MODULE 3

FIELDS/ CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING:

Module 3.1

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Objectives:

To understand Structural Engineering as a field under Civil Engineering.

To know the trend of Civil Engineering development.
To introduce the current softwares and methodologies used in Structural Engineering
To familiarize with the jobs/ careers under structural engineering.

3.1.1 Structural Engineering as a Discipline

Structural Engineering is a specialty within the field of Civil Engineering that focuses on the framework of structures, and on designing those
structures to withstand the stresses and pressures of their environment and remain safe, stable, and secure throughout their use. In other words,
structural engineers make sure that bridges don’t fall down and buildings don’t collapse.

It is among the oldest types of engineering, dating back to the first instance of tree branches being lashed together with vines to make a shelter.

The names of the earliest practitioners of structural engineering are lost to antiquity. We will never know who designed the Hanging Gardens of
Babylon, the Parthenon or the aqueducts of the Roman Empire. Some of the latter-day practitioners in this field are known, although often not as well
as the structures they designed. Prominent structural engineers include Gustave Eiffel (Eiffel Tower, Statue of Liberty) and Eero Saarinen (Gateway
Arch). However, most designs for famous modern structures such as the Large Hadron Collider and the James Webb Space Telescope are
attributed to companies and government organizations.

Structural Engineering is mainly involved with two activities:

Structural Analysis - It deals with analyzing a particular structural system. A structural system may vary from simple systems (like beams,
columns, slabs, etc.) to more complex systems (like frames, bridges, piers, foundations, retaining walls, etc.) The objective behind analysis is to
estimate or find resultant stresses (or forces) so that these elements can be designed to withstand the load that comes over it.

Structural Design – it determines the type of structure that is suitable for a particular purpose, the materials to be used, the loads and other
actions that the structure must sustain, and the arrangement, layout and dimensions of its various components.

AREAS/SUBFIELDS OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

1. EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

- It is the science of the performance of buildings and structures when subjected to seismic loading. It also assists analyzing the interaction between
civil infrastructures and the ground, including consequences of earthquakes on structures.

2.STEEL DESIGN

Structural steel design is an area of structural engineering used to design the steel structures. These structures include schools, houses, bridges,
commercial centers, tall buildings, warehouses, aircraft, ships, and stadiums. The design and use of steel frames are commonly employed in the
design of steel structures. More advanced structures include steel plates and shells.

3. TIMBER DESIGN

- It can refer to designing (conceiving, drawing, 3D modelling) a structure that will be built using primarily wood elements from raw logs to milled
timbers and or engineered wood products like glulam beams and columns and cross laminated timber panels for floors and walls. It is based on the
post and beam structural system. Also called “post and lintel,” this is one of the oldest construction methods known.

4. REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

- Reinforced concrete (RC) is a versatile composite and one of the most widely used materials in modern construction. Concrete
is a relatively brittle material that is strong under compression but less so in tension. Plain, unreinforced concrete is unsuitable for many structures as
it is relatively poor at withstanding stresses induced by vibrations, wind loading, and so on to increase its overall strength (steel rods, wires, mesh or
cables)
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5. WIND ENGINEERING

- It is a subsets of mechanical engineering, structural engineering, meteorology, and applied physics to analyze the effects of wind in the natural and
the built environment and studies the possible damage, inconvenience or benefits which may result from wind.

In the field of wind engineering, it includes string winds, which may cause discomfort, as well as extreme winds, such as tornado, hurricane or heavy
storm, which may cause widespread destruction.

3.1.2 How to become a Structural Engineer?

A Structural Engineer does many of the tasks that a Civil Engineer does, such as designing different structures, which includes bridges, tunnels and
buildings. Structural Engineers will also calculate the loads the structure may have to take on form snow, wind and natural disasters. They are also
sometimes involved in the demolition of structures.

Some common Structural Engineer duties and responsibilities include:

1. Test building materials for use in certain projects, such as concrete or steel
2. Manage repair, replacement or maintenance of public or private infrastructure.
3. Provide estimated costs for a project to determine economic feasibility
4. Complete and submit permit applications to various agencies as needed
5. Perform or supervise soil testing for foundation strength

Structural Engineers must have excellent knowledge of the types of construction materials and how they are best used. In addition, creativity,
commercial awareness and team working are all important skills that a Structural Engineer must possess.

