PRESENTING AND DESCRIBING DATA

WAYS OF PRESENTING DATA (Methods)

Presentation of data refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs or charts, so
that logical and statistical conclusions can be derived from the collected measurements. Data
may be presented in three methods:
• Textual form – data and information are presented in paragraph and narrative form. The
data are within the text of the paragraph. This form may not get the immediate interest of
the reader. However, it can present a more comprehensive picture of the data because
of further written explanation of its nature.

Using the textual form, data is exposed through printed or spoken words, for
instance, news reports.

Textual presentation is putting important figures in the text of the report. Figures
may be summary statistics like the minimum, maximum, mean, median, standard
deviation, percentage, or total.

Textual presentation allows us to highlight the significant figures of the study. it

confirms deductions and answers to the research problem.

Ex. Nominally, the peso improved by 1.4 percent as of April 14, 2003 compared to its
level in 2002, followed by the Thai baht, which gained 0.86 percent; Indonesian rupiah,
0.68 percent; and Taiwan dollar, 0.2 percent.

• Tabular form – quantitative data are summarized in rows and columns like a frequency
table or frequency distribution. The data are presented in a systematic and orderly
manner, which catches one’s attention and may facilitate the comprehension and
analysis of data presented.

Using the tabular form, data is arrayed in certain rows and columns for easy
reading and analysis. It allows us to compare and look for relationships among the
variables of interest. The table can have frequency counts, proportions, percentages,
and other summary measures such as totals and averages.

The following are some types of table:

a. General Reference Table. This is a commonly used table where variables are
relevant to the study or contain field of interest are arranged in columns or rows
together with its corresponding summarized relative information.

b. Frequency Distribution Table. This is a summary table where the data are arranged
into groupings.

The following are terms used in relation to frequency distribution:

Class size (i). Number of descriptional values of the data within the class interval.

Class interval (c.i.). Set of numbers defined by lower limit and upper limit relative to the
class size.

Frequency (f). Number of values contained within the class interval tallied from the given
raw data.

Class mark (x). The middle value of the class interval.

Class boundary (c.b.). Set of numbers defined as the boundary of each class interval such
as the LCB and UCB. It is a number situated halfway between the upper class limit of
one class interval and the lower limit of the next class interval.

Less cumulative frequency (<cf). It is the cumulative sum of the frequencies of each class
interval that is less than its corresponding upper class boundary.

Greater cumulative frequency (>cf). It is the accumulated sum of frequencies of each

class interval that is greater than its corresponding lower class boundary.

Relative frequency (rf). It is the percentage share of each frequency relative to the total
frequency of the data.

Example of Frequency Distribution Table

COLLEGE ALGREBRA QUIZ SCORES

Quiz Scores Tally Frequency (f)
20 I 1
19 IIII 4
18 IIII 4
17 IIII – IIII – IIII - III 18
15 IIII – IIII 10
13 IIII 5
12 IIII 5
11 III 3
Total 50

A frequency distribution table can be presented graphically by any of the

following:

• Frequency polygon – is also sometimes called line graph because the graph is just
a line connecting the points representing the important data in the XY-plane.

This is a line graph presenting the frequency distribution of each class interval
that may be represented appropriately by its corresponding class mark.

• Histogram. These are rectangular bars that graphically present the frequency
distribution of each class. A common graphical presentation of quantitative data.
 • Ogive. This is a line graph presenting cumulative frequency distribution. There are
two types of ogive:
a. less than Ogive. A line graph presenting less than cumulative frequency
distribution of each class interval represented by its corresponding class
boundary.
b. greater than Ogive. A line graph presenting greater than cumulative frequency
distribution of each class interval represented by its corresponding class
boundary.

• Graphical form – data are presented in charts, graphs or pictures. The numerical data
provided in a frequency distribution can be made more interesting and easier to
understand when depicted in graphical form.

Using the graphical form, data is organized through various kinds of graph. The
information on magnitudes of variables is visually presented using different
characteristics or features of type of graph being used.

It easily facilitates analyzing, summarizing, and understanding volume of

information. It is a good means of communicating the numerical figures found in tables.
Charts facilitate analysis when it reveals probable relationships among variables. It
allows comparison of different series or groups.

Placing figures in charts permits us to validate conclusions made in the study. A

good chart must be accurate, clear, simple, professional looking, and has a well-
designed layout. The chart should have no visual illusions with the incorrect use of
shadings or patterns. We should put chart titles, scale figures and labels, and legends, if
necessary.

A graph is a pictorial or geometrical representation of a given data.

Types of Statistical Charts:

• Line Chart (graph)

• appropriate for time series data
• emphasis is on the movement
• shows trends, patterns, forecasts
• applicable for one or more time series data for comparison purposes
Note:
• put the variable of interest on the vertical axis and the time on the horizontal
axis
• ratio of height to width should be 2:3 or 3:4
 • Bar graph – is an illustration of the data using bars in the XY-plane
• Vertical Bar Chart
The Vertical Bar axis types are used to plot data values as bars which
extend vertically. The bars for the data objects in a group are spaced evenly
across the horizontal axis.

