Lecture 21: Temperature, Thermal Expansion & Ideal Gases

PH1011 Physics
Week 10
Lecture 21: Temperature, Thermal
Expansion & Ideal Gases

Thermal Expansion:
- Linear expansion model: 𝐿 = 𝐿$ (1 + 𝑎𝛥𝑇)
- Volume Expansion model: 𝑉 = 𝑉$ (1 + 𝛽𝛥𝑇) with 𝛽 ≈ 3𝛼

- Example: Gas tank in the Sun on pg 7

Temperature and Thermometers:

Thermometric Properties: Thermometer:

Volume Expansion Mercury-in-glass thermometer

Change in resistance with Platinum resistance thermometer
temperature
EMF depends on temperature Thermocouple
difference
Pressure of gas Constant volume thermometer

Fixed Points:
- For Celsius scale:
Ice point – temperature where ice and water coexist in equilibrium
Steam point – temperature where steam and water coexist in equilibrium

- For Kelvin scale:

Triple point – temperature where all 3 states coexist in equilibrium

Examples:
- Giancoli Example 17-13 on pg 7
- Giancoli Example 19-10 on pg 7
- Muncaster Ex 13.1 on pg 8

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 Lecture 21: Temperature, Thermal Expansion & Ideal Gases

Thermal Physics >> General Discussion:

Mechanical Energy ⟹ Thermal Energy:

In the mechanics lectures, we have been dealing with macroscopic systems and objects: the forces
acting on them; their momenta and the energies associated with them. We have brief encounters
of energy lost from macroscopic objects due to friction (and other non-conservative forces) and
eventually transformed into heat, sound or light energy. In these cases, essentially we have
macroscopic energy (which is highly ordered – molecules in object move together as a single entity
with a K.E. or P.E. associated with the object) transforming to microscopic energy (increased
vibration and momentum for the individual molecules ). At the microscopic level, the movement of
the atoms / molecules is highly disordered but is collectively constrained by the conservation of
energy and momentum.
In this next four lectures, we are going to learn about how the average microscopic energy of the
entities that constitute the system is quantified by its TEMPERATURE. The total microscopic
energy of a system is collectively quantified as its THERMAL ENERGY (INTERNAL ENERGY) and
for different systems in thermal contact, we will study the HEAT transfer between them. In the
study of thermodynamics, we are interested is how to extract useful WORK from HEAT and
INTERNAL ENERGY.

Temperature:
Temperature is the measure of the degree of `hotness’ or `coldness’ of a system. However, this
description is not objective and we a more scientific and objective definition.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
If systems A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

Remarks:
1) Zeroth law defines the concept of temperature.
2) When two systems are in thermal equilibrium, the net heat flow between the two systems
is zero. We can say that they have the same temperature.

Thermal Physics >> Thermal Expansion:

Linear Expansion:
When the temperature of a solid object changes, the change in length 𝛥𝐿 is
(approximately) proportional to the change in temperature 𝛥𝑇 (if it is not too
large):
𝛥𝐿 = 𝑎𝐿$ 𝛥𝑇 and 𝐿 = 𝐿$ (1 + 𝑎𝛥𝑇)
where 𝐿$ is the original volume and a characterizes the volume expansion of a
particular material; it is called the coefficient of linear expansion and has
units K-1 or oC-1.

Volume Expansion:
When the temperature of an object changes, the change 𝛥𝑉 in its volume is
(approximately) proportional to the temperature change 𝛥𝑇. That is
𝛥𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉$ 𝛥𝑇 and 𝑉 = 𝑉$ 1 + 𝛽𝛥𝑇
Where 𝑉$ is the original volume and 𝛽 characterizes the volume expansion of a particular material
with units K 67 or ℃67 . The quantity 𝛽 is called the coefficient of volume expansion. Did you notice
an interesting relation between 𝛼 and 𝛽 in the table below?

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 Lecture 21: Temperature, Thermal Expansion & Ideal Gases

Here is a quick explanation why 𝛽 ≈ 3𝛼:
Consider a rectangular solid of length 𝑙$ , width 𝑤$ and height ℎ$ . If the temperature changes by 𝛥𝑇,
its volume changes from 𝑉$ = 𝑙$ 𝑤$ ℎ$ to
𝑉 = 𝑙$ 1 + 𝛼𝛥𝑇 𝑤$ 1 + 𝛼𝛥𝑇 ℎ$ 1 + 𝛼𝛥𝑇
Thus,
𝛥𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉$ = 𝑉$ 1 + 𝛼𝛥𝑇 = − 𝑉$ = 𝑉$ 3𝛼𝛥𝑇 + 3 𝛼𝛥𝑇 > + 𝛼𝛥𝑇 =
𝛥𝑉 ≈ 3𝛼 𝑉$ 𝛥𝑇
To appreciate the approximation, use a numerical value say 𝛼𝛥𝑇 = 0.02, then we note that the
higher powers of 𝛼𝛥𝑇 are negligible.