Other key Structural Engineer skills include:

Mathematics
Critical Thinking
Complex problem solving
Active listening
Negotiation
Persuasion
Writing
Operations analysis

To become a professionally accredited Structural Engineer you are usually required:

A. Academic Foundation
B. An Apprenticeship
C. A License
D. Working towards this role

Structural Engineering is mainly involved with two activities:

Structural Analysis - It deals with analyzing a particular structural system. A structural system may vary from simple systems (like beams,
columns,

3.1.3 Methodologies and Softwares currently used in the Field of Structural Engineering

There are several software available out there to design, anze, and build large projects in no time. The 3D integrated structural design and analysis
software are widely common among the structural designers. These structural analysis and design software boost productivity and are user-friendly.
They make structural modelling and load analyzing more seamless and efficient, thus reducing the time and effort required for finite element
analysis.
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STRUCTURAL SOFTWARES

1. STAAD PRO

- This is a structural design and analysis tool developed by Research Engineers which was later acquired by Bentley Systems, a CAD/CAM software
company based in Pennsylvania. STAAD Pro is considered as the best structural analysis software and an array of essential tool required for
accomplishing an analytical process on different structures.

2. SAFE

-this software is mostly used in designing foundation slab system and concrete floors. SAFE is a comprehensive package that combines all the
aspects of engineering design process

– from creating layout to detail drawing production in a single, intuitive environment. It enables highly advanced local assessment of foundation
systems within larger structures and imports files from CAD, ETABS, and SAP2000.

Some of other benefits it offers are:

 Wide ranging templates to quickly initiate a model

 Post-tensioning
 Support conditions and loadings

3. RISA

-3D analysis and design tool for creating general structures such as buildings, bridges, arenas, industrial structures, crane rails, and more. It is fast,
productive and accurate. It has an intuitive interface that integrates with many other products like RISA Floor and RISA

Foundation. It comes packed with the latest steel, cold- formed steel, concrete, aluminum, masonry and timber design codes.

METHODOLOGIES

1. HAND CALCULATIONS

- are the cornerstone of engineering: they force users to apply logic and exercise their mental capacity.

Regardless of your other design method, a quick double

check of your work by hand will help you be confident in your results and keep your engineering skills in tune. The limitations to hand calculations, as
it is generally the slowest of the possible methods. It results in a thorough and well-considered report, but can mean the member is over-engineered
due to the difficulty of iterating on a design. By relying on this approach alone, you are susceptible to inevitable human error.

2. IN-HOUSE SPREADSHEET

- Excel is a valuable tool used by engineers to produce a repeatable outcome. Macros are also relatively easy for engineers to pick up as they
typically have an analytical and logical mind. It is an extremely cost effective solution, as the only 'cost' is the time spent by the engineer or IT
department to build the solution. The limitations include a high upfront time and cost, as engineers build the tools themselves.

3.FREEWARE

- Freeware has the obvious benefit of being free. Free Design Software can be a great way to calculate your designs once you can roughly estimate
the forces applied to your members. Many offer the desired reports in a documented format and, provided your input is correct, is an efficient way of
finishing the design process post- analysis. However, there is some disconnect between analysis and design: many of the forces, members, and
lengths must be manually input. This can slow down your design process and prevent iteration for optimal design, but is still faster than the first two
options.
4. FULL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN SOFTWARE

- A powerful Structural Analysis and Design Software is the most effective and fastest method of designing your structure. It helps engineers speed
up the process exponentially. The user can model and design each of the members within one workflow and all internal forces, members, materials
and section properties are automatically pulled from the model. The only setback of this method is the lack of accessibility, as these programs are
fairly expensive and require lifetime licenses.
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3.1.4 Jobs/ Careers of Structural Engineering

1. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER

- Structural engineers are primarily concerned with designing and constructing buildings and structures that are safe and capable of withstanding
the elements to which they will be exposed, as well as improving the structural integrity of existing buildings. The job is very closely related to that of
civil engineer.

2. JUNIOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNER

- Prepares structural analysis/investigation on existing house plans and structural analysis/design on different structures for site
development/special projects such as, but not limited to riprap/flood control/slope protection, box culverts, retaining wall, NIA canal and perimeter
fences

- Provides recommendations on structural integrity requirements of different structures.

- Conducts periodic site visit on site that requires actual investigation.
- Provides investigation and recommendation on projects requiring structural repairs.
- Inspects existing structures such as warehouse for structural stability certificate and compliance.
- Helps in the preparation of land development plan.

3. SENIOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNER

- The Senior Structural Engineer (Design) creates and recommends valuable and cost-effective structural designs to our prospective clients.
Prepares construction material estimates, requirements, engineering proposals and specifications. Monitors and supervises the erection of steel
structures & structural steel works upon commencement of construction.

4. BRIDGE ENGINEER

- Management of structural analysis and design, load rating of roadway and rail bridges, and contract document preparation (plans, specification,
and estimate) for design/build and conventional bridge projects.
- Management of project budget and schedule.
- Coordination and communication with clients, sub-consultants, and team members.
- Proposal preparation and scope and fee development
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Module 3.2

FIELDS/ CAREERS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING:

CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

Objectives:

To understand Construction Engineering and Management as a field under Civil Engineering.

To know the trend of Civil Engineering development.
To familiarize with the current softwares and methodologies used in Construction Management
To familiarize with the jobs/ careers under Construction Engineering and Management.

3.2.1 Construction Engineering

- as a Discipline Construction Engineering is the field that focuses on the design, planning, building and management of roads, bridges, utility
systems, dams and other pieces of infrastructure. This professional discipline seeks to ensure that the projects are completed on time and that
the blueprints and technical specifications are followed. This is a very important responsibility undertaken by construction engineers since the safety
and durability of the structure will depend on its adherence to a carefully- crafted plan. In addition to ensuring that the main project follows the
original specifications to maintain quality, construction engineers must also see to it that the temporary structures that will be used while the project is
going on are also durable and safe.

Construction engineering is a fusion between civil engineering and construction management. The planning and design aspect of the field comes
from the civil engineering discipline while management of the activities in the construction site is derived from the area of construction management.

3.2.2 Construction Management

Construction Management is the process of planning, coordinating and providing monitoring and controlling of a construction project. This style of
project management is designed for the, as the name implies, construction industry. There are few types of construction that use construction
management, they are industrial, civil, commercial, environmental and residential. Each category has its own way of running projects, but all will
follow the construction management methodology.
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1.3 Construction Methodologies

REBARS

3.2.3 Construction Methodologies

Rebar, also known as reinforcement steel and reinforcing steel, is a steel bar or mesh of steel wires used in reinforced
concrete and masonry structures to strengthen and hold the concrete in tension. To improve the quality of the bond with the
concrete, the surface of rebar is often patterned. Rebar is necessary to compensate for the fact that whilst concrete is
strong in compression, it is relatively weak in tension. By casting rebar into concrete, it is able to carry tensile loads and so
increase overall strength.

Different uses of rebar include:

1. Primary reinforcement: Used to provide resistance to support design loads.

2. Secondary reinforcement: Used for durability and aesthetic purposes by providing localized resistance to limit cracking and temperature-induced
stresses.
3. Provide resistance to concentrated loads, spreading it through a wider area.
4. Assist other steel bars in accommodating their loads by holding them in the correct position.
5. External steel tie bars to constrain and reinforce masonry structures, sometimes as a means of building conservation.
6. Reinforced masonry: Some masonry blocks and bricks include voids to accommodate rebar to carry tensile loads. The rebar is secured in place
using grout.

Manufacturing Rebars

Rebar is commonly manufactured using mild or high yield steel of grade 250 or 250 N/mm2 characteristic tensile strength. The constituents of both
of these grades are around 99% iron, along with manganese, carbon, sulphur and phosphorous. The quality and grade of steel is dependent on the
proportion of carbon. Mild cold-worked steel contains around 0.25% carbon, whereas high yield hot- rolled steel contains around 0.40%.Bars can be
manufactured in various forms:

*Round. *Ribbed. *Square-twisted. *Stretched, twisted and ribbed. *Ribbed and twisted.

Placing Rebars

Rebar cages are either pre-fabricated or constructed on site using hydraulic benders and shears. Site laborers known as
steel fixers place the rebar and ensure adequate concrete cover and embedment. Rebar cages are connected either by
spot welding, tying steel wire or with mechanical connections. Mechanical connections, also known as ‘couplers’ or
‘splices’, are an effective means of reducing rebar congestion in highly-reinforced areas for cast-in-place concrete
construction.
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Rectangular stirrups are placed at regular intervals on the outer part along a column or beam to prevent shear failure. For safety purposes while
being stored on site, protruding ends of rebar should be bent over or guarded by using colored plastic ‘mushroom caps’.