• Horizontal Bar Chart

• for qualitative types of data given a specific time
• to compare the magnitudes of the different categories of a qualitative
variable
• place the categories of the qualitative variable on the y-axis and the amount
or number is on the horizontal axis
• use vertical grid lines
Note:
• the length of the bar represents the value for the category
• the bars should not be too wide or narrow or too long or too short
• the spaces in between the bars may be one-fifth to one-half the width of the
bar
• arranging the bars according to length facilitates comparisons
• use appropriate colors or patterns for the bars
• place the title of the chart at the center of either the top or bottom of the chart

• Stem and Leaf display – is another visual illustration of the distribution of data. This form,
however, is feasible only for a small number of observation with at least two-digit
number.

• Statistical Map
• to show data in geographical areas
• also called cross-hatched maps or shaded maps
• geographic areas may represent barangays, cities, district, provinces, and
countries
• Figures in the map can be numbers, ratios, rates, percentages, and indices.

• Pie Graph (Chart) – is also known as the circle graph. Obviously, the presentation
makes use of a circle to represent given data that make up a whole.
• circle divided into several sections
• each section indicates the proportion of each component or category
• useful for data sorted into categories for a specific period
• purpose is to show the components parts with respect to the total in terms of
• the percentage distribution
• use the pie chart if there are less than 6 categories in the data set
Note:
• arrange components of the pie chart according to magnitude
• if there is an “Others” category, we put it in the last section
• use different colors, shadings, or patterns to distinguish one section of the pie
to the other sections
• plot the biggest slice at 12 o’clock
 • Pictograph or pictogram – picture symbols are used to illustrate or represent the data
under consideration. Usually, in depicting population data, the figures of persons are
used or the data on cars sales, drawing of cars is used for illustrations.
• gives an approximation only of the actual figures
• compares the different categories
• symbols selected should be self-explanatory and easy to understand
• each symbol represents a number

Definitions of Parts of a Chart

Chart Title. It gives the subject, data classification, time reference, and area segment of the
data set. It is located above or below the chart.

Coordinate Axes. These are the horizontal and vertical axes. Spacing of the units may be
different for the horizontal and vertical axes but must remain constant within the same
axes.

Point of Origin. It is the intersection of the horizontal and vertical axes.

Scale Divisions. These are the ticks to denote the scale points of the horizontal and vertical
axes.

Grid Lines or Coordinate Lines. May be horizontal or vertical which guides the reader in
reading the numerical figures. It must be lighter than the curves on the chart to maintain
the focus on the chart. Choice of horizontal or vertical grid line depends upon the type of
chart.
Scale Figures.
• Use multiples of five or other easy to work with multiples for scale values.
• For big scale values, limit the number of digits of the scale figures to one or two, then;
place the unit of measurement in the scale legend.
• Scale figure of the vertical axis starts with zero (for line chart and vertical bar charts).
• if we only need the upper part of the coordinate fields to portray the data, we still
retain the zero but exclude the lower part of the figures by putting a break on the
vertical scale

Scale Labels or Scale Legends - Describes both horizontal and vertical axes.

Curves - represent the plot of the data series. It differentiate several curves by using different
patterns or colors.
Curve Legends - Give the type of data series. Legend symbol follows the colors or patterns
selected for a particular curve. It is preferred the use of curve labels than curve legends.

Footnote - Is a brief explanation to any part of the chart. It is located at the bottom of the chart.

Source Note. Indicates the source of the data. It is located at the bottom of the chart.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

A frequency distribution shows all the possible scores a variable has taken in a
particular set of data, together with the frequency of occurrence of each score in the respective
set. This means that a frequency distribution describes how many times a score occurs in the
data set.

Frequency distributions are one of the most common methods of displaying the pattern
of observations for a given variable. They offer the possibility of viewing each score and its
corresponding frequency in an organized manner within the full range of observed scores. Along
with providing a sense of the most likely observed score, they also show, for each score, how
common or uncommon it is within the analyzed data set.

Steps in Constructing Frequency Distribution Table:

1. Determine the “Range”

Range = highest value – lowest value

2. Determine the number of class intervals using Sturge’s Formula

No. Class Intervals = 1 + (3.322) (log n)

Where: n is the total number of values

3. Determine the class size

Range
Class size = -------------------------------
No. of class intervals

4. List down the class intervals using the lowest score as the lower limit of the first class interval
5. Determine the frequency for each class interval.

• To determine the class marks of a frequency distribution table

1. Get the class mark of the first class interval by adding the lower and upper limits and
dividing the sum by 2.

2. Get the other class marks by adding the class size successively.

• To get the class boundaries of each class interval

1. Get the difference between the upper limit of one class interval and the lower limit of the
next class interval.
 2. Divide the absolute value of the difference by 2.
3. The value is subtracted from the lower limit and added to the upper limit of each class
interval.

• To get the less than cumulative frequency, add the frequency cumulatively starting from the
frequency of the lowest class interval

• To get the greater than cumulative frequency, add the frequency cumulatively starting from
the frequency of the highest class interval.

• To get the relative frequency, divide the frequency of each class interval by the total
frequency and express the result in per cent.

Example:

Construct a frequency distribution table for the given data below. Complete the table by
including the following: class marks, class boundaries, less than cumulative frequency, greater
than cumulative frequency, and the relative frequency.

Solution:
1. R = 30 – 1 = 29

2. No. of class intervals (#C.I.) = 1 + (3.322) (log 35) = 6.13 ≈ 6

3. Class size (i) = 29/7 = 4.14 ≈ 5

4. & 5. (Starting from the lowest value)