Thermal Physics >> Temperature and Thermometers:

Thermometric Properties:
Unlike mass, length and time etc, there is no direct way of quantifying temperature as it is a
property of collective microscopic behaviour. We have to rely on other measurable physical
properties that vary with temperature to determine temperature indirectly.

One such property is the volume of liquids. Other examples include the lengths of metals,
resistance of metals, difference of EMFs (thermocouple), pressure of a fixed volume of gas and
colour of chemicals.

Thus, we have a measurable property P that varies with temperature T:
𝑃(𝑇) = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑇 + 𝐶𝑇 > + …
Or sometimes, the change of the property 𝛥𝑃 varies,
𝛥𝑃(𝑇) = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝛥𝑇 + …

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 Lecture 21: Temperature, Thermal Expansion & Ideal Gases

Gallery of Thermometers:

Properties: Range/Response/Accuracy
Mercury in glass thermometer a) -39oC to 357oC (can be
increased with
Relies on variation of volume modifications).
of mercury with temperature.
Mercury is opaque and easily b) Slow response (relatively
seen; good conductor of heat; large heat capacities).
does not stick to glass.
c) Typically 0.1oC. (Non-
𝑉 = 𝑉$ (1 + 𝑏𝛥𝑇) uniform bore, expansion of
glass.) Affects temp of
object it is measuring.

Platinum Resistance a, c) Extremely accurate
thermometer from
-200oC to 1200oC.
Rely on the fact that the
electrical resistance of metals b) Relatively large heat
are temp dependent. Platinum capacities so takes longer
has temp coef of resistance; time to come in thermal
high melting pt (1773oC). equilibrium with
𝑅 (𝑇) = 𝑅$ (1 + 𝑎 𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇 > ) surroundings – slow
response.

Thermocouple Can set cold junction in
ice/water ( 0oC ).
a) Using several
combinations of metals can
get from -269oC to 2300oC.

b) Small heat capacity – fast

Two fine wires of different response and can measure
metals – EMF 𝐸 in temp even at embedded pt.
millivoltmeter depends on
temp diff at junction c) Accurate over wide
𝐸(𝑇) = 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑏𝑇 > range.

Constant Vol Gas thermometer Seldom used any more as
Kept at constant vol, the thermometers - used to
pressure of the gas varies with define meaning of temp.
temp. For ideal gas, PV = nRT. Used as standard reference
All other thermometers for temp.
depend critically on the nature
and purity of materials used. a) About -271oC to 1100oC
Under the right conditions,
behaviour of gas thermometer b) Very slow response (large
is independent of gas. vol of gas used).

c) Accurate over a wide
range

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 Lecture 21: Temperature, Thermal Expansion & Ideal Gases

Thermal Physics >> Temperature and Thermometers >> Fixed Points:

A Gallery of Fixed Points:

In order to establish a temperature scale, it is necessary to make use of fixed points. At each fixed
point, a single temperature corresponds to a particular physical phenomena that can be easily and
accurately reproduced. At the fixed points, the temperature of all thermometers agree.
Three such fixed points are:
1) Ice point – temp at which pure ice and water co-exist in equilibrium at atmospheric pressure. (0
oC ;~101 kPa)

2) Steam point – temp at which pure water an steam co-exist in equilibrium at atmospheric
pressure. (100 oC ;~101 kPa)
3) Triple point of water – temp at which pure ice, water and water vapour can exist together in
equilibrium. (273.16 K, 0.01 oC; 611.73 Pa)

Remarks:
1) The triple point is special as there is only one pressure at which all three phases of water can be
together where ice/water and water/steam can co-exist over a wide range of pressure.

2) The S.I. unit for temperature is Kelvin (K).

3) The degree Celsius (oC) is related to the Kelvin scale
𝜃 ℃ = 𝑇 𝐾 − 273.15
a temperature change of 1 K is equal to a temperature change of 1 oC

Digression: Ideal Gas:
We need to talk about ideal gas now because the lower fixed point for the Kelvin Scale is defined
using the ideal gas. We will now list down some points for a quick revision.
1) Mole concept: One mole of any substance means 6.022×10>= elementary units of that
substance. The number 𝑁Q = 6.022×10>= mol-1 is called the Avogadro’s constant.
2) The ideal gas follows the ideal gas equation:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
where 𝑃 is the pressure, 𝑇 is the temperature in Kelvins, 𝑛 is the number of moles and the 𝑅 =
J
8.314 is the molar gas constant.
mol K

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 Lecture 21: Temperature, Thermal Expansion & Ideal Gases

The Scientific Kelvin Scale:

Upper Fixed Point:
Triple point of water is chosen since it can only happen at one temperature and one external
pressure.