Steel rebar can also be susceptible to corrosion if insufficient cover is provided which can cause the concrete to spall away from the steel, and
render it less efficient in terms of fire resistance. As a general rule, the minimum cover should not be less than the maximum size of the aggregate in
the concrete, or the largest reinforcement bar size (whichever is largest).

FORMWORKS

Formwork is the term used for the process of creating a temporary mould into which concrete is poured and formed. Traditional formwork is
fabricated using timber, but it can also be constructed from steel, glass fibre reinforced plastics and other materials.

Column Formworks Rebar Bending

While formwork is a broad term that is used in relation to the forming process using a wide variety of materials, shuttering is a term that is often used
to refer to the process of using plywood to form the mould.

Shuttering is perhaps the most popular type of formwork and is normally constructed on site using timber and plywood. A special grade of plywood is
necessary for shuttering, and it must be water-resistant. It is easy to produce, although it can be time consuming for larger structures. It is used when
the labour costs are lower than the cost of producing re-usable formwork from materials such as steel or plastic. It also has the advantage of being at
a significant amount of concrete can be poured at once.

Simple plank shuttering can be used for the construction of a path or hard standing. The planks should be trimmed so they are level with the top
surface of the slab, allowing a tidy concrete finish to be achieved.

Formwork specifications:

When selecting formwork, the type of concrete and temperature of the pour are important considerations as they both effects the pressure
exerted.

The formwork sides must be capable of resisting the hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete which will diminish to zero within several
hours depending on the rate of setting and curing.

The formwork base or soffit must be capable of resisting the initial dead load of the wet concrete and the dead load of the dry set concrete.

Once the concrete has gained sufficient strength the formwork can be struck (removed). A minimum value of 5 N/mm2 is recommended in
all cases when striking vertical formwork as so not to damage the permanent concrete in the process.

High quality workmanship and inspection are necessary to ensure a high standard and appearance of the resulting concrete structure.

Both shuttering and formwork in its various forms will be supported by falsework.
This refers to poles, stabilizers, or other units that keep the shuttering or formwork in place as the concrete dries.

CONCRETING
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Concrete is a vital material and plays a major role in the quality of buildings or structures. One may say that the making of concrete is easy but it’s
not enough. It is important that a concrete mix is correctly designed, batched, mixed and transported, but it is also important to place concrete
correctly. The placing of concrete is an essential operation because it largely determines the success of a structure and its durability. Hence concrete
placement must be done in systematic and efficient way to give the best results desired.

Placing of Concrete Within Small Earth Mould

Here you will get the information regarding which methods should be adopted and which precautions to
be taken while placing of concrete in different situations,
In this kind of placing, concrete is placed in a small surface area on the earth such as foundation bed
below the walls or columns.
For the placing, first of all, all the loose earth must be removed from the bed. If the surface of the bed is
dry then it must be made damp, so the earth doesn’t soak the water from concrete.
If the foundation bed is too wet than the water and mud must be removed completely to expose the firm
bed before placing of concrete.
Clear all the obstruction such as any root of trees passing through the foundation, some charred or
tarred elements because its further growth piercing the concrete at a later time can lead to deterioration
of concrete.

Placing of Concrete within Large Earth Mould

In this type of placing, concrete is placed in a large surface area on the earth such as road slab and
airfield slab or timber plank form work.
In such concrete placement, before the concreting, the ground surface on which the concrete is placed
must be free from loose earth and other organic matters such as grass, roots, leaves etc.
The earth must be appropriately compacted and made sufficiently damp to prevent the absorption of
water from concrete because it makes concrete weak.
Concrete is placed in alternative bays for the construction of road slabs, airfield slabs and ground floor
slabs in buildings.
In these bays, there are contraction joints and dummy joints which are given for shrinkage. Concrete
should be properly dumped and concrete pouring and dragging from one place should be avoided.

The surfaces of form have to clean and brushed for every new use of formwork.

Mould releasing agents such oil or grease should be applied inside of the formwork for easy stripping.

The joints between planks, plywood or sheets must be properly and effectively plugged so that concrete/slurry will not leak during
compaction or any vibration.

If reinforcement is provided than it should be correctly tied and placed having appropriate cover and reinforcement should be clean and free form
dirt and oil.

Generally, difficulties arise when the concrete is to be poured from a greater height like placing of concrete in the column. It is likely to segregate or
block the space to prevent further entry of concrete. To avoid this kind of difficulties concrete is placed by tremie or chute.

Underwater Concrete Placement

There are various methods available for the underwater concreting such as the bottom dump bucket method, toggle bagged method, replaced
aggregate method (grouted aggregate method), tremie method, pump and pipeline method etc.

Bottom Dump Bucket Method – In this method concrete is taken through the water in a water-tight box or bucket. On reaching the final place of
deposition the bottom of the bucket is made to open by some mechanism and the whole concrete is dumped gradually. This method will not give a
satisfactory result as a certain amount of washing away of cement is bound to occur.

Toggle Bags Method – Toggle bags method can be considered as one of the oldest methods of underwater concreting. Toggle bags method is
used for small works or repair works. In this method, wet concrete is placed inside the bags and are squeezed out by a diver at the site or place
(underwater). The reusable canvas bag is used for this method which is filled with concrete and is lowered to the site which is underwater and then
the concrete is discharged.
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In some situations, dry or semi-dry mixture of concrete i.e. cement, fine and coarse aggregate are filled in cement bags and such bagged concrete is
deposited on the bed below the water. This method does not give satisfactory concrete because the concrete mass will be full of voids interspersed
with the putrescible gunny bags.

Preplaced Aggregate Method (Grouted Aggregate Method)

--Preplaced aggregate method is used when the normal underwater concrete placement is difficult. Forms are used for this method and it is packed
with well- graded aggregates and injected with mortar to fill the voids.

Cement mortar grout pipe is injected through pipes (tubes), which extends to the bottom of the aggregate bed. Pipes are slowly withdrawn as
grouting proceeds. In this method, less cement mortar is required for concreting because aggregate all packed densely than the ordinary concrete.

Tremie Method—

Tremie method is used for the underwater concrete placement and below the ground level concrete
placement.
In the tremie method, concrete is placed by gravity through a long vertical pipe which is called tremie pipe.
Tremie pipe is a pipe having a diameter around 20 cm and adjustable length with a funnel-shaped hopper
at the top end. A funnel-shaped hopper is fitted to facilitate pouring of concrete.

Pumps and Pipeline Method—

Pumped concrete is widely used and more reliable method for the concrete placement of underwater concrete as well as multi- storied buildings,
bridges, tunnel etc. In the pump method, its working starts with the suction stroke that sucks the concrete inside the pipe.

Special Concrete Placement

(a) Slip Forming

-Slip forming is a continuous placement and consolidation of concrete. In this technique, concrete is poured into a continuously moving form.

-Slip forming is used both for vertical construction such as tall structures i.e. chimney and silos and horizontal construction such as road pavement.
Of course, slip forming is suitable for uniformly shaped structures.

-In Slip forming method, concrete is continuously placed, compacted and formwork is dragged (slipped) up by number of hydraulic jacks.

-The rate of dragging (slipping) the formwork will vary and it will depend upon the temperature and strength development of concrete to withstand
without the support of formwork. Low slump concrete is used for this technique.

(b) Shotcrete or Guniting

-In shotcrete method concrete is applied by spraying through a nozzle by means of compressed air with fine aggregate and sand are used in
shotcrete or guniting.

-Normally, the materials are dry mixed and the water is injected just before entering the nozzle. Wet concrete can also be sprayed.

Shotcrete is very well suited for the construction of thin section and lightly reinforced section. It’s more economical than regular concrete because of
less requirements of formwork and requiring small portable plant for manufacturing and concrete placement.

**Placing of concrete is very important for construction quality. Hence, it is necessary to take particular care in all technical and climatic parameters.
According to this information you can determine which method of concrete placement is more suitable or viable for your construction and which
precautions you need to exercise.

3.4 Softwares for Project/ Construction Management

CRITICAL PATH METHOD (CPM)

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The critical path method (CPM) is a step-by-step methodology, technique or algorithm for
planning projects with numerous activities that involve complex, interdependent interactions.
CPM is an important tool for project management because it identifies critical and non- critical
tasks to prevent conflicts and bottlenecks. CPM is often applied to the analysis of a project
network logic diagram to produce maximum practical efficiency. CPM is commonly employed
in many diverse types of projects. These include product development, engineering,
construction, aerospace and defense, software development and research projects. Several
CPM software solutions are available.
Often a major objective in CPM is to complete the project in the shortest time possible. One
way to do this is called fast tracking, which involves performing activities in parallel
(simultaneously) and adding resources to shorten critical path durations (called crashing the
critical path). This may result in expansion, which leads to increasing project complexity,
duration or both.

