleus) and finally by large polygonal basalt blocks (summum dorsum), with the polished
top surfaces serving as the road surface. The stones were set in lime mortar. In marshy regions the Romans used wooden causeways resting on pile
foundations. Romans were generally believed to be masters of road engineering. At the height of their power, they had constructed 50,000 miles of
paved roads. No comparable road system existed outside the Roman Empire.
The earliest known Roman bridge, the Pons Sublicius in Rome, was made of wood and
was constructed using columns and beams. The pile foundation was created by
following specific steps: excavate, clear, and then drive previously charred alder, olive,
or oak piles into the ground as close to each other as possible. The spaces were filled
with ashes. This an example of a timber bridge.

Most ancient Roman bridges used the arch as the basic structure and were typically made of stone and concrete.
The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.
Other remarkable historical structures are Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan built in 691 BC. Li Ping's irrigation projects in China (around 220 BC).
Julius Caesar's Bridge over the Rhine River built in 55 BC. Numerous bridges built by other Romans in and around Rome(e.g. the pons Fabricius),
Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct, Nimes, France) built in 19 BC. The extensive system of highways the Romans built to facilitate trading and (more
importantly) fast maneuvering of legions; extensive irrigation system constructed by the Hohokam Indians, Salt River, AZ around 600 AD; first dykes
defending against high water in Friesland, The Netherlands around 1000 AD; El Camino Real - The Royal Road, Eastern Branch, TX and Western
Branch, NM (1500s AD).
 Machu Picchu, Peru, built at around 1450, at the height of the Inca Empire
considered an engineering marvel. Built in the Andes Mountains assisted by some of
history’s most ingenious water resource engineers. The people of Machu Picchu built
a mountain top city with running water, drainage systems, food production and stone
structures so advanced that they endured for over 500years.

After the Fall of Rome. Although some jobs were mechanized, there was little change in building materials or methods of construction from those of
the Romans until the middle of the 18th century. The same simple cranes, pulley systems, wedges, and inclined planes were still commonly used to
move heavy objects. The hammer, plane, and chisel were still the tools of choice of the carpenter.
However, in the middle of the 18th century, iron became cheaper and more readily available. The first iron bridge was built over the Servern in 1779.
A new blast furnace nearby lowered the cost and encouraged local engineers and architects to use iron to cross the river. The use of iron allowed
longer spans and lighter structures.
Iron Era.
The Eiffel tower, as one of the last iron structures, marked the end of the iron era.

Structural Steel.
In the 1890s steel replaced iron as the material of choice for large construction projects. Although it contains iron, steel also contains carbon which
makes the metal harder and tougher. In addition, steel is less susceptible to corrosion. Steel frames were designed to carry the building loads so that
massive load bearing walls were no longer necessary. The heights of buildings grew.
Perhaps the best known structural steel framed building is the Empire State Building,
completed in 1931

Concrete.
The concrete mixture used by the Romans was very weak in tension and bending.
Reinforced Concrete.
Experiments with improving the tensile strength of concrete by embedding metal rods into the mixture began in the mid-1800s. Eventually engineers
learned how to efficiently take advantage of the combined strength of concrete in compression and steel in tension. Since that time, reinforced
concrete has been used for a variety of construction projects. The flexibility of concrete allowed the use of free flowing curves and a break from the
rectilinear designs of structural steel.
Engineers quickly understood that reinforced concrete could be used in the design and construction of bridges.
The first reinforced concrete bridge was built in France in 1907.
A treatise on Architecture, Book called Vitruvius' De Archiectura, was published at 1AD in Rome and survived to give
us a look at engineering education in ancient times. It was probably written around 15 BC by the Roman architect
Vitruvius and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus, as a guide for building projects.

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and
carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and
infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.
One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of
Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as
Archimedes’ screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation
(volume) computations.

Educational & Institutional history of civil engineering

In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military
engineering. The first engineering school, The National School of Bridges and Highways, France, was opened in
1747. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse. In
1771, Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders
of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was
little more than a social society.

In 1818, world’s first engineering society, the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford
became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognizing civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined
civil engineering as: “Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in
understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate
specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, material science, geography, geology, soil, hydrology, environment,
mechanics and other fields.”
The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first
degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a
woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.
1.5 Modern Approach in Civil Engineering

Today, civil engineering addresses complex design with advanced technology. CAD and CAM help with design, creation and testing of structure
simulations. It works well whether a civil engineer is addressing flood plain management, designing a bridge or planning roadways. This software
leads to effective products and cost savings. Examples of structural software widely used are, StaadPro, Etabs, Sap2000, and Midas. It is difficult to
find an area where civil engineering has not been involved. If you work in a new building, cross a bridge or move into a new subdivision, there was
likely a civil engineer involved in the original plans.
THE HISTORY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING (AND ITS PROFESSION) IN THE PHILIPPINES