Lower Fixed Point:
Ideal gas at zero pressure is chosen and the reason is:
No real gases obey the ideal gas equation. However,
the ideal gas equation is a good description for real
gases at low densities, low pressures and high
temperatures – microscopically, the gas molecules are
far apart and their interactions are negligible except
during elastic collisions.

This also means that the constant-volume thermometer is the one suitable for measuring the
Kelvin scale.

Since we only have real gases (inside the thermometer) then we need to define the Kelvin scale in
the limit that real gases behave ideally. Keep in mind that lim (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠), then the ideal gas
[→$
equation can be used. We write:
𝑛𝑅
At Triple Point (using ideal gas): 𝑃lm =
𝑇
𝑉 lm
𝑛𝑅
At unknown temperature (using ideal gas): 𝑃 = 𝑇
𝑉
[ [
Then 𝑇 = 𝑇lm = 273.16 for an ideal gas. For a real gas, we write
[pq [pq
𝑃
𝑇 = 273.16 lim
[pq →$ 𝑃lm

So, in an actual measurement using the constant-volume gas
thermometer, a real gas is used. For 𝑛7 moles of real gas in the
thermometer, 𝑃lm and 𝑃 are measured. Then the unknown 𝑇 is
[
found using 𝑇 = 273.16 . Then 𝑛> moles of gas are used and
[pq
the measurements are repeated. Finally, the graph of 𝑇 vs 𝑃lm
is plotted as shown on the right and we extrapolate towards
𝑃lm → 0. The Kelvin scale 𝑇 is the value on the 𝑦-intercept.

The unscientific Celsius Scale:

It is based on the i) ice-point 0℃ and the ii) steam-point
100℃. All other temperatures are determined by
interpolation and extrapolation. For example, for the
mercury-in-glass thermometer, the positions of the
mercury is marked off at ice-point and steam-point. Then,
the interval between these two marks is divided into one
hundred equal marks. With this simplification, we can write
𝑃 𝑇 s − 𝑃(0) 𝑃 100 − 𝑃(0)
=
𝑇s − 0 100 − 0
for some thermometric property 𝑃(0) at temperature 𝑇℃. To find the corresponding temperature
𝑇 s for property 𝑃 𝑇 s , we write
𝑃 𝑇 s − 𝑃(0)
𝑇s = ×100
𝑃 100 − 𝑃(0)
In reality, the mercury does not expand uniformly so there is a slight deviation from the correct
temperature. This applies similarly to other thermometers.

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 Lecture 21: Temperature, Thermal Expansion & Ideal Gases

Thermal Physics >> Thermal Expansion >> Example: Gas Tank in the Sun:
Giancoli Example 17-7 pg 462

The 70-litre steel gas tank of a car is filled top the top with gasoline at 20℃. The car sits in the Sun
and the tank reaches a temperature of 40℃. How much gasoline do you expect to overflow from
the tank?
𝛼tluuv = 12×106w ℃67 and 𝛽xyt = 950×106w ℃67

Thermal Physics >> Temperature and Thermometers >> Ideal Gas Examples:
Giancoli Example 17-13 pg 468:

A car tire is filled to a gauge pressure of 200 kPa at 10℃. After a drive of 100 km, the temperature
within the tires rises to 40℃. What is the pressure in the tire now? (Atmospheric pressure is 101
kPa)

Giancoli Example 19-10 pg 510:

An ideal gas is slowly compressed at a constant pressure 𝑃{ = 2.0 atm, calculate 𝑃Q . If the
temperature along process AB is 293 K, calculate the number of moles of ideal gas used.

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 Lecture 21: Temperature, Thermal Expansion & Ideal Gases

Thermal Physics >> Temperature and Thermometers >> Example on Scales:

Muncaster Ex 13.1:

A particular resistance thermometer has a resistance of 30.00 𝛺 at ice point, 41.58 𝛺 at the steam
point and 34.59 𝛺 when immersed in a boiling liquid. A constant gas thermometer gives readings
of 1.333 x 105 Pa, 1.821 x 105 Pa and 1.528 x 105 Pa at the same three temperatures. Calculate the
temperature at which the liquid is boiling.
a) On the scale of the gas thermometer (Kelvin Scale)
b) On the scale of the resistance thermometer. (Celsius Scale)