PROGRAM EVALUATION REVIEW TECHNIQUE

PERT chart is a project management tool used to schedule, organize, and coordinate tasks
within a project. PERT stands for Program Evaluation Review Technique, is a methodology
developed by the U.S. Navy in the 1950s to manage the Polaris submarine missile program.
The PERT chart is sometimes preferred over the Gantt chart, another popular project
management charting method, because it clearly illustrates task dependencies. On the other
hand, the PERT chart can be much more difficult to interpret, especially on complex projects.
Frequently, project managers use both techniques.

GANTT CHART

A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a ((project schedule, named after
its inventor, Henry Gantt (1861–1919), who designed such a chart around the years
1910–1915. Modern Gantt charts also show the ((dependency relationships between
activities and current schedule status. A Gantt chart, or harmonogram, is a type of
bar chart that illustrates a project schedule.
This chart lists the tasks to be performed on the vertical axis, and time intervals on
the horizontal axis. The width of the horizontal bars in the graph shows the duration
of each activity. Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal
elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal elements and summary
elements constitute the work breakdown structure of the project. Modern Gantt
charts also show the ((dependency (i.e., precedence network) relationships between
activities. Gantt charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-
complete shadings and a vertical "TODAY" line.

PRIMAVERA

Primavera is an enterprise project portfolio management software. It includes project

management, product management, collaboration and control capabilities, and integrates with
other enterprise software such as Oracle and SAP’s ERP systems. Primavera was launched in
1983 by Primavera Systems Inc., which was acquired by Oracle Corporation in 2008.

Primavera has been targeted by extortionists as a way to efficiently compromise digital business
assets through fixable software security flaws, leading to a higher return in the usage of
ransomware. A security patch is available for most of such exploits.

MICROSOFT PROJECT
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Microsoft Project is a project management software product, developed and sold by
Microsoft. It is designed to assist a project manager in developing a schedule,
assigning resources to tasks, tracking progress, managing the budget, and analyzing
workloads.
Microsoft Project was the company's third Microsoft Windows-based application.
Within a few years after its launch, it became the dominant PC-based project
management software.
It is part of the Microsoft Office family but has never been included in any of the
Office suites. It is available currently in two editions, Standard and Professional.
Microsoft Project's proprietary file format is MPP.
Microsoft Project and Microsoft Project Server are the cornerstones of the Microsoft
Office enterprise project management (EPM) product.

3.5 Stages of a Construction Project

The stages of a typical construction project have been defined as feasibility, design, construction and operation, each stage relating to the project
life cycle.

A. Feasibility and Design Stage

It is the responsibility of the design team to ensure that the design meets all building codes and regulations. It is during the design stage that the
bidding process takes place.

Feasibility and design involves four steps:

Conceptual/Programming and feasibility: The needs, goals, and objectives must be determined for the building. Decisions must be made on the
building size, number of rooms, how the space will be used, and who will be using the space. This must all be considered to begin the actual
designing of the building. This phase is normally a written list of each room or space, the critical information about those spaces, and the
approximate square footage of each area.

Schematic design: Schematic designs are sketches used to identify spaces, shapes, and patterns. Materials, sizes, colors, and textures must be
considered in the sketches. This phase usually involves developing the floor plan, elevations, a site plan, and possibly a few details.

Design development (DD): This step requires research and investigation into what materials and equipment will be used as well as their cost.
During this phase, the drawings are refined with information from structural, plumbing, mechanical, and electrical engineers. It also
involves a more rigorous evaluation how the applicable building codes will impact the project.

Contract documents (CDs): Contract documents are the final drawings and specifications of the construction project. They are used by contractors
to determine their bid while builders use them for the construction process. Contract documents can also be called working drawings.

B. Pre-construction Stage

The pre-construction stage begins when the owner gives a notice to proceed to the contractor that they have chosen through the bidding process. A
notice to proceed is when the owner gives permission to the contractor to begin their work on the project. The first step is to assign the project team
which includes the project manager (PM), contract administrator, superintendent, and field engineer.

C. Procurement Stage

The procurement stage is when labor, materials and equipment needed to complete the project are purchased. This can be done by the general
contractor if the company does all their own construction work. If the contractor does not do their own work, they obtain it through subcontractors.

Subcontractors are contractors who specialize in one particular aspect of the construction work such as concrete, welding, glass, or carpentry.
Subcontractors are hired the same way a general contractor would be, which is through the bidding process. Purchase orders are also part of the
procurement stage.

Purchase orders: A purchase order is used in various types of businesses. In this case, a purchase order is an agreement between a buyer and
seller that the products purchased meet the required specifications for the agreed price.

D. Construction Stage
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The construction stage begins with a pre-construction meeting brought together by the superintendent (on an American project). The pre-
construction meeting is meant to make decisions dealing with work hours, material storage, quality control, and site access. The next step
is to move everything onto the construction site and set it all up.
Before the construction work begins, a pre- construction meeting is done to ensure that everyone is on the same page when the construction starts.
This meeting normally includes information about the following topics:

- how to access the job site

- the quality control of the project
- how and where to store all the materials
- the hours that everyone will be working

Each worker may be given their own schedule. It is also important to note that the schedule of each project agent might vary depending on their role.
This is especially true for subcontractors who need certain parts of the job completed before they can begin their portion. It easily becomes evident
that bad planning at this point can lead to serious delays and budget overruns.

E. Owner occupancy

Once the owner moves into the building, a warranty period begins. This is to ensure that all materials, equipment, and quality meet the expectations
of the owner that are included within the contract.

3.6 Contractor, Owner and Consultant

Contractor

A contractor is anyone who directly employs or engages construction workers or manages construction work. Contractors include sub-contractors,
any individual self- employed worker or business that carries out, manages or controls construction work. They must have the skills, knowledge,
experience and, where relevant, the organizational capability to carry out the work safely and without risk to health.

Contractors and the workers under their control are most at risk of injury and ill health from construction work. Contractors therefore have an
important role in planning, managing and monitoring their work to ensure any risks are controlled.

Roles of contractor:

 make sure the client is aware of the client duties under CDM 2015 before any work starts
 plan, manage and monitor all work carried out by themselves and their workers, taking into account the risks to anyone who might be
affected by it (including members of the public) and the measures needed to protect them
 check that all workers they employ or appoint have the skills, knowledge, training and experience to carry out the work, or are in the
process of obtaining them
 make sure that all workers under their control have a suitable, site-specific induction, unless this has already been provided by the
principal contractor
 provide appropriate supervision, information and instructions to workers under their control
 ensure they do not start work on site unless reasonable steps have been taken to prevent unauthorized access
 ensure suitable welfare facilities are provided from the start for workers under their control, and maintain them throughout the work

Owner

The person “in charge” of the overall project is usually termed the “Owner” and is often the only nonprofessional in the entire project. It is critical for
each Owner, until he or she has built numerous projects, to understand that they are operating under a significant handicap. Not only must they
contend with professionals who do these types of projects (and create form contracts) for a living, but the various builders and suppliers have finite
tasks while the

Owner must assume financial responsibility for the success of the entire project.

Roles of Owner:

 Financing the work

 Providing site Surveys
 Securing and paying easements
 Warranting the plans and specifications
 Warranting owner furnished materials
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 Disclosing superior knowledge
 Action on clarification and changes
 Interpretation of the documents
 Cooperating with the contractor
 Selecting all professionals on the project
 Interacting with governmental bodies
 Interacting with real estate professionals to sell the finished project
 Interacting with title companies to facilitate the sales.

Consultant

A consulting engineer or construction consultant can be termed as the one who is completely independent and professional engineer and performs
well detailed engineering services to his client on an agreed sum of money. The prerequisites of a consulting engineer are that he has to be
registered in the state or the country resides to perform as a Professional Engineer.

Roles of consultant:

1. Timely and periodic visit to the site

2. Consultation and guidance to client/owner
3. Interpretation plan drawings and specification. Checking the authenticity of drawing and data provided. Processing and estimating
contractor progress and done, then design plans to make it happen. People at all levels look to them for guidance

4. Construction management engineers perform various construction management duties, such as budget management, scheduling, material
procurement, and labor planning.

5. Leadership – interpersonal skills are essential for construction engineers to lead a large crew and successfully influence the outcomes of
construction projects

6. Creativity – construction engineers need to use

Engineering and Management

1. Construction engineers need strong analytical and leadership skills so they can solve technical engineering challenges while
managing a large construction team.

2. They must use technical engineering skills based in math and physics to predict future problems and find solutions for them

3. Critical thinking- construction engineers determine the critical path necessary for a project to get share vital information in a clear, concise manner

3.8 Jobs/Careers of Construction Engineering and Management

A. Project in Charge - responsible for directing, organizing, controlling and implementing project activities, under the direction of a Project
Manager/Project Operations Manager.

B. Project Superintendent- a Construction Superintendent is responsible for overseeing staff ona construction site and for handling the

project’s schedule. Also known as a Construction Foreman. In some instances, a Construction Manager fulfills the role of a Construction
Superintendent.

C. Project Supervisors - Project supervisors make sure all aspects of a project are completed smoothly. In order to make sure projects are done
correctly, project supervisors must have a strong knowledge of each task. As this is a general position, project supervisors are employed by a
number of industries, the largest being the construction, engineering, manufacturing, marketing, and design industries. The work environment for
project supervisors depends on their industry; those who work in construction, engineering, or manufacturing tend to work on-site, although they
may have a trailer with an office. Project supervisors who work in marketing, design, or similar office-based industries work in a standard office
environment.

D. Field or Site Engineer - Site engineers are integral to construction projects. Working alongside civil engineers, structural engineers, architects and
surveyors, they use their technical skills and managerial prowess to make sure that building sites are fit for purpose.

A site engineer is part of the site management team, and takes some of the responsibility for security, health and safety, and organizing and
supervising materials and people. Site engineers mark out the site, make sure designs are applied correctly and liaise with main, sub-contractors,
and the site manager.
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1. Rebar Engineer – they are the one who prepare design drawings that develop required strengths by applying rebar size, spacing, location and lap
of steel.

2. Formwork Design Engineer - The Formwork Design Engineer supports the Formwork General Superintendent, Project Superintendents, Project
Managers and Project Engineers. Professional Engineer with an emphasis in structural engineering. Concrete design and post-tensioned
concrete design experience is a plus. PE’s will be paired with a licensed Professional or Structural Engineer for training and mentoring.

3. Concrete Engineer - Concrete engineers plan and implement construction projects that use concrete. Because they create structures that people
occupy every day, concrete engineers, who are a type of civil engineer, must be experts in the properties of concrete, the principles of design and
the physics of construction. Concrete engineers typically need a bachelor's degree and a state license, which requires testing and job experience.

E. Planning and Control Engineer - Project Control Engineers develop, implement and maintain cost controls on a project, and provide
centralized planning and scheduling on many projects. Project Control Engineers are employed in many different industries, including,
manufacturing, and construction, and their specific duties vary based on the industry.

F. Quality control and Quality Assurance Engineers

Quality Assurance is known as QA and focuses on preventing defect. Quality Assurance ensures that the approaches, techniques, methods and
processes are designed for the projects are implemented correctly.

Quality assurance activities monitor and verify that the processes used to manage and create the deliverables have been followed and are operative.

Quality Assurance is a proactive process and is Prevention in nature. It recognizes flaws in the process. Quality Assurance has to complete before
Quality Control.

Quality Control is known as QC and focuses on identifying a defect. QC ensures that the approaches, techniques, methods and processes are
designed in the project are following correctly. QC activities monitor and verify that the project deliverables meet the defined quality standards.

Quality Control is a reactive process and is detection in nature. It recognizes the defects. Quality Control has to complete after Quality Assurance.

G. Quantity Surveyors – A quantity surveyor (QS) is a construction industry professional with expert knowledge on construction costs and
contracts. They are not to be confused with land surveyors or building surveyors.

Quantity surveyors, who are depreciation specialists assess, calculate and report the tax deductions a property investor can claim annually for the
depreciation of their investment property. A depreciation schedule prepared by a quantity surveyor is key to ensuring you maximize the tax
deductions available for your building works write off, as well as depreciation of all assets included in the property.

H. Estimator - In statistics, an estimator is a rule for calculating an estimate of a given quantity based on observed data: thus the rule (the
estimator), the quantity of interest (the estimand) and its result (the estimate) are distinguished.

There are point and interval estimators. The point estimators yield single-valued results, although this includes the possibility of single vector-valued
results and results that can be expressed as a single function. This is in contrast to an interval estimator, where the result would be a range of
plausible values (or vectors or